THE THEORY AND PRACTICE
OF
ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE
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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
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THE THEORY AND PRACTICE
OF
ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE
BY
VICTOR ALVIN KETCHAM, B.A., LL.B.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR IN THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1917
_All rights reserved_
COPYRIGHT, 1914,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1914. Reprinted January, 1915;
July, 1916; March, 1917.
Norwood Press:
Berwick & Smith Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
PREFACE
The object of this book is to furnish practical directions for the
preparation and presentation of oral and written arguments. Teachers of
Argumentation and Debate have come to realize that interest can best be
stimulated and practical results best secured by omitting the
theoretical forms of reasoning at first, and leading the student
directly to the actual work of building up an argument. The technical
name of a logical process has little to do with its practical
application. This fact is well illustrated by the constant use of
arguments in our conversation: moreover, the student who enters upon
this work is sufficiently advanced to appreciate the difference between
truth and error. For these reasons the book is divided into two parts,
the first of which deals with the Practice of Argumentation and Debate.
After the student has had some experience in constructing and presenting
arguments he is better fitted to make practical application of the
theoretical principles of argumentation which are presented in the
second part of this book under the head of the Theory of Argumentation
and Debate. Those teachers who prefer to follow the old order of
presentation can do so by taking up the Theory of Argumentation and
Debate after completing the chapter on Collecting Evidence and before
taking up the chapter on Constructing the Brief.
Since Argumentation and Debate has come to be a regular course of study
in almost every college and university and in many of our larger
preparatory and high schools, there has been a tendency among text-book
writers to multiply rules regarding every phase of the subject. By
consulting various works it will be found that no less than sixteen
different rules have been formulated for the construction of the brief
alone. One book contains as many as thirteen of these. To the average
student the result is confusion rather than enlightenment. One of the
objects of the author has been to remedy this condition of affairs by
attempting to state clear-cut rules, which, though covering all
contingencies, are limited to what is essential and practical. In regard
to illustrations and examples the same idea has been carried out.
The order in which the subjects are discussed is that dictated by actual
practice. The object has been to lead the student step by step, to point
out all the difficulties along the way, and to show by precept and
example how they may be overcome. After the essential definitions are
given and the importance of the subject upon which he is entering is set
forth, the student is shown where to find, and how to choose and
express, a proposition for argument. He is then directed how to analyze
that proposition for the purpose of finding out what he must do in order
to establish its truth or falsity. Next, he is informed of the sources
of evidence bearing upon the proposition, and how such evidence is to be
collected and used. Directions for constructing a brief out of this
evidence are then presented and the way in which the finished argument
is to be developed is set forth. The psychological development of an
argument is here for the first time given full consideration. Following
this the student is shown how to defend his own argument and overthrow
that of his opponent. Finally, instructions are given for delivering the
argument in the most effective manner. Even without the aid of an
instructor the student could follow the argumentative process through to
the end.
The exercises given are intended to be practical and to assure a
thorough working knowledge of the discussion. The material in the
appendix may be used at the discretion of the instructor. The prevalence
of references to the Lincoln-Douglas Debates is intentional and arises
from the fact that the circumstances under which these debates occurred,
the personalities of the participants, and the argumentative excellence
of the discussions make them especially useful to the student.
The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to all those who have
heretofore written upon this subject as well as to the students whom it
has been his pleasure to instruct. He wishes especially to acknowledge
the assistance of Professor Raymond M. Alden, who gave a careful reading
to the greater part of the manuscript and made many helpful suggestions.
VICTOR ALVIN KETCHAM.
COLUMBUS, OHIO, _February 1, 1914_.
