The Fall Of Canada
Though Quebec was in their hands, the position of the British during the
winter of 1759-60 was dangerous. In October General Murray, who was left
in command, saw with misgiving the great fleet sail away which had
brought to Canada the conquering force of Wolfe and Saunders. Murray was
left with some seven thousand men in the heart of a hostile country, and
with a resourceful enemy, still unconquered, preparing to attack him. He
was separated from other British forces by vast wastes of forest and
river, and until spring should come no fleet could aid him. Three
enemies of the English, the French said exultingly, would aid to retake
Quebec: the ruthless savages who haunted the outskirts of the fortress
and massacred many an incautious straggler; the French army which could
be recruited from the Canadian population; and, above all, the bitter
cold of the Canadian winter. To Murray, as to Napoleon long afterward in
his rash invasion of Russia, General February was indeed the enemy.
About the two or three British ships left at Quebec the ice froze in
places a dozen feet thick, and snowdrifts were piled so high against the
walls of Quebec that it looked sometimes as if the enemy might walk over
them into the fortress. So solidly frozen was the surface of the river
that Murray sent cannon to the south shore across the ice to repel a
menace from that quarter. There was scarcity of firewood and of
provisions. Scurvy broke out in the garrison. Many hundreds died so that
by the spring Murray had barely three thousand men fit for active duty.
Throughout the winter Lévis, now in command of the French forces, made
increasing preparations to destroy Murray in the spring. The
headquarters of Lévis were at Montreal. Here Vaudreuil, the Governor,
kept his little court. He and Lévis worked harmoniously, for Lévis was
conciliatory and tactful. For a time Vaudreuil treasured the thought of
taking command in person to attack Quebec. In the end, however, he
showed that he had learned something from the disasters of the previous
year and did not interfere with the plans made by Lévis. So throughout
the winter Montreal had its gayeties and vanities as of old. There were
feasts and dances--but over all brooded the reality of famine in the
present and the foreboding of disaster to come.
By April 20, 1760, the St. Lawrence was open and, though the shores were
cumbered with masses of broken ice, the central channel was free for the
boats which Lévis filled with his soldiers. It was a bleak experience to
descend the turbulent river between banks clogged with ice. When Lévis
was not far from Quebec, he learned that it was impossible to surprise
Murray who was well on guard between Cap Rouge on the west and Beauport
on the east. The one thing to do was to reach the Plains of Abraham in
order to attack the feeble walls of Quebec from the landward side. Since
Murray's alertness made impossible attack by way of the high cliffs
which Wolfe had climbed in the night, Lévis had to reach Quebec by a
circuitous route. He landed his army a little above Cap Rouge, marched
inland over terrible roads in heavy rain, and climbed to the plateau of
Quebec from the rear at Sainte Foy. On April 27, 1760, he drew up his
army on the heights almost exactly as Wolfe had done in the previous
September. Murray followed the example of Montcalm. He had no trust in
the feeble defenses of Quebec and on the 28th marched out to fight on
the open plain. The battle of Sainte Foy followed exactly the precedents
of the previous year. The defenders of Quebec were driven off the field
in overwhelming defeat. The difference was that Murray took his army
back to Quebec and from behind its walls still defied his French
assailant. Lévis had poor artillery, but he did what he could. He
entrenched and poured his fire into Quebec. In the end it was sea power
which balked him. On the 15th of May, when a British fleet appeared
round the head of the Island of Orleans, Lévis withdrew in something
like panic and Quebec was safe.
Lévis returned to Montreal; and to this point all the forces of France
slowly retreated as they were pressed in by the overwhelming numbers of
the British. At Oswego, the scene of Montcalm's first brilliant success
four years earlier, Amherst had gathered during the summer of 1760 an
army of about ten thousand men. From here he descended the St. Lawrence
in boats to attack Montreal from the west. From the south, down Lake
Champlain and the Richelieu River to the St. Lawrence, came another
British force under Haviland also to attack Montreal. At Quebec Murray
put his army on transports, left the city almost destitute of defense,
and thus brought a third considerable force against Montreal. There was
little fighting. The French withdrew to the common objective as their
enemy advanced. Early in September Lévis had gathered at Montreal all
his available force, amounting now to scarcely more than two thousand
men, for Canadians and Indians alike had deserted him. The British
pressed in with the slow and inevitable rigor of a force of nature. On
the 7th of September their united army was before the town and Amherst
demanded instant surrender. The only thing for Vaudreuil to do was to
make the best terms possible. On the next day he signed a capitulation
which protected the liberties in property and religion of the Canadians
but which yielded the whole of Canada to Great Britain. The struggle for
North America had ended.
