[1] Abu Muslim had been the chief means of transferring the
Caliphate from the Omeyyads to the family of Abbas.
[2] "Father of a villain": a play upon the name Abu Muslim.
[3] _Al Mahdi_, _i.e._, "the rightly directed."
[4] The Caliph's full name was Abu Jafar Al Mansur.
[5] _I.e._, descendant of Ali.
[6] An underground dungeon.
[7] Five.
[8] Praise of God.
[9] Koran, ii., 238.
[10] A famous musician of the period.
[11] _I.e._, "There is nothing new under the sun."
[12] In the Mosque of Omar.
[13] A miracle ascribed to Mohammed.
[14] This was the technical sign for freeing a slave.
[15] In this Assembly Al Harith arrives in the town of San'a in Yemen,
in great poverty; and, while seeking relief, encounters a crowd, which
is gathered about a preacher. The discourse is a stern warning against
self-indulgence, and an exhortation to repentance. Harith, wishing
to learn who the preacher is, follows him to a cave, and there finds
him enjoying himself with good food, and even with wine. He begins
to rebuke him, but the preacher, throwing off disguise, extemporizes
some lines, confessing that his preaching was only a device to obtain
charity. Harith asks the attendant the name of the preacher, and is
told that he is Abu Zayd, of Seruj.
[16] In this Assembly the author displays more than his usual
rhetorical subtlety, and while there is none more admired by those
whose taste has been formed on Eastern models, there is none which
appears more extravagant to the European student. Alliterations,
verbal caprices, far-fetched expressions, and the conceits which were
usual among poets of the age, so abound, that we may almost imagine
the author to be desirous of satirizing what he professes to imitate.
The subject is as follows: Harith in his passion for the society of
literary persons makes his way to Holwan, a town in Irak, on the
mountains east of Bagdad, and a resort of the higher classes from the
heat of the capital. Here he meets with Abu Zayd, who is pursuing his
calling of improvisatore and mendicant under various disguises, and
enjoys for a long time his company and literary guidance. Abu Zayd,
however, disappears, and Harith returns to his native place, Basra,
where after a time he again meets Abu Zayd in the public library,
among a crowd of dilettanti who are discussing the beauties of the
popular poets. The admiration of one is especially excited by a line
in which the teeth of a lady are compared to pearls and hailstones,
and the white petals of a flower; and Abu Zayd instantly produces a
number of comparisons in the same style, which give him a high place
in the esteem of those present, when they are assured that he is
really the author of them. They reward him, and the Assembly concludes
by his reciting to Harith, who had recognized him, some lines on the
fickleness of fortune.
[17] Harith is in a circle of scholars, when a lame man makes his
appearance, and after saluting them describes his former affluence
and present penury in a very poetical and figurative style. Harith,
perceiving his genius, and pitying his distress, offers him a denar
on condition that he will improvise some lines in praise of it. This
the lame man at once does, and on Harith offering him another denar
on condition of his blaming it, he recites another composition in
dispraise of money. Harith then recognizes in the lame man Abu Zayd,
and rebukes him for his imposture. Abu Zayd defends himself in some new
verses. The opening address of Abu Zayd is in imitation of a style said
to be common among the Arabs of the desert.
[18] Harith is journeying in a caravan to Damietta, and during one of
the night-halts he hears two men conversing on duty toward a neighbor.
The younger being asked for his opinion, replies in a spirit of
charity and generosity, upon which the other rebukes him, and sets
forth the fitting conduct of a man to his neighbor in accordance with
the teachings of selfishness and worldly wisdom. These addresses,
especially that of the elder man, are expressed in a highly rhetorical
diction, which captivates the literary Harith, and the next morning
he looks for them, and discovers them to be Abu Zayd and his son. He
invites them to his own quarters, introduces them to his friends, and
procures for them valuable presents. Abu Zayd then asks permission
to go to a neighboring village and take a bath, promising to return
speedily. They consent, and he goes off with his son. After waiting
the greater part of the day they find that he has deceived them, and
prepare to continue their journey; Harith, when making ready his camel,
finds some lines written on the saddle, which allude to a precept in
the Koran in favor of separating after a meal. The plays on words in
this Assembly are exceedingly ingenious and elaborate, and the opening
description has much poetical beauty.