CONTENTS
_PART I_
THE PRACTICE OF ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE
CHAPTER I
DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF ARGUMENTATION
Section Page
I. Definitions 3
II. The Object of Argumentation 5
III. Educational Importance of Argumentation 6
IV. Practical Importance of Argumentation 7
CHAPTER II
THE PROPOSITION
I. The Subject-Matter of the Proposition 9
1. The subject must be interesting 9
2. Subjects for first practice should be those of which the
debater has a general knowledge 11
3. The subject must be debatable 12
II. The Wording of the Proposition 13
1. The proposition should be so narrowed as to embody only
one central idea 14
2. The proposition should be stated in the affirmative 15
3. The proposition should contain no ambiguous words 16
4. The proposition should be worded as simply and as briefly
as is consistent with the foregoing requirements 18
CHAPTER III
ANALYZING THE PROPOSITION
I. The Importance of Analysis 21
II. Essential Steps in Analysis 22
1. A broad view of the subject 22
2. The origin and history of the question 23
3. Definition of terms 24
4. Narrowing the question 27
(1) Excluding irrelevant matter 27
(2) Admitting matters not vital to the argument 28
5. Contrasting the affirmative arguments with those of the
negative 29
III. The Main Issues 36
CHAPTER IV
EVIDENCE
I. Sources of Evidence 39
1. Personal knowledge 39
2. Personal interviews 40
3. Personal letters 41
4. Current literature 42
5. Standard literature 45
6. Special documents 46
(1) Reports and pamphlets issued by organizations 46
(2) Reports and documents issued by the government 48
II. Recording Evidence 51
1. Use small cards or sheets of paper of uniform size 53
2. Place only one fact or point on each card 53
3. Write only on one side of the card 53
4. Express the idea to be put on the card in the simplest and
most direct terms 54
5. Make each card complete in itself 54
6. In recording material for refutation put an exact
statement of the argument to be refuted at the top of
the card 55
7. State the main issue or subject to which the evidence
relates at the top of the card 55
8. State the source from which the evidence is taken at the
bottom of the card 56
III. Selecting Evidence 58
1. The evidence must come from the most reliable source to
which it can be traced 58
2. A person quoted as authority must be unprejudiced, in full
possession of the facts, and capable of giving expert
testimony on the point at issue 60
3. Evidence should be examined to determine whether there are
attendant circumstances which will add to its weight 62
4. The selection of evidence must be fair and reasonable 64
5. The position and arguments of the opposition should be
taken into consideration 65
6. That evidence which will appeal most strongly to those to
whom the argument is to be addressed should be selected 66
IV. The Amount of Evidence Required 68
CHAPTER V
CONSTRUCTING THE BRIEF
I. The Purpose of the Brief 72
II. Method of Constructing the Brief 73
III. Rules for Constructing the Brief 76
1. A brief should be composed of three parts: Introduction,
Proof, and Conclusion 76
2. Each statement in a brief should be a single complete
sentence 77
3. The relation which the different statements in a brief
bear to each other should be indicated by symbols and
indentations 77
4. The introduction should contain the main issues together
with a brief statement of the process of analysis by
which they were found 79
5. The main statements in the proof should correspond to the
main issues set forth in the introduction, and should
read as reasons for the truth of the proposition 84
6. Every statement in the proof must read as a reason for the
statement to which it is subordinate 85
7. Statements introducing refutation must state clearly the
argument to be refuted 87
8. The conclusion should be a summary of the main arguments
just as they stand in the proof of the brief and should
close with an affirmation or denial of the proposition
in the exact words in which it is phrased 89
Specimen student brief 91
CHAPTER VI
CONSTRUCTING THE ARGUMENT
I. Attention—Aroused by the Introduction 95
1. Kinds of attention 96
A. Natural attention 96
B. Assumed attention 97
2. Methods of securing proper attention 98
A. Immediate statement of purpose 98
B. Illustrative story 100
C. Quotations 101
II. Interest—Maintained by the Proof 102
1. Necessity 103
2. Methods of maintaining interest 103
A. Appropriate treatment 103
a. Adaptation to speaker or writer 103
b. Adaptation to audience or reader 103
c. Adaptation to time or occasion 106
B. Logical structure 106
C. Style 107
a. Elements of style 108
(1) Vocabulary 108
(2) Sentences 109
(3) Paragraphs 110
b. Qualities of style 110
(1) Clearness 110
(2) Force 117
(3) Elegance 120
III. Desire—Created by the Conclusion 121
1. Necessity 121
2. Interest 122
A. Convenience 122
B. Pleasure 123
C. Profit 123
3. Jealousy, vanity, and hatred 124
4. Ambition 124
5. Generosity 125
6. Love of right and justice 125
7. Love of country, home, and kindred 125
CHAPTER VII
REBUTTAL
I. Preparation for Rebuttal 129