In the moment of triumph Amherst inflicted on the French army a deep
humiliation to punish the outrages committed by their Indian allies. In
the early days of the war Loudoun, the Commander-in-Chief in America,
had vowed that the British would make the French "sick of such inhuman
villainy" and teach them to respect "the laws of nature and humanity."
Washington speaks of his "deadly sorrow" at the dreadful outrages which
he saw, the ravishing of women, the scalping alive even of children.
Philadelphians had seen the grim spectacle of a wagon-load of corpses
brought by mourning friends and relatives of the dead and laid down at
the door of the Assembly to show to pacifist legislators what was really
happening. The French regular officers, as we have seen, had hated this
kind of warfare. Bougainville says that his soul shuddered at the sights
in Montreal, where the whole town turned out to see an English prisoner
killed, boiled, and eaten by the savages. Worse still, captive mothers
were obliged to eat the flesh of their own children. The French believed
that they could not get on without the savage allies who committed these
outrages, and they were not strong enough to coerce them. Amherst, on
the other hand, held his Indians in check and rebuked outrage. Now he
was stern to punish what the French had permitted. He could write
proudly to a friend that the French were amazed at the order in which he
kept his own Indians. Not a man, woman, or child, he said, had been hurt
or a single atrocity committed. It was a vivid contrast with what had
taken place after the British surrender to Montcalm at Fort William
Henry. The day of retribution had come. Because of such outrages, the
French army was denied the honors of war usually conceded to a brave and
defeated foe. The French officers and men must not, Amherst insisted,
serve again during the war. Lévis protested and begged Vaudreuil to be
allowed to go on fighting rather than accept the terms, but in vain. The
humiliation was rigorously imposed, and it was a sullen host which the
British took captive.
France had lost an Empire. It was nearly three years still before peace
was signed at Paris in 1763. To Britain France yielded everything east
of the Mississippi except New Orleans, and to Spain she ceded New
Orleans and everything else to which she had any claim. The
fleurs-de-lis floated still over only two tiny fishing islands off the
Newfoundland shore. All the glowing plans of France's leaders--of
Richelieu, of Louis XIV, of Colbert, of Frontenac, of the heroic
missionaries of the Jesuit Order--seemed to have come to nothing.
The fall of France did much to drag down her rival. Already was America
restless under control from Europe. There was now no danger to the
English in America from the French peril which had made insecure the
borders of Massachusetts, of New York, of Pennsylvania, and Virginia,
and had brought widespread desolation and sorrow. With the removal of
the menace went the need of help and defenses for the colonies from the
motherland. The French belief that there was a natural antipathy between
the English of the Old World and the English of the New was, in reality,
based on the fact of a likeness so great that neither would accept
control or patronage from the other. Towards the Englishman who assumed
airs of superiority the antagonism of the colonists was always certain
to be acute. Open strife came when the assumption of superiority took
the form of levying taxes on the colonies without asking their leave. In
no remote way the fall of French Canada, by removing a near menace to
the English colonies, led to this new conflict and to the collapse of
that older British Empire which had sprung from the England of the
Stuarts.
When Montreal fell there were in the St. Lawrence many British ships
which had been used for troops and supplies. Before the end of September
the French soldiers and also the officials from France who desired to go
home were on board these ships bound for Europe. By the end of November
most of the exiles had reached home. Varying receptions awaited them.
Lévis, who took back the army, was soon again, by consent of the British
government, in active service. Fortune smiled on him to the end. He died
a great noble and Marshal of France just before the Revolution of 1789;
but in that awful upheaval his widow and his two daughters perished on
the scaffold. Vaudreuil's shallow and vain incompetence did not go
unpunished. He was put on trial, accused of a share in the black frauds
which had helped to ruin Canada. The trial was his punishment. He was
acquitted of taking any share of the plunder and so drops out of
history. Bigot and his gang, on the other hand, were found guilty of
vast depredations. The former Intendant was for a time in the Bastille
and in the end was banished from France, after being forced to repay
great sums. We find echoes of the luxury of Quebec in the sale in France
of the rich plate which the rascal had acquired. There were, however,
other and even worse plunderers. They were tried and condemned chiefly
to return what they had stolen. We rather wonder that no expiatory
sacrifice on the scaffold was required of any of these knaves. Lally
Tollendal, who, as the French leader in India, had only failed and not
plundered, was sent to a cruel execution.