[19] The following Assembly, remarkable for the poetical beauty of its
language, and the delicacy of its versification, describes an adventure
in which Abu Zayd obtains a sum of money from a company of generous
scholars. Harith is engaged with some friends in a night conversation
at Kufa, one of the chief seats of Arabian learning, when a stranger
knocks at the door, and addresses the inmates in verses describing
his want and weariness, his excellent disposition, and his gratitude
for the favors he may receive. Struck with his poetical powers the
company admit him, and give him a supper. The lamp being brought,
Harith discovers that the guest is Abu Zayd, and informs the company
of his merits. They then ask him for a story, and he relates that he
had that evening met with a long-lost son, whom he would be glad to
take charge of, did not his poverty hinder him. As he had taken care
to mention in the narrative that he was of the royal race of Ghassan,
the company are moved by his misfortunes, and at once raise a large sum
of money to enable him to support his boy. Abu Zayd delights them with
his conversation, but as soon as daylight appears he calls away Harith,
to assist him in cashing the checks or orders which he had received.
The simple Harith, who had been delighted with the verses which the
father had put into the mouth of his son, desires to see so eloquent a
youth; upon which Abu Zayd laughs heartily, tells his friend, in some
exquisite verses, that such a desire is the following of a mirage, that
he, Abu Zayd, had neither wife nor son, and that the story was only a
trick to obtain money. He then departs, leaving Harith mortified at the
adventure.
[20] This Assembly is the first of a remarkable series of compositions
which, though they may be set down by Europeans as merely examples
of laborious trifling, are highly esteemed by the Orientals as works
of ingenuity and scholarship, and have found in every succeeding age
numerous imitators. The incident is that Harith, being once on a visit
to Meraghah, in Azerbijan, the northwest province of the present
Persian monarchy, found a number of literary men lamenting the decline
of learning, and depreciating all contemporary authors in comparison
with their predecessors. Sitting in a humble place in the outskirts of
the company was an elderly man, who showed by his glances and scornful
gestures that he did not value highly the opinions of these critics.
When they paused in their fault-finding he took up the conversation,
and declared that one person, at least, of the present age was capable
of rivaling any who had gone before in scholarship and the arts of
composition. He is asked who is this genius, and answers that it is
himself. The company are skeptical, but as the stranger persists in
asserting his great ability, they determine to test him, and one of
them proposes to him a most difficult task. He tells the company that
he is a professional writer attached to the Governor, who, though a man
of generosity, had declared that he would help him no further, till he
had composed an address in which the alternate words should consist
entirely of pointed and unpointed letters; that is, that the first,
third, fifth words, and so forth, should consist of letters without
a point, while the second, fourth, sixth, and so forth, should have
only pointed letters. He adds that he had been striving a whole year
to produce such a composition, or to find some one who could produce
it. The stranger, on hearing this, accepts the task with alacrity, and
instantly dictates an address in praise of the Governor, fulfilling the
conditions that had been imposed.
[21] This Assembly is well known to students. Harith is at Barka'id.
The feast at the end of Ramadan is approaching, and being desirous of
joining in this solemnity he goes to the public prayer in his best
attire. When the congregation has formed itself into rows, after the
manner of Moslem worship, he espies an old man with his eyes closed,
accompanied by an old woman. The man takes out of a bag a number of
papers curiously written or illuminated in variously colored inks; and
the old woman, going through the rows, presents them to those whom
she guesses from their appearance to be charitably disposed. One of
them falls to the lot of Harith, who finds on it some strange verses
full of alliterations and plays on words. He keeps it, and when the
old woman, being disappointed in her appeal, returns to reclaim it, he
offers her a dirhem on the condition that she will tell him the name of
the author. She informs him that the old man had composed the verses,
and that he was a native of Seruj. Harith then guesses that he must be
Abu Zayd, and is much concerned to find that he has become blind. When
the prayer is over he goes up to him and discovers that he is indeed
Abu Zayd, whereupon he presents him with a garment and invites him to
his house. No sooner are they in private than Abu Zayd opens his eyes,
which are perfectly sound, and Harith discovers that his pretended
blindness was a trick to excite pity.
