We quote a few articles from the Introductory portion, illustrating the
general principles of Mechanical agencies.
Why are we said to know of nothing which is absolutely at rest?
Because the earth is whirling round its axis, and round the sun; the sun is
moving round his axis, and round the centre of gravity of the solar system;
and, doubtless, round some more remote centre in the great universe,
carrying all his planets and comets about his path. One of the grand laws
of nature is, that all bodies persevere in their present state, whether of
motion or rest, unless disturbed by some foreign power. Motion, therefore,
once began, would be continued for ever, were it to meet with no
interruption from external causes, such as the power of gravity, the
resistance of the medium, &c. Dr. Arnott adduces several familiar
illustrations of motions and forces. Thus, all falling and pressing bodies
exhibit _attraction_ in its simplest form. _Repulsion_ is instanced in
explosion, steam, the action of springs, &c. Explosion of gunpowder is
repulsion among the particles when assuming the form of air. Steam, by the
repulsion among its particles, moves the piston of the steam-engine. All
elasticity, as seen in springs, collision, &c. belongs chiefly to
repulsion. A spring is often, as it were, a reservoir of force, kept ready
charged for a purpose; as when a gun-lock is cocked, a watch wound up, &c.
Why does a billiard ball stop when it strikes directly another ball of
equal size, and the second ball proceed with the whole velocity which the
first had?
Because the action which imparts the new motion is equal to the re-action
which destroys the old. Although the transference of motion, in such a
case, seems to be instantaneous, the change is really progressive, and is
as follows:--The approaching ball, at a certain point of time, has just
given half of its motion to the other equal ball; and if both were of soft
clay, they would then proceed together with half the original velocity;
but, as they are elastic, the touching parts at the moment supposed, are
compressed like a spring between the balls; and by their expanding, and
exerting force equally both ways, they double the velocity of the foremost
ball, and destroy altogether the motion in the other.
Why does a walking stick help a man on a journey?
Because he pushes against the ground with the stick, which may be
considered as compressing a spring between the earth and the end of his
stick, which spring is therefore pushing up as much as he pushes down; and
if, at the time, he were balanced in the scales of a weighing beam, he
would find that he weighed just as much less as he were pressing with his
stick.
Why is sea-sickness produced on shipboard?
Because man, strictly to maintain his perpendicularity, that is, to keep
the centre of gravity always over the support of his body, requires
standards of comparison, which he obtains chiefly by the perpendicularity
or known position of things about him, as on land; but on shipboard, where
the lines of the masts, windows, furniture, &c. are constantly changing,
his standards of comparison are soon lost or disturbed. Hence, also, the
reason why persons unaccustomed to the motion of a ship, often find relief
by keeping their eyes directed to the fixed shore, where it is visible, or
by lying on their backs, and shutting their eyes; and, on the other hand,
the ill-effects of looking over the side of the vessel at the restless
waves of the sea.
Why is the pendulum a time-keeper?
Because the times of the vibrations are very nearly equal, whether it be
moving much or little; that is to say, whether the arc described by it be
large or small. A common clock is merely a pendulum, with wheel-work
attached to it, to record the number of the vibrations; and with a weight
or spring, having force enough to counteract the retarding effects of
friction and the resistance of the air. The wheels show how many swings or
beats of the pendulum have taken place, because at every beat, a tooth of
the last wheel is allowed to pass. Now, if this wheel has sixty teeth, as
is common, it will just turn round once for sixty beats of the pendulum, or
seconds; and a hand fixed on its axis, projecting through the dial-plate,
will be the second hand of the clock. The other wheels are so connected
with this first, and the numbers of the teeth on them so proportioned, that
one turns sixty times slower than the first, to fit its axis to carry a
minute hand; and another, by moving twelve times slower still, is fitted to
carry an hour-hand.--_Arnott._
Why do clocks denote the progress of time?