Under the terms of the surrender and of the final Treaty of Peace in
1763, civilians in Canada were given leave to return to France. Nearly
the whole of the official class and many of the large landowners, the
seigneurs, left the country. In Canada there remained a priesthood,
largely native, but soon to be recruited from France by the upheaval of
the Revolution, a few seigneurial families, natural leaders of their
race, a peasantry, exhausted by the long war but clinging tenaciously to
the soil, and a good many hardy pioneers of the forest, men skilled in
hunting and in the use of the axe. Out of these elements, amounting in
1763 to little more than sixty thousand people, has come that
French-Canadian race in America now numbering perhaps three millions.
The race has scattered far. It is found in the mills of Massachusetts,
in the canebrakes of Louisiana, on the wide stretches of the prairie of
the Canadian West, but it has always kept intact its strong citadel on
the banks of the St. Lawrence. New France was, in reality, widely
separated in spirit from old France, before the new master in Canada
made the division permanent. The imagination of the Canadian peasant did
not wander across the ocean to France. He knew only the scenes about his
own hearth and in them alone were his thought and affections centered.
The one wider interest which the habitant treasured was love for the
Catholic Church of his fathers and of his own spiritual hopes. It thus
happened that when France in revolution assailed and for a time
overthrew the Church within her borders, the heart of French Canada was
not with France but with the persecuted Church; she hated the spirit of
revolutionary France. Te Deums were sung at Quebec in thanksgiving for
the defeats of Napoleon. In language and what literary culture they
possessed, in traditions and tastes, the conquered people remained
French, but they had no allegiance divided between Canada and France. To
this day they are proud to be simply Canadians, rooted in the soil of
Canada, with no debt of patriotic gratitude to the France from which
they sprang or to the Britain which obtained political dominance over
their ancestors after a long agony of war. To the British Crown many of
them feel a certain attachment because of the liberty guaranteed to them
to pursue their own ideals of happiness. In preserving their type of
social life, their faith and language, they have shown a resolute
tenacity. To this day they are as different in these things from their
fellow-citizens of British origin in the rest of Canada as were their
ancestors from the English colonies which lay on their borders.
The French in Canada are still a separate people. From time to time a
nervous fear seizes them lest too many of their race may be lost to
their old ideals in the Anglo-Saxon world surging about them. Then they
listen readily to appeals to their racial unity and draw more sharply
than ever the lines of division between themselves and the rest of North
America. They remain a fragment of an older France, remote and isolated,
still dreaming dreams like those of Frontenac of old of the dominance of
their race in North America and asserting passionately their rights in
the soil of Canada to which, first of Europeans, they came. At the mouth
of the Mississippi in the Louisiana founded by Louis XIV, along the St.
Lawrence in the Canada of Champlain and Frontenac, with a resolution
more than half pathetic, and in a world that gives little heed, men of
French race are still on guard to preserve in America the lineaments of
that older France, long since decayed in Europe, which was above all the
eldest daughter of the Church.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.
While the present narrative is based for the most part on more recondite
and widely scattered sources, the most accessible volumes relating to
the period are the following works of Francis Parkman (Boston: many
editions): La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West, Frontenac and
New France under Louis XIV, A Half Century of Conflict (2 vols.), and
Montcalm and Wolfe (2 vols.). To these should be added, as completing
the story, George M. Wrong, The Fall of Canada (Oxford, 1914) which
dwells in detail on the last year of the struggle. All these volumes
contain adequate references to authorities. The last of Parkman's works
was published more than twenty-five years ago and later research has
revised some of his conclusions, but he still commands great authority.
In The Chronicles of Canada (Toronto, 1913-16) half a dozen volumes
relate to the period; each of these volumes, which embody later research
and are written in an attractive style, contains a bibliography relating
to its special subject: C. W. Colby, The Fighting Governor [Frontenac];
Agnes C. Laut, The Adventurers of England on Hudson Bay; Lawrence J.
Burpee, The Pathfinders of the Great Plains; Arthur G. Doughty, The
Acadian Exiles; William Wood, The Great Fortress [Louisbourg], The
Passing of New France, and The Winning of Canada. Lawrence J. Burpee's
Search for the Western Sea (Toronto, 1908) deals with the work of La
Vérendrye and other explorers. Anthony Hendry's Journal is published in
the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, series iii, volume i.
The latest phase of the discussions on La Vérendrye are reviewed in an
article by Doane Robinson in The Mississippi Valley Historical Review
for December, 1916. The material relating to the discoverer was long
scattered, but it has now been collected in a volume, edited by Lawrence
J. Burpee for the Champlain Society, Toronto, but owing to the war it is
at the present date (1918) still in manuscript. Much of what is
contained in Mr. Burpee's volume will be found in South Dakota
Historical Collections, volume vii, 1914 (Pierre, S. D.).
Additional references are given in the bibliographies appended to the
articles on Chatham, Seven Years' War, and Nova Scotia in The
Encyclopœdia Britannica, 11th Edition.