[22] This Assembly, like several others that will be met with in the
course of the work, is so essentially Arabic as almost to forbid
intelligible translation. Two suitors, an old man and a youth, appear
before the Kadi of Ma'arrah. The former narrates to the Kadi that he
had possessed a beautiful and attractive, yet obedient and active,
slave girl; that the youth had borrowed her, treated her roughly, and
then returned her in an infirm state. The youth admits the charge,
but declares that he had offered sufficient compensation; and then
complains that the old man detained as a pledge a male slave of his,
who was of good origin and qualities, and highly serviceable to his
master. The Kadi perceives from the style of these addresses that the
language is enigmatical, and bids the litigants speak plainly. The
youth then improvises some verses to explain that by a slave girl
the old man meant a needle which the youth had borrowed, and the
eye of which he had broken by accident as he was drawing the thread
through it; the male slave which the old man detained was a pencil, or
_stylus_, for the application of _kohl_, the dark pigment with which
Orientals anoint the eyelid to heighten by contrast the luster of the
eye. The old man in his turn admits the truth of this, but pleads in
mournful verse his poverty and his inability to bear the loss even
of a needle. The chief feature in the composition is the enigmatical
description of the needle and pencil, which depends on the double
meanings of the words and phrases contained in it. Some of these are so
subtle that even the native commentators are undecided about them; and
we may assume that the _double-entente_ of passages like this was among
the lessons which Hariri is said to have taught to his pupils.
[23] The meaning of this passage, when applied to a _kohl_ pencil, is
as follows: I had a _kohl_ pencil, the same at both ends, tracing its
origin to the cutler, free from rust and defect; often brought near
the apple of the eye; it conferred beauty and produced admiration; it
fed the pupil of the eye with ointment, but went not near the tongue;
when it was blackened with the ointment it was liberal of it, when it
marked the eye it beautified it; when it was supplied with ointment it
supplied the eye with it, and when more was required it added more.
It remained not always in its case, and seldom anointed except two
eyes at a time; it gave plentifully of the _kohl_ that was on it, and
was lifted up to the eye for the purpose; it was constantly attached
to the _kohl_-case, although the two might be of a different material
(that is, the pencil might be of gold and the case of glass or silver);
though it was used for adorning, it was not of a soft substance but of
metal.
[24] This is one of the two Assemblies of Hariri which have been
translated and annotated by De Sacy in his Chrestomathy. Harith in his
wanderings comes to Alexandria, and, in accordance with his custom,
makes the acquaintance of the Kadi, who, as appears in the sequel, is
a good-natured and benevolent man. One evening, in winter, the Kadi is
distributing the public alms, when an ill-looking old man is brought
in by a young and handsome woman who accuses him of having married her
on false pretenses. She declares that he had deceived her father by
giving out that he had an excellent trade as a pearl-merchant; that he
had been incautiously accepted, and that now, when it was too late,
she had discovered that he had no business at all. Moreover, he had
taken all her dress and furniture, piece by piece, and sold it to keep
himself in idleness, leaving her and her child to starve. The Kadi is
indignant, and threatens to send the husband to prison, unless he can
clear himself of the charge. The defendant is in no way disconcerted,
but at once improvises some elegant verses, in which he admits his
poverty, and that he had sold his wife's effects, but denies that he
had deceived her in calling himself a "pearl-stringer," for the pearls
which he meant were the pearls of thought, by stringing which into
elegant poems he had been accustomed to make a large income from the
liberality of the rich and noble. Now, however, times were changed;
war and trouble had come upon the earth, and a race of niggards had
succeeded the generous patrons of the old days. The Kadi accepts the
excuse, bids the woman submit herself to her husband, and gives them
some of the alms-money; on receiving which the old man triumphantly
carries off his wife.
