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| TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES |
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| Text printed in bold face in the original work is here transcribed|
| between =, as in =text=. Text printed in italics in the original |
| work is represented by _text_. Text printed in small capitals is |
| represented here in ALL CAPITALS. Superscripts are indicated by |
| the caret character ^. |
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| Where the author used a different type face to indicate a shape |
| rather than a letter or symbol, the letters or symbols are trans- |
| cribed between square brackets: [T], [Y] and [+]. |
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| More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of this text. |
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SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
IN
FARM CULTIVATION.
BY
JAMES BUCKMAN, F.L.S., F.G.S.
LATE PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND RURAL ECONOMY AT THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGE.
LONDON:
ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.
1865.
COX AND WYMAN,
ORIENTAL, CLASSICAL, AND GENERAL PRINTERS,
GREAT QUEEN STREET, LONDON, W.C.
TO
JOHN CHALMERS MORTON, ESQ.,
_The talented Editor of the_ “AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE,”
MANY OF THE FACTS AND OPINIONS ALREADY DETAILED
IN WHICH INFLUENTIAL JOURNAL
ARE HERE BUT REPEATED,
THIS WORK
IS DEDICATED
AS A SMALL TOKEN OF ADMIRATION AND RESPECT,
BY HIS FAITHFUL FRIEND,
THE AUTHOR.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
HOW TO GROW GOOD ROOTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
I. On the Origin of Root Crops 1
II. On the Origin of Sorts of Roots 9
III. On Trueness of Sorts in Roots 13
IV. On Degenerate Roots 18
V. Effects of Growing Seed from Degenerate Roots 23
VI. On the Adulteration of Seed, more particularly of
Turnips 29
VII. On the Art and Mystery of Turnip-seed Adulteration 37
VIII. General Conclusions 49
PART II.
HOW TO GROW GOOD GRASSES.
IX. On the Nature of Meadows and Pastures 51
X. On the Species of Meadow Grasses 56
XI. On Meadow Plants other than Grasses 73
XII. On the Weeds of Pastures 78
XIII. On the Irrigated Meadow 87
XIV. On the Laying Down of Permanent Pastures 92
XV. On the Management of Permanent Pastures 98
XVI. On the Management of Lawns 102
PART III.
HOW TO GROW GOOD CLOVERS.
XVII. On the Nature and Properties of the Clover Family of
Plants 109
XVIII. On the Farm Species of Clovers 113
XIX. On the Varieties of Red Clovers 121
XX. On the Clover Allies 125
XXI. On Clover Sickness 137
XXII. On the Weeds of Clovers 148
XXIII. On the Parasites of Clovers 156
PART IV.
HOW TO GROW GOOD CORN.
XXIV. Nature of Corn 161
XXV. Wheat: its Origin and Acclimatization 163
XXVI. The Wild Oat as the Origin of the Cultivated Varieties 168
XXVII. On the supposed Origin of Barley and Rye 176
XXVIII. Epiphytical Parasites (Vegetable Blights) of Corn
Crops 180
XXIX. Insects (Animal Blights) affecting Corn Crops 192
XXX. Science in the Cultivation of Corn 204
XXXI. On Harvesting Corn 213
PART V.
HOW TO GROW GOOD FENCES.
XXXII. On the Nature of Fences 217
XXXIII. On the Plants for “Live” Fences 220
XXXIV. On the Hearing and Planting of Hedges 227
XXXV. Weeds of Hedge-row Fences 234
XXXVI. On Hedge-row Timber 239
XXXVII. On the Vermin of Fences 246
XXXVIII. On the Management of Hedge-row Fences 254
XXXIX. Covenants with regard to Fences, &c. 259
PART VI.
HOW TO GROW GOOD TIMBER.
XL. On the Value of Timber for Ornament and Profit 265
XLI. On the Kinds of Timber best adapted for different
Situations 274
XLII. On the British Oak 278
XLIII. On the Chestnut and Walnut 291
XLIV. On the Elm 296
XLV. On the Ash, Beech, and other White-wooded Trees 302
XLVI. On Soft-wooded Forest Trees 313
PART VII.
HOW TO GROW GOOD ORCHARDS.
XLVII. On the Apple and Pear as Orchard Fruits 319
XLVIII. On the Production and Choice of Fruit Trees 328
XLIX. On the Gathering and Storing of Fruit 338
L. On Cider-making and Management 345
LI. On the Uses and Economy of Cider and Perry 351
POSTSCRIPT 357
THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
OF
ROOT CULTIVATION.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE ORIGIN OF ROOT CROPS.
Few people who have studied the matter attentively but have arrived at
the conclusion that those plants which we cultivate for their roots were
not naturally endowed with the root portion of their structure either of
the size or form which would now be considered as essential for a
perfect crop plant. Thus the parsnip, carrot, turnip, beet, &c., as we
find them in nature, have nowhere the large, fleshy, smooth appearance
which belongs to their cultivated forms; and hence all the varieties of
these that we meet with in cultivation must be considered as
_derivatives_ from original wild forms, obtained by _cultivative
processes_; that is, collecting their seed, planting it in a prepared
bed, stimulating the growth of the plants with manures, thinning,
regulating, weeding, and such other acts as constitute farming or
gardening, as the case may be.