INDEX
A
Abenaki Indians, incited against English, 76.
Abercromby, James, General, 195-196.
Arcadia, settled by French, 2; comes into hands of British, 56; ceded to
England, 65; conditions in (1713), 74-75; England's neglect of, 75;
expulsion of Arcadians, 164 et seq.; boundaries undefined, 169.
Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of (1748), 93.
Albany, plan to seize, 12; colonial delegates meet at, (1754), 159-160.
Alsace-Lorraine, demanded of France, 64.
Amherst, Jeffrey, Commander-in-Chief of British forces in America, 195,
213, 214; advances toward Montreal, 223; attacks Montreal, 228-229;
relations with Indians, 230.
Andros, Sir Edmund, 34.
Annapolis, attacked by French, 79-80; Acadians driven from, 175.
Annapolis Valley, 53.
Anne, Queen, ascends throne, 45; intrigue in court, 56-57; death (1714),
67.
Anson, George, Admiral, 92.
Anville, Duc d', 90, 91.
Argall, Samuel, Captain, 2.
Assiniboine Indians, accompany La Vérendrye, 121, 122-123.
Assiniboine River, 119-120.
Auguste, The (ship), 133.
Austrian Succession, War of (1744-1748), 71, 92-93, 155.
B
Beauharnois, Marquis de, Governor of Canada, 114.
Beauséjour, Fort, 170, 171, 172.
Belle-Isle, Duc de, French Minister of War, 201.
Berryer, French Minister of Marine, 200-201.
Bienville, J. B., le Moyne, Sieur de, 104.
Big Mouth, Indian, 6.
Bigot, François, Intendant of Canada, 185, 203, 207, 233.
Biloxi Bay, fort built on, 103.
Blackfeet Indians, 140-141.
Bobé, Father, 26.
Boscawen, Edward, Admiral, 158, 163, 212, 213.
Boston, plan to seize, 46.
Bougainville, L. A. de, Colonel, 181-182, 199-200, 217, 230.
Bouquet, Henry, Colonel, 163.
Bourlamaque, Chevalier de, 181, 191, 223.
Bow Indians, act as guides to the La Vérendryes, 126-128.
Braddock, Edward, General, 158, 159, 160.
Byng, Admiral, 146, 210.
C
Cadet, Head of Canadian supplies department, 203.
Canada, paternal government in, 24-25; war on English colonies, 45 et
seq.; English plans for ending French power in, 87-88; corruption in,
203-204, 207-208; famine in, 208; population (1763), 234; French
Canadians, 235-237.
Canada and English colonies compared, as to population, 35; finances,
35-37; leaders, 37-38; governors, 39; religion, 40-41; education, 42;
books and newspapers, 42-43; character of people, 78.
Canseau, taken by French, 79; British arrive at, 82.
Cape Breton, Island of, 65, 72, 74.
Cartier, Jacques, 98.
Céloron de Blainville, 146 et seq.
Champlain, Samuel de, 100.
Charles II, becomes King (1660), 28; of Catholic faith, 30; intrigues
with France 31; Catholic persecution under, 31; death (1685), 33.
Charlevoix, P. F. X. de, 45, 104, 112.
Chautauqua Lake, 149.
Clarendon, Earl of, Governor of N. J. and N. Y., 39.
Cook, James, Captain, 216.
Cornwallis, Edward, 95.
Crown Point, French Army at, 161; occupied by British, 223.
D
Deerfield Massacre, 46-48.
Denonville, Marquis de, Governor of Canada, 9.
Detroit, fort built at, 105-106.
Dieskau, Baron, 158, 161, 162, 179-180.
Digby Basin, 53.
Dinwiddie, Robert, Lieutenant-Governor of Va., 153, 154, 160.
Duchesneau, Jacques, Intendant of Canada, 28.
Duchambon, Governor of Louisbourg, 82, 84.
Duquesne, Governor of Canada, 152.
Duquesne, Fort, 154, 160, 163, 198.
Duvivier, 79.
E
Edgar, The (ship), 59, 61.
Edward, Fort, 193, 194.
England, Protestant, 1; attitude toward her colonies, 25; under Charles
II, 28; protection from France, 29-30; reduces army, 44; war with
France, 45; success on the sea, 92; sends army to Va., 158; relations
with colonies, 232.
Estournel, d', 91.
Europe, politics in middle eighteenth century, 155-157.
F
Forbes, John, General, 163.