[25] In this Assembly Abu Zayd is found making gain by his usual
questionable arts. At Rahbah, on the Euphrates, Harith beholds a crowd
following an elderly man who is dragging along a handsome youth. The
former accuses the boy of having killed his son, and it is agreed to
go before the Governor. The purpose of the elder, who proves in the
end to be Abu Zayd, is simply to induce the Governor to buy off so
handsome a youth from punishment, with the view of taking him into his
own household. When they are in court the old man makes his charge,
and as he has no witnesses the boy is allowed to clear himself by an
oath. But the old man dictates an oath in which he enumerates all the
beauties of the boy, and invokes destruction on them if truth be not
spoken. The boy refuses to swear by such an oath; and the Governor,
who desires to take him out of the power of the old man, then makes
up a purse to satisfy the prosecutor. A hundred denars are promised;
but as the whole can not be collected at once the old man says that he
will not give up the boy, but will watch him all night. The Governor
consents, and soon the two are left together in the courtyard. Harith
then accosts Abu Zayd, and asks who is the boy. Abu Zayd replies, that
he is his son, and his assistant in his tricks; and that they intend to
make their escape early in the morning, and leave the Governor to his
disappointment.
[26] This and the following Assembly are justly reckoned among the
masterpieces of the author. To pass suddenly from the most solemn
subjects to pleasantry, to place in the mouth of a clever impostor the
most serious warnings that can be addressed to mankind, may be morally
objectionable; but in the Moslem world, where religion is mixed up
with all the concerns of life, and pious discourse and phrases abound,
it excites little repugnance. The design of the author in the present
composition was to produce an elaborate sermon in rhymed prose and in
verse, and his genius takes a higher flight than usual. The incident on
which the Assembly is founded is simple. Harith, in a fit of religious
zeal, betakes himself to the public burial-ground of the city of Saweh,
for the purpose of contemplation. He finds a funeral in progress, and
when it is over, an old man, with his face muffled in a cloak, takes
his stand on a hillock, and pours forth a discourse on the certainty of
death and judgment; rebuking his hearers for their worldly selfishness,
and warning them that wealth and power are of little avail against
the general leveler. He then rises into poetry and declaims a piece
which is one of the noblest productions of Arabic literature. In lofty
morality, in religious fervor, in beauty of language, in power and
grace of meter, this magnificent hymn is unsurpassed.
[27] Harith, being in affluence, crosses from Irak to Damascus to
enjoy the luxury of that city. After he has had his fill of pleasure
he bethinks himself of returning homeward, and joins a caravan that is
about to cross the Semaweh, the desert which lies between Syria and
the Euphrates. The travelers are ready to depart, but are delayed by
their inability to find an escort, which they think indispensable for
their protection against robbers. While they are consulting they are
watched by a dervish, who at last announces to them that he has the
means of keeping them safe from harm; and, on their inquiring further,
tells them that his safeguard is a magic form of words revealed to him
in a dream. They are at first incredulous, but at length consent to
take him with them, and to use his incantation. He then repeats it,
and it proves to be a prayer full of assonances and rhymes, beseeching
the general protection of the Almighty. They all learn it by heart and
then set forth, repeating it twice a day on their journey. As they are
not molested on the road they judge the charm to have been successful;
and when they come in sight of 'Anah, the first town on the other side
of the desert, they reward him richly with what he likes best, gold
and jewels. When he has taken all he can get, he makes his escape, and
the next thing they hear of him is that he is drinking in the taverns
of 'Anah, a city celebrated for its wine. Harith, shocked at this
enormity in a pious dervish, determines to seek him out, and soon finds
him reveling amid wine and music in the guest-chamber of a wine-shop.