Hence, then, it is concluded that such plants as are grown for their
roots have a peculiar aptitude for laying on tissue, and thus increasing
the bulk of their “descending axis,” that is, that portion of their
structure which grows downwards—root. Besides this, they are remarkable
for their capability of producing varieties—a fact which, united with a
constancy in the maintenance of an induced form, renders it exceedingly
easy to bring out new sorts which will maintain their characteristics
under great diversities of climate, soil, and treatment.
The facility with which different sorts of roots may be procured
can readily be understood from the many varieties, not only of
_turnip_—which may perhaps be considered as an original species—but also
of swede, which is a hybrid of the turnip and rape plant. Of the former
we have more than thirty sorts grown by the farmer, and as many
peculiar to the garden; whilst there are probably more than twenty
well-recognized sorts of swedes. Of beets, with mangel-wurzel, we have
almost as great a variety; so also of carrots. Of parsnips we have fewer
varieties, to which may now be added the new form called the Student
parsnip, the growth of which is so interesting that we shall here give a
short history of its production, as an illustration of the origin of
root crops.
In 1847 we collected some wild parsnip seed from the top of the
Cotteswolds, where this is among the most frequent of weeds. This seed,
after having been kept carefully during the winter, was sown in a
prepared bed, in the spring of 1848, in drills about eighteen inches
apart. As the plants grew they were duly thinned out, leaving for the
crop, as far as it could be done, the specimens that had leaves with
the broadest divisions, lightest colour, and fewest hairs. As cultivated
parsnips offer a curious contrast with the wild specimens in these
respects, we place the following notes, side by side, on the root-leaves
of plants of the same period of growth.
1st. WILD PARSNIP. | 2nd. STUDENT PARSNIP.
Ft. in. | Ft. in.
Whole length from the | Whole length from the
base of the petiole to | base of the petiole to
the apex of the leaf 0 8 | the tip of the leaf 2 0
Breadth of leaflets 0 0¾ | Breadth of leaflets 3 0¼
Length of ditto 0 1 | Length of leaflets 0 6½
Petiole and leaflets, | Petiole and leaflets
hairy. Colour, dark | without hair. Colour,
green. | light green.
[Illustration: _Figures 1 and 2._—Roots of Wild Parsnips. Natural size.]
We have before remarked that neither in size nor form are the wild roots
at all comparable with the cultivated ones. Our figures 1 and 2 were
taken from fine roots of the wild parsnip of the first year’s growth;
that is to say, just at the same time as a crop parsnip would be at its
best. They were purposely taken from specimens obtained from the same
district as the seed with which our experiments were commenced.
Our first crop of roots from the wild seed presented great diversities
in shape, being for the most part even more forked than the originals,
but still with a general tendency to fleshiness. Of these the best
shaped were reserved for seeding; and having been kept the greater part
of the winter in sand, some six of the best were planted in another plot
for seed. The seed, then, of 1849 was sown in the spring of 1850, in a
freshly-prepared bed, the plants being treated as before, the results
showing a decided improvement, with tendencies in some examples in the
following directions:—
1st. The round-topped long-root, having a resemblance to the
Guernsey parsnip. (_Panais long_ of the French.)
2nd. The hollow-crowned long-root. “Hollow-headed” of the gardener.
(_Panais Lisbonais_ type.)
3rd. The short, thick turnip-shaped root. “Turnip-rooted” of the
gardener. (_Panais rond_ form.)
These three forms were all of them much mis-shapen, with forked roots,
that is, _fingers and toes_; but still each of them offered
opportunities of procuring three original varieties from this new
source.
As an example of progress, we offer the following engraving of a
specimen of our Round-topped parsnip of 1852. Fig. 3.
This it will be seen has strong, fleshy forks, and a tendency to form
divided tap-roots; otherwise the shape is greatly improved, and the skin
is tolerably smooth.
At this time our stock was for the most part fleshy and soft on boiling;
the flavour, too, though much stronger than that of the usual esculent
parsnip, was rather agreeable than otherwise.
This matter of flavour is a subject of interest, as most lovers of the
parsnip, as a garden esculent, had got to complain of this root becoming
more and more tasteless. That this was so our own experience most fully
confirms; we have now, however, mended this root very materially in this
respect.
Our experiments were only carried on with examples of the Hollow-crowned
form, which following out from year to year, we at length obtained so
perfect in form, clean in outline, delicate in skin, and unexceptionable
in flavour, that we were induced to cause its seed to be distributed
through the medium of the trade.
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._—Round-topped Parsnip, five generations from
wild root.]
In 1881 we sowed a parcel of seed in our own garden obtained from the
Messrs. Sutton, after having received from them the following notes upon
the growth of the roots in their grounds:—
We are happy to tell you that in lifting some of each of all the
varieties of parsnips in our trial-ground, your “Student” was
decidedly the best shape, varying in length, but always clean and
straight.
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._—Student Parsnip of 1861. Two-thirds of natural
size.]
The engraving (Fig. 4) is taken from our garden stock of 1861, as being
a common shape of this new variety. It is not quite so long and slender
as the usual Long-horned parsnip, but its clean unbranched outline and
solidity of structure recommend it as a good variety, whilst its flavour
has been highly extolled by the lover of this, to some, favorite root.
In size it is scarcely large enough for a field crop, but though not at
present recommenced for the farm, its history may well serve to explain
the origin of crop plants, as derived from the cultivation and
improvement of wild species.[1]
[1] It may here be noted that the Student parsnip took the first prize
for this root at the International Show at the Horticultural Society’s
Gardens in 1862.