France, Catholic, 1; treatment of colonies by, 24-25; claims in North
America, 26-27; persecution of Protestants, 32-33; failure in war in
Europe, 64; cedes part of Canada to England, 65; fails in plans against
English, 90-92; lays claim to the West, 98 et seq.; allies herself to
Austria, 156-157; sends army to Canada, 158; plans invasion of England,
201; fails in undertakings of 1759, 224; yields everything east of
Mississippi, 231.
Franklin, Benjamin, 160.
Frontenac, Louis de Buade, Comte de, Governor of Canada, family, 3;
personal characteristics, 3-5; in Canada, 4-5; commands against
Iroquois, 9-12; against English, 12-15; deals with Phips' expedition,
18-20; leads against Iroquois, 22; death (1698), 22.
Frontenac, Fort, 148, 198.
Fur trade, government monopoly, 40; on Hudson Bay, 108, 135-136.
G
George I, becomes King (1714), 67; policy towards France, 67.
George II, demands oath of allegiance from Arcadians, 165.
Fort George, 161.
Gibraltar, ceded to England, 68.
Grand Pré, 175-176.
H
Halifax, founded, 94-96, 147; importance to British, 167; center of
activities, 212.
Harvard College, organized (1638), 42.
Hayes, Fort, 109.
Hendry, Anthony, 136 et seq., 161, 240.
Henry, Alexander, 139-140.
Hill, "Jack", General, 57, 61.
Howe, Captain, 171.
Howe, Lord, 196.
Hudson Bay, ceded to England, 65; English traders on, 108-110; France
attacks, 109-110.
Hudson's Bay Company, 108, 135.
Huron Indians, allies of French, 11; Jesuit Mission to, 100.
I
Iberville, Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d', 37-38, 103, 109-110.
Indians, pit English against French, 6-7; trade with, 7-8; Frontenac
seeks alliance with, 14; French meet at Ste. Marie de Saut, 101-102;
French gain support of, 161; Montcalm's relations with, 183-184; allies
of French, 187-188, 192; Amherst's discipline of, 230-231; see also
names of tribes.
Iroquois Indians, five tribes, 8; hostile to French, 8-15; village
destroyed by Frontenac, 22; become British subjects, 45; raid on
Lachine, 48; menace Niagara, 105; British claim lands of, 151; nervous
for their safety, 159-160.
Isle aux Noix, 223.
J
James II, 33-34.
Jenkins, Captain, 71.
Johnson, Sir William, 159, 161-162.
Johnstone, aid-de-camp to Montcalm, 220, 221.
Joliet, Louis, 102.
Jumonville, Coulon de, 154, 155.
K
King George's War (1743-48), Canseau captured, 79; Annapolis attacked,
79-80; expedition against Louisbourg, 80-87; plan to end French power in
America, 88; Louisbourg under the English, 88-90; France fails to retake
Louisbourg, 90-93; treaty of peace (1748), 93; see also Austrian
Succession, War of.
L
Lachine, Massacre at, 9, 48.
La Corne, St. Luc de, 135, 136, 141.
La Galissonière, Marquis de, acting Governor of Canada, 146.
La Jemeraye, 118.
La Jonquière, Marquis de, Governor of Canada, 91, 92.
La Jonquière, Fort, 134, 135, 138.
La Mothe Cadillac, Antoine de, 105-106.
La Pause, officer under Montcalm, 191.
La Porte, 204.
La Potherie, describes council with Indians, 11-12.
La Reine, Fort, 120, 121, 124, 125, 133, 134.
La Salle, Rene-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de, 103.
Laval University, 42.
La Vérendrye, P. G. de Varennes, Sieur de, 110 et seq., 240.
La Vérendrye brothers, 125-133.
Lawrence, Charles, Major, 173.
Lawrence, Fort, 170, 171, 172.
Le Bœuf, Fort, 152, 153.
Le Loutre, Abbe, 167 et seq.
Le Mercier, officer under Montcalm, 191.
Le Moyne, Charles, 37.
Lévis, Chevalier de, next Montcalm in command, 181; suggested as
Montcalm's successor by Governor, 186; at Montreal, 223, 226; attempts
to retake Quebec, 227-228; defeat at Montreal, 228-229; becomes Marshal
of France, 233.
Lewis and Clark expedition, 143.
Loudoun, Earl of, Commander-in-Chief of British, 193, 229.
Louis XIV, attitude toward Canada, 24-25.
Louisbourg, fortress built, 72-74; plan for capture of, 80-81;
conditions in, 81-82; siege of, 82-85; English in, 88-90; treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle restores to France, 93; expedition against, 193; fall of
fortress, 195; capture of, 213; rendezvous of British fleet, 214.
Louisiana Purchase, 143.
M
Mackenzie, Alexander, 142-143.
Mackenzie River, 97, 142.
Malartic, officer under Montcalm, 191.