He taxes him with his wickedness, and then the old man improvises a
Bacchanalian chant, which is one of the finest pieces in Hariri's work.
In form this poem resembles that which is introduced into the last
Assembly, though the meter is more light and lively, as Hariri, no
doubt, desired to display his genius by the contrast. This Assembly is
one of the most admired productions of the author, who has lavished on
it all the resources of his marvelous rhetoric.
[28] Maisuna was a daughter of the tribe of Calab; a tribe, according
to Abulfeda, remarkable both for the purity of dialect spoken in it,
and for the number of poets it had produced. She was married, whilst
very young, to the Caliph Mowiah. But this exalted situation by no
means suited the disposition of Maisuna, and amidst all the pomp and
splendor of Damascus, she languished for the simple pleasures of her
native desert.
[29] Yazid succeeded Mowiah in the Caliphate A.H. 60; and in most
respects showed himself to be of a very different disposition from
his predecessor. He was naturally cruel, avaricious, and debauched;
but instead of concealing his vices from the eyes of his subjects,
he seemed to make a parade of those actions which he knew no good
Mussulman could look upon without horror; he drank wine in public, he
caressed his dogs, and was waited upon by his eunuchs in sight of the
whole court.
[30] Shafay, the founder of one of the four orthodox sects into which
the Mohammedans are divided, was a disciple of Malek Ben Ans, and
master to Ahmed Ebn Hanbal; each of whom, like himself, founded a sect
which is still denominated from the name of its author. The fourth sect
is that of Abou Hanifah.
[31] The author of this poem was a hermit of Syria, equally celebrated
for his talents and piety. He was son to a prince of Khorassan, and
born about the ninety-seventh year of the Hegira. This poem was
addressed to the Caliph upon his undertaking a pilgrimage to Mecca.
[32] Isaac Al Mouseli is considered by the Orientals as the most
celebrated musician that ever flourished in the world. He was born in
Persia, but having resided almost entirely at Mousel, he is generally
supposed to have been a native of that place.
[33] The family of Barmec was one of the most illustrious in the East.
They were descended from the ancient kings of Persia, and possessed
immense property in various countries; they derived still more
consequence from the favor which they enjoyed at the court of Bagdad,
where, for many years, they filled the highest offices of the State
with universal approbation.
[34] Taher Ben Hosien was ambidexter and one-eyed and, strange to say,
the most celebrated general of his time.
[35] Abu Tammam is noted as the first collector of the works of earlier
poets. He gathered these in a valuable anthology. He was born near
Damascus A.D. 807, and educated in Egypt; but the principal part of his
life was spent at Bagdad, under the patronage of the Abasside Caliphs.
[36] Abu Al Salam was a poet more remarkable for abilities than
morality. We may form an idea of the nature of his compositions from
the nickname he acquired amongst his contemporaries of "Cock of the
Evil Genii."
[37] The three following songs were written by Mashdud, Rakeek, and
Rais, three of the most celebrated improvisators in Bagdad, at an
entertainment given by Abou Isy.
[38] Ebn Alrumi is reckoned by the Arabian writers as one of the most
excellent of all their poets. He was by birth a Syrian, and passed the
greatest part of his time at Emessa.
[39] Ali Ibn Ahmed distinguished himself in prose as well as poetry,
and a historical work of considerable reputation, of which he was the
author, is still extant. But he principally excelled in satire, and
so fond was he of indulging this dangerous talent that no one escaped
his lash; if he could only bring out a sarcasm, it was matter of
indifference to him whether an enemy or a brother smarted under its
severity. He died at Bagdad A.D. 898.
[40] The thought contained in these lines appears so natural and so
obvious, that one wonders it did not occur to all who have attempted to
write upon a birthday or a death.
[41] Radhi Billah, son to Moctader, was the twentieth Caliph of the
house of Abbas, and the last of these princes who possessed any
substantial power.