1. Sources of material for rebuttal 129
A. Material acquired in constructing the argument 129
B. Books, papers, and documents 131
C. Questions 133
2. Arrangement of rebuttal material 139
A. Classification of cards 140
B. Arranging books, papers, and documents 142
C. The summary and closing plea 143
II. Presentation of Rebuttal 146
1. Attention to argument of opponent 146
2. Selecting arguments to be refuted 147
3. Reading quotations 149
4. Teamwork 149
5. Treatment of opponents 150
6. The summary and closing plea 152
CHAPTER VIII
DELIVERING THE ARGUMENT
I. Methods of delivering the argument 153
1. Reading 153
2. Memorizing the argument verbatim 154
3. Memorizing the argument by ideas 155
II. Physical preparation for delivery 158
1. Position 159
2. Voice 160
3. Emphasis 162
4. Key, rate, and inflection 162
5. Gesture 164
6. Transitions 165
7. Presenting charts 166
III. Mental preparation for delivery 167
1. Directness 167
2. Earnestness 169
3. Confidence 170
_PART II_
THE THEORY OF ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE
CHAPTER I
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
I. The Application of Processes of Reasoning to Argumentation 175
II. Inductive Reasoning 176
III. The Application of Inductive Reasoning to Inductive Argument 179
IV. Requirements for an Effective Inductive Argument 182
1. Perfect inductions 182
2. Imperfect inductions 183
A. The number of specific instances supporting the
conclusion must be sufficiently large to offset the
probability of coincidence 183
B. The class of persons, events, or things about which
the induction is made must be reasonably homogeneous 185
C. The specific instances cited in support of the
conclusion must be fair examples 186
D. Careful investigation must disclose no exceptions 187
E. The conclusion must be reasonable 188
CHAPTER II
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
I. Deductive Reasoning 190
II. The Application of Deductive Reasoning to Deductive Argument 196
III. The Enthymeme 201
CHAPTER III
ARGUMENT FROM CAUSAL RELATION
I. Argument from Effect to Cause 208
1. The alleged cause must be sufficient to produce the effect 210
2. No other cause must have intervened between the alleged
cause and the effect 211
3. The alleged cause must not have been prevented from
operating 212
II. Argument from Cause to Effect 213
1. The observed cause must be sufficient to produce the
alleged effect 215
2. When past experience is invoked it must show that the
alleged effect has always followed the observed cause 215
3. No force must intervene to prevent the observed cause from
operating to produce the alleged effect 216
4. The conclusion established should be verified by positive
evidence whenever possible 217
III. Argument from Effect to Effect 218
CHAPTER IV
ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY
I. The two factors in the analogy must be alike in all
particulars which affect the conclusion 228
II. The alleged facts upon which the analogy is based must be
true 231
III. The conclusion established by the analogy should be verified
by positive evidence whenever possible 232
CHAPTER V
FALLACIES
I. Fallacies of Induction 235
1. The number of specific instances relied upon to support
the conclusion should be determined 235
2. The class of persons, events, or things about which the
induction is made should be scrutinized with a view to
determining whether it is homogeneous 236
3. Whether or not the specific instances cited in support of
the conclusion are fair examples should be determined 236
4. A search should be made for exceptions to the rule stated
by the induction 237
5. The induction should be examined with a view to
determining its reasonableness 237
II. Fallacies of Deduction 238
1. Material fallacies 238
2. Logical fallacies 239
(1) The undistributed middle 239
(2) The illicit process 244
(3) Irrelevancy of the premises, or ignoring the question 245
A. The appeal to passion, prejudice, or humor 246
B. The personal attack upon an opponent 246
C. The personal attack upon the person or persons
concerned in the controversy 246
D. The appeal to custom and tradition 247
E. Shifting ground 248
F. Refuting an argument which has not been advanced 248
G. Arguing on a related proposition 248
(4) Begging the question 249
A. Arguing in a circle 249
B. Directly assuming the point at issue 250
C. Indirectly assuming the point at issue 251
III. Fallacies of Causal Relation 252
1. Fallacies of the argument from effect to cause 252
(1) Mistaking coincidence for cause 253
(2) Mistaking an effect for a cause 254
(3) Mistaking a subsequent cause for a real cause 254
(4) Mistaking an insufficient cause for a sufficient cause 255
2. Fallacies of the argument from cause to effect 255
3. Fallacies of the argument from effect to effect 256
IV. Fallacies of the Argument from Analogy 256
CHAPTER VI
REFUTATION
I. Revealing a Fallacy 261
II. Reductio ad Absurdum 262
III. The Dilemma 263
IV. Residues 265
V. Inconsistencies 267
VI. Adopting an Opponent’s Evidence 268
PART I
THE PRACTICE OF ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE
THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE
CHAPTER I
DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF ARGUMENTATION
I. Definitions.
Argumentation is the art of persuading others to think or act in a
definite way. It includes all writing and speaking which is persuasive
in form. The salesman persuading a prospective customer to buy goods,
the student inducing his fellow-student to contribute to the funds of
the athletic association, the business or professional man seeking to
enlarge his business and usefulness, and the great orator or writer
whose aim is to control the destiny of nations, all make use of the art
of argumentation to attain their various objects. These illustrations
serve but to indicate the wide field of thought and action which this
subject includes. Each instance in this broad field, which demands the
use of the art of argumentation, is subject to the same general laws
that govern the construction and presentation of formal arguments.
Formal arguments may be either written or oral, but by far the greater
benefit to the student of argumentation results from the delivery of
oral arguments, for it is in this form that he will be most frequently
railed upon to use his skill.
Debating is the oral presentation of arguments under such conditions
that each speaker may reply directly to the arguments of the opposing
speaker. The debate is opened by the first speaker for the affirmative.
He is then followed by the first speaker for the negative, each side
speaking alternately until each man has presented his main speech. After
all the main speeches have been delivered the negative opens the
rebuttal. The speakers in rebuttal alternate negative and affirmative.
This order gives the closing speech to the affirmative. Practice in this
kind of formal debate should go hand in hand with the study of the text
after the first five chapters have been mastered. The first arguments,
however, should be individual arguments written out for the purpose of
enabling the student to apply the rules regarding their form and
development.
A proposition in argumentation is the formal statement of a subject for
debate. It begins with the word “Resolved,”—followed by the statement of
the subject matter of the controversy, and worded in accordance with the
rules laid down in the next chapter. In formal debate it is always
expressed; as for example, “Resolved, that the Federal Government should
levy a progressive income tax.” In other forms of argumentation it may
be only implied, as in the case of the salesman selling goods, the
student soliciting subscriptions, the business man arguing for
consolidation, or the politician pleading for reform. Nevertheless, it
is always advisable for the speaker or writer to have clearly in mind a
definite proposition as a basis upon which to build his argument. The
proposition for the salesman might be, “Resolved, that James Fox ought
to buy a piano;” for the student solicitor, “Resolved, that George Clark
ought to give ten dollars to the athletic fund;” for the business man,
“Resolved, that all firms engaged in the manufacture of matches should
consolidate;” and for the politician, “Resolved, that the tariff
schedule on necessaries should be lowered.” This framing of a definite,
clear-cut proposition will prevent wandering from the subject and give
to the argument the qualities of clearness, unity, and relevancy.
Referring to the definition with which this chapter opened the student
should note that it defines argumentation as an art. While it is true
that argumentation must be directed in accordance with scientific
principles, and while it is also true that it has an intimate relation
with the science of logic, yet it is primarily an art in which skill,
tact, diplomacy, and the finer sensibilities must be utilized to their
fullest extent. In this respect argumentation is an art as truly as
music, sculpture, poetry, or painting. The successful debater must be a
master of this art if he hopes to convince and persuade real men to his
way of thinking and thus to direct their action.
II. The object of argumentation.
The object of argumentation is not only to induce others to accept our
opinions and beliefs in regard to any disputed matter, but to induce
them to act in accordance with our opinions and beliefs. The end of
argumentation is action. The form which this action is to take depends
upon the nature of the disputed matter. It may be only an action of the
mind resulting in a definite belief which will exert an influence in the
world for good or evil. It may be the desire of the one who argues to
persuade his hearers to advocate his opinions and beliefs and thus
spread his doctrines to many other individuals. It may be that some more
decided physical action is desired, such as the casting of a vote, or
the purchase of a certain article or commodity. It may be the taking up
of arms against a state, race, or nation, or the pursuit of a definite
line of conduct throughout the remainder of the life of the individual
addressed. These and many other phases of action may be the objects of
the debater.