Mandan Indians, 122, 123-124, 125-126.
Marquette, Jacques, Jesuit priest, 102-103.
Mars, The (ship), 90.
Mascarene, Paul, 80.
Massachusetts, sends expeditions against French, 17-21; religion, 40;
offers bounty for Indian scalps, 48; war with Indians (1721), 77.
Maurepas, Fort, at Biloxi, 103; on Lake Winnipeg, 107, 118, 133.
Mayflower, The (ship), 25.
Michilimackinac, 100.
Micmac Indians, 167, 171.
Mississippi River, 97-98, 99, 102-103.
Monckton, Robert, Colonel, 174.
Monro, George, Colonel, 193.
Montcalm, Louis Joseph, Marquis de, life in France, 178-179; sent to
Canada, 179; voyage, 180-181; staff, 181-182; impressions of Canada,
182-183; attitude toward Indians, 183-184; Vaudreuil jealous of,
185-186; activities in Canada, 189-190; captures Oswego, 190; describes
his officers, 191; at Ticonderoga, 192; captures Fort William Henry,
192-193; rebuked by French court, 194; defeats British at Lake George,
195-197; plans organization of army, 198-199; fame in France, 200;
obtains little aid from France, 202; receives rank of
Lieutenant-General, 202; a hero, 204-205; personal characteristics,
205-206; discovers corruption of Canadian officials, 207-208; plans to
meet British attack, 209; at siege of Quebec, 218-222.
Montigny, officer under Montcalm, 191.
Montreal, war party sets out from, 14; Lévis at, 223, 226; French defeat
at, 228-229.
Murray, James, General, 225-228, 229.
N
Nantes, Edict of, 32.
Nepigon, 113.
New France, see Canada.
New Netherland captured by English (1664), 12.
New Orleans, 104, 148, 231.
New York, plan of French to capture, 12-14; sends force against French
(1691), 21-22.
Newcastle, Duke of, 211.
Newfoundland, ceded to England, 65.
Niagara, Fort, 105, 148, 223.
Nicholson, Francis, Colonel, 51, 52, 53, 63.
Niverville, Chevalier de, 133-134.
Nova Scotia, see Acadia.
Noyon, 112.
O
Oates, Titus, 31.
Ochagach, Indian guide, 113, 114.
Ohio River, importance to French, 106, 147-148; Céloron on, 149-150;
contest for possession, 150-163.
Oswego, French plans to capture, 189; captured, 190; Amherst gathers
army at, 228.
P
Paddon, Captain, of the Edgar, 59.
Panama, Isthmus of, Scottish attempt to found colony on, 49.
Paskoya, Fort, 134, 136.
Pelican, The (ship), 110.
Pennsylvania, policy of non-resistance, 35-36; Quakers in, 40; suffers
from French and Indians, 152.
Pepperrell, William, 82-83; 89.
Phips, Sir William, Governor of Mass., 15-16; raises Spanish wreck, 16;
leads expedition against Acadia, 17; voyages to Quebec, 18-21; not
fitted to office, 38; superstitions of, 41.
Pierre, S. D., tablet of the La Vérendryes found at, 128-129.
Pisiquid (Windsor), 175.
Pitt, William, British Secretary of State for War, 195, 211 et seq.
"Pitts-Bourgh," 163.
Pompadour, Madame de, 156, 178, 199-200.
Port Royal, captured by Phips, 17; typical French community, 54;
captured by English, 55-56; renamed Annapolis, 55.
Porto Bello, 70.
Prince Edward Island, 65.
Q
Quebec, captured by English, 2; war party sets out from, 14; Phips takes
fleet to, 18-21; child of Versailles, 24; expedition against (1711),
57-63; life in, 207; situation of, 215-216; siege of, 217-222; French
defeat at, 222, 227-228.
R
Rainy Lake, 115, 118.
Rale, Sebastien, Jesuit priest, 76, 77.
Ramezay, Chevalier de, 223.
Red River, 119.
Rigaud, brother of Governor Vaudreuil, 191.
Rouville, Hertel de, 46-47.
Ryswick, Peace of (1697), 22-23, 44.
S
St. Charles, Fort, 115, 116, 118.
St. Esprit, 101.
St. Jean, Ile, 65.
St. Lawrence River, French pioneers on, 97-98; location, 99; cities on,
100; British fleet sails up, 215.
St. Louis, Château, 5, 19, 38.
Saint Luc, officer under Montcalm, 191.
Saint-Lusson, S. F. Daumont, Sieur de, 101.
Saint-Pierre, Legardeur de, 131-132, 133-135, 150-151, 153, 162.
St. Pierre, Fort, 115.