Because they count the oscillations of a pendulum; and by that peculiar
property of the pendulum, that one vibration commences exactly where the
last terminates, no part of time is lost or gained in the juxtaposition (or
putting together) of the units so counted, so that the precise fractional
part of a day can be ascertained, which each such unit measures. The origin
of the pendulum is traced to Galileo's observation of a hanging lamp in a
church at Pisa continuing to vibrate long and with singular uniformity,
after any accidental cause of disturbance. Hence he was led to investigate
the laws of the phenomenon, and out of what, in some shape or other, had
been before men's eyes from the beginning of the world, his powerful genius
extracted the most important results. The invention of pendulum clocks took
place about the middle of the seventeenth century; and the honour of the
discovery is disputed between Galileo and Huygens. Becher contends for
Galileo, and states that one Trifler made the first pendulum clock at
Florence, under the direction of Galileo Galilei, and that a model of it
was sent to Holland. The Accademia del Cimento also expressly declared,
that the application of the pendulum to the movement of a clock, was first
proposed by Galileo, and put in practice by his son, Vincenzo Galileo, in
1649. Huygens, however, contests the priority, and made a pendulum clock
before 1658; and he insists, that if ever Galileo had entertained such an
idea, he never brought it to perfection. Beckmann says the first pendulum
clock made in England, was constructed in the year 1662, by one Tromantil,
a Dutchman; but Grignon affirms that the first pendulum clock was made in
England, by Robert Harris, in 1641, and erected in Inigo Jones's church of
St. Paul, Covent-garden.
Why does the pendulum move faster in proportion as its journey is longer?
Because, in proportion as the arc described is more extended, the steeper
are its beginning and ending; and the more rapidly, therefore, the pendulum
falls down at first, sweeps along the intermediate space, and stops at
last.--_Arnott._
Why is it extremely difficult to ascertain the exact length of the
pendulum?
Because of the various expansion of metals, respecting which no two
pyrometers agree; the changeable nature of the atmosphere; the uncertainty
as to the true level of the sea; the extreme difficulty of measuring
accurately the distance between the point of suspension and the centre of
oscillation, and even of finding that centre; also the variety of
terrestrial attraction, from which cause the motions of the pendulum are
also liable to variation, even in the same latitude. In pursuing his
researches, Capt. Kater discovered that the motions of the pendulum are
affected by the nature of the strata over which it vibrates.
Why is the iron rim of a coach wheel heated before putting on?
Because the expansion of the metal occasioned by the heat, facilitates the
operation of putting on the iron, while the contraction which follows,
brings the joints of the wooden part together; and thus, binding the whole,
gives great strength to the wheel.
Why does a bottle of fresh water, corked and let down 30 or 40 feet into
the sea, often come up again with the water saltish, although the cork be
still in its place?
Because the cork, when far down, is so squeezed as to allow the water to
pass in or out by its sides, but on rising, it resumes its former size.
Why do bubbles rise on a cup of tea when a lump of sugar is dropped into
it?
Because the sugar is porous, and the air which filled its pores then
escapes to the surface of the tea, and the liquid takes its place.
Why is there an opening in the centre of the upper stone of a corn mill?
Because through this opening the grain is admitted and kept turning round
between the stones, and is always tending and travelling outwards, until it
escapes as flour from the circumference.
Why does water remain in a vessel which is placed in a sling and made to
describe a circle?
Because the water, by its inertia of straightness, or centrifugal (or
centre-flying) force, tends more away from the centre of motion towards the
bottom of the vessel, than towards the earth by gravity.
Why does a young quadruped walk much sooner than a child?
Because a body is tottering in proportion to its great altitude and narrow
base. Now, the child has this latter, and learns to walk but slowly,
because of the difficulty, perhaps in ten or twelve months, while the young
of quadrupeds, having a broad supporting base, are able to stand, and even
to move about almost immediately; but it is the noble prerogative of man to
be able to support his towering figure with great firmness, on a very
narrow base, and under constant change of attitude.--_Arnott._
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