III. Educational importance of argumentation.
From the standpoint of mental discipline no study offers more practical
training than does argumentation. It cultivates that command of feeling
and concentration of thought which keeps the mind healthily active. The
value of this kind of mental exercise cannot be overestimated.
Especially is it valuable when the arguments are presented in the form
of a debate, in which the speaker is assigned to defend a definite
position and must reply to attacks made on that position. Such work
brings forth the best powers of mind possessed by the student. It
cultivates quickness of thought, and the ability to meet men on their
own ground and conduct a successful encounter on the battlefield of
ideas.
Another faculty of mind which debating develops is tact in the selection
and presentation of material. Since the object of debate is action, it
is not enough that the speaker show his position to be the correct one.
He must do more than this; he must make the hearer desire to act in
accordance with that position. Otherwise the speaker will be in the same
position as the savage who induces his fellows to conform to his ideas
by the use of a club,—the moment the influence of the club is removed
the subject immediately reverts to his former habits of thought and
action. If you convince a man that he is wrong by the mere force of
argument, he may be unable to answer your argument but he will feel like
a man who has been whipped in a physical encounter—though technically
defeated he still holds to his former opinions. There is much truth in
the old saying that, “He who is convinced against his will is of the
same opinion still.” Therefore, the debater must do more than merely
convince his hearer; he must persuade him. He must appeal to the reason,
it is true, but he must also appeal to the emotions in such a way as to
persuade his hearer to take some definite action in regard to the
subject of dispute. Thus there are two things which the debater must
attempt—conviction and persuasion. If he convinces his hearer without
persuading him, no action is likely to follow. If he persuades his
hearer by appealing to his emotions, the effect of his efforts will be
short lived. Therefore, the debater must train himself to persuade his
hearer to act in accordance with his wishes as well as to find reasons
for such action and give them.
Finally, debating cultivates the ability to use clear and forcible
language. Practice of this kind gives the student a wealth of expression
and a command of language which is not otherwise possible. The
obligation to reply directly to one’s opponents makes it necessary for
the student to have such command of his material that he can make it
apply directly to the arguments he has just heard.
The educational value of debating is greater than that of any other form
of oral or written composition because it cultivates: (1) The command of
feeling and concentration of thought which keep the mind healthily
active, (2) The ability to state a clear-cut proposition, and to analyze
it keenly by sifting the essential from the trivial, thus revealing the
real point at issue, (3) The ability to find reasons and give them, (4)
The power to state facts and conditions with that tact and diplomacy
which success demands, (5) The power to persuade as well as convince,
(6) The power of clear and forcible expression. Certainly any subject
which tends to develop these qualities ought to receive the most careful
attention of the student.
IV. Practical importance of argumentation.
From the practical standpoint no study offers better preparation for the
everyday affairs of life than does argumentation and debate. Success in
life is largely a matter of reducing every situation to a definite,
clear-cut proposition, analyzing that proposition or picking out the
main points at issue, and then directing one’s efforts to the solution
of the problem thus revealed. To be more concrete: One young man accepts
the first situation which is brought to his notice when he graduates,
and stays in a mediocre position for years; another young man thinks
carefully over the matter, picks out a place where he is most likely to
succeed, and secures rapid promotion. Instances might be multiplied
indefinitely to show the practical value of argumentative training. The
man who is an expert in the use of argument holds the master key to
success in all lines. It is an invaluable asset to every one who has to
deal with practical affairs. It matters not whether you are to address
one individual or a thousand—whether you wish to persuade to a certain
course of action, your employer, a committee, a board of directors, a
town council, the senate of the United States, or an auditorium full of
people, knowledge of the use and application of the rules of
argumentation, and good training in the art of debate is a most valuable
asset. The business world, the professional world, and the political
world eagerly welcome the man who can think and who can effectively
present his thoughts. In every business, in every profession, and in
every department of government the skilled debater becomes the leader of
men.