Saint-Sauveur, Grasset de, 203.
Sainte Foy, Battle of, 228.
Ste. Marie du Saut, 100, 101.
Saskatchewan River, 97-98.
Saunders, Sir Charles, Admiral, 214.
Schenectady, massacre at, 15.
Schuyler, Peter, 21-22, 52.
Seven Years' War, 151, 211.
Shirley, William, Governor of Mass., 80, 81, 88, 173.
Sioux Indians, 107, 119.
South Sea Bubble, 70-71.
Spain, cessions to England, 68, 69-70; relations with England, 71;
England hostile to, 92, 93; claims lands on Gulf of Mexico, 99; New
Orleans ceded to, 231.
Subercase, D. A. de, Governor of Port Royal, 54, 55.
T
Three Rivers, war party sets out from, 14.
Ticonderoga, French army at, 161; Montcalm at, 192, 195, 196; defeat of
English at, 196-197; occupied by British, 223.
Tollendal, Lally, 234.
Troyes, Chevalier de, 109.
U
Utrecht, Treaty of (1713), 64-66, 110.
V
Vaudreuil, Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de, Governor of Canada, values
Indians as allies, 183; as Governor, 184-185; jealous of Montcalm,
185-186, 203; in hands of corrupt circle, 203-204; retreats to Montreal,
223, 226; signs capitulation, 229; trial of, 233.
Vaughan, William, 80.
Verrazano, sails along Atlantic coast (1524), 26.
Vetch, Samuel, plans conquest of Canada, 49-52, adjutant-general, 53;
made Governor of Annapolis, 55; commands colonial forces, 58; familiar
with St. Lawrence, 61; in debtor's prison, 62.
Vigilant, The (ship), 85.
Virginia, settled (1607), 2; Church of England in, 40.
W
Walker, Sir Hovenden, Admiral, 57 et seq.
Walpole, Sir Robert, English Prime Minister, 68-69.
Warren, Peter, Commodore, 81, 83, 88, 89, 92.
Washington, George, 151, 152 et seq., 160, 163, 230.
William of Orange, France denounces, 2, 20; recognized by France, 23; as
King of England, 34, 44; death (1702), 45.
William Henry, Fort, 161, 192-193.
Williams, Rev. John, 47-48.
Winnipeg, Lake, 117, 119.
Winslow, Colonel, 175, 176.
Witchcraft in New England, 41.
Wolfe, James, General, at Louisbourg, 163, 195; compared with Montcalm,
206; next Amherst in command, 213; at Louisbourg, 213; at Quebec,
216-222.
Woods, Lake of the, 112, 115.
The Chronicles of America Series
1. The Red Man's Continent
by Ellsworth Huntington
2. The Spanish Conquerors
by Irving Berdine Richman
3. Elizabethan Sea-Dogs
by William Charles Henry Wood
4. The Crusaders of New France
by William Bennett Munro
5. Pioneers of the Old South
by Mary Johnson
6. The Fathers of New England
by Charles McLean Andrews
7. Dutch and English on the Hudson
by Maud Wilder Goodwin
8. The Quaker Colonies
by Sydney George Fisher
9. Colonial Folkways
by Charles McLean Andrews
10. The Conquest of New France
by George McKinnon Wrong
11. The Eve of the Revolution
by Carl Lotus Becker
12. Washington and His Comrades in Arms
by George McKinnon Wrong
13. The Fathers of the Constitution
by Max Farrand
14. Washington and His Colleagues
by Henry Jones Ford
15. Jefferson and his Colleagues
by Allen Johnson
16. John Marshall and the Constitution
by Edward Samuel Corwin
17. The Fight for a Free Sea
by Ralph Delahaye Paine
18. Pioneers of the Old Southwest
by Constance Lindsay Skinner
19. The Old Northwest
by Frederic Austin Ogg
20. The Reign of Andrew Jackson
by Frederic Austin Ogg
21. The Paths of Inland Commerce
by Archer Butler Hulbert
22. Adventurers of Oregon
by Constance Lindsay Skinner
23. The Spanish Borderlands
by Herbert Eugene Bolton
24. Texas and the Mexican War
by Nathaniel Wright Stephenson
25. The Forty-Niners
by Stewart Edward White
26. The Passing of the Frontier
by Emerson Hough
27. The Cotton Kingdom
by William E. Dodd
28. The Anti-Slavery Crusade
by Jesse Macy
29. Abraham Lincoln and the Union
by Nathaniel Wright Stephenson
30. The Day of the Confederacy
by Nathaniel Wright Stephenson
31. Captains of the Civil War
by William Charles Henry Wood
32. The Sequel of Appomattox
by Walter Lynwood Fleming
33. The American Spirit in Education
by Edwin E. Slosson
34. The American Spirit in Literature
by Bliss Perry
35. Our Foreigners
by Samuel Peter Orth
36. The Old Merchant Marine
by Ralph Delahaye Paine
37. The Age of Invention
by Holland Thompson
38. The Railroad Builders
by John Moody
39. The Age of Big Business
by Burton Jesse Hendrick
40. The Armies of Labor
by Samuel Peter Orth
41. The Masters of Capital
by John Moody
42. The New South
by Holland Thompson
43. The Boss and the Machine
by Samuel Peter Orth
44. The Cleveland Era
by Henry Jones Ford
45. The Agrarian Crusade
by Solon Justus Buck
46. The Path of Empire
by Carl Russell Fish
47. Theodore Roosevelt and His Times
by Harold Howland
48. Woodrow Wilson and the World War
by Charles Seymour
49. The Canadian Dominion
by Oscar D. Skelton
50. The Hispanic Nations of the New World
by William R. Shepherd
Transcriber's Notes
Introduction:
The Chronicles of America Series has two similar editions of each volume
in the series. One version is the Abraham Lincoln edition of the series,
a premium version which includes full-page pictures. A textbook edition
was also produced, which does not contain the pictures and captions
associated with the pictures, but is otherwise the same book. This book
was produced to match the textbook edition of the book.
We have retained the original punctuation and spelling in the book, but
there are a few exceptions. Obvious errors were corrected--and all of
these changes can be found in the Detailed Notes Section of these notes.
The Detailed Notes Section also includes issues that have come up during
transcription. One common issue is that words are sometimes split into
two lines for spacing purposes in the original text. These words are
hyphenated in the physical book, but there is a question sometimes as to
whether the hyphen should be retained in transcription. The reasons
behind some of these decisions are itemized.
Detailed Notes Section:
Chapter II
• Page 33:
Death-bed is hyphenated and split between two lines for spacing. A few
lines above the word, deathbed appears in the middle of a sentence
without the hyphen, thus answering how to transcribe the word.
• Page 36:
Non-resistance is hyphenated and split between two lines for spacing.
The word was also hyphenated and split between two lines in its only
other usage, in the index of page 245. We retained the hyphen in both
instances.
• Page 38:
Strong-holds is hyphenated and split between two lines for spacing. Six
other occurrences of the word in the book are not hyphened, so this word
was also transcribed without the hyphen.
Chapter III
• Page 53:
Land-locked is hyphenated and split between two lines for spacing. There
is no other use of the word in the document. We transcribed the word
without the hyphen: landlocked.
• Page 55:
Half-starved is hyphenated and split between two lines for spacing.
There is no other use of the word in the document. Half-past was used
three times with a hyphen. We transcribed the word with the hyphen:
half-starved.
• Page 59:
Flag-ship is hyphenated and split between two lines for spacing. On page
61, the word is spelled flag-ship, so we transcribed the word on page 59
with the hyphen: flag-ship.
Chapter IV
• Page 89-Page 90:
Sea-shore is hyphenated and split between two lines for spacing. On
pages 120 and 153, seashore is spelled in the middle of the line without
the hyphen, so we transcribed the word without the hyphen.
Chapter V
• Page 140:
In the clause "The chief said it was far away," it is difficult to tell
that there is a space between far and away. There are no other
occurrences of faraway in the book, but three other occurrences of far
away--on page 15, page 51, and page 161. Therefore, the phrase was
transcribed as two words.
Chapter VIII
• Page 178:
In the sentence "The soldiers of France were preparing to fight on many
battle-fields," battlefields is hyphenated and split between two lines.
On page 221, the text uses battlefields, without the hyphen. Therefore,
we transcribed the word on page 178 sans hyphen.
Chapter IX
• Page 206-Page 207:
In Chapter 9, the word encyclopædia was spelled with the a-e lig, but in
two other references (Page 178 and Page 240), the o-e lig was used. We
retained the convention used by the book: Diderot's Encyclopœdia and The
Encyclopœdia Britannica for the title of the work, but encyclopædia for
the generic term.
Chapter X
• Page 214:
On page 214, war-ships is hyphenated and split between two lines for
spacing in the clause "There were forty-nine warships, carrying ..." On
Page 13 and Page 213, warships occurs in the middle of a line without
the hyphen. On Page 61 and Page 218, war-ships occurs in the middle of
the line with a hyphen. We flipped a coin and transcribed the word
without the hyphen.
Index
• Page 244:
Changed spelling of "Nepigon" in Index to Nipigon, to match the text.
Moved entry to page 245 so that the index entries are in alphabetical
order.