[42] History can show few princes so amiable and few so unfortunate
as Shems Almaali Cabus. He is described as possessed of almost every
virtue and every accomplishment: his piety, justice, generosity, and
humanity are universally celebrated; nor was he less conspicuous
for intellectual powers; his genius was at once penetrating, solid,
and brilliant, and he distinguished himself equally as an orator, a
philosopher, and a poet.
[43] The wolf.
[44] The occasion of the following composition is thus related by
Abulfeda. Carawash, Sultan of Mousel, being one wintry evening engaged
in a party of pleasure along with Barkaidy, Ebn Fahdi, Abou Jaber, and
the improvisatore poet, Ebn Alramacram, resolved to divert himself
at the expense of his companions. He therefore ordered the poet to
give a specimen of his talents, which at the same time should convey
a satire upon the three courtiers, and a compliment to himself. Ebn
Alramacram took his subject from the stormy appearance of the night,
and immediately produced these verses.
[45] Ali ben Mohammed was a native of that part of Arabia called Hejaz;
and was celebrated not only as a poet, but as a politician.
[46] Tabataba deduced his pedigree from Ali Ben Abu Taleb, and Fatima,
the daughter of Mohammed. He was born at Ispahan, but passed the
principal part of his life in Egypt, where he was appointed chief of
the sheriffs, _i.e._, the descendants of the Prophet, a dignity held
in the highest veneration by every Mussulman. He died in the year of
the Hegira 418, with the reputation of being one of the most excellent
poets of his time.
[47] Ben Yusef for many years acted as vizier to Abu Nasser, Sultan
of Diarbeker. His political talents are much praised, and he is
particularly celebrated for the address he displayed while upon an
embassy to the Greek Emperor at Constantinople. Yusef's poetry must be
looked upon merely as a _jeu d'esprit_ suggested by the beauties of the
vale of Bozaa, as he passed through it.
[48] The life of this prince was checkered with various adventures;
he was perpetually engaged in contests either with the neighboring
sovereigns, or the princes of his own family. After many struggles
he was obliged to submit to his brother, Abu Camel, who immediately
ordered him to be seized, and conveyed to a place of security.
[49] Abu Alola is esteemed as one of the most excellent of the
Arabian poets. He was born blind, but this did not deter him from the
pursuit of literature. Abu Alola died at Maara in the year 1049, aged
eighty-six.
[50] Written to Abu Alchair Selamu, an Egyptian physician. The author
was a physician of Antioch.
[51] Abu Ismael was a native of Ispahan. He devoted himself to the
service of the Seljuk Sultans of Persia, and enjoyed the confidence
of Malec Shah, and his son and grandson, Mohammed and Massoud, by the
last of whom he was raised to the dignity of vizier. Massoud, however,
was not long in a condition to afford Abu Ismael any protection, for,
being attacked by his brother Mahmoud, he was defeated, and driven
from Mousel, and upon the fall of his master the vizier was seized and
thrown into prison, and at length sentenced to be put to death.
[52] It is unfortunate that both the philosopher and his opponents
should have advanced the same argument in defense of themselves—namely,
their own wisdom. The Arab philosophers were, amongst their kind,
something like the _libertins_ of the seventeenth century in France.
"Often," says Al Ghazali, "I have seen one read the Koran, assist at
religious ceremonies and prayers, and praise religion aloud. When I
asked him, 'If you consider prophetism as false, why do you pray!' he
responded, 'It is an exercise of the body, a custom of the country,
a method of having your life saved.' Yet he did not cease from
drinking wine, and delivering himself to all sorts of abominations and
impieties."
[53] Seville was one of those small sovereignties into which Spain had
been divided after the extinction of the house of Ommiah. It did not
long retain its independence, and the only prince who ever presided
over it as a separate kingdom seems to have been Mohammed ben Abad, the
author of these verses. For thirty-three years he reigned over Seville
and the neighboring districts with considerable reputation, but being
attacked by Joseph, son to the Emperor of Morocco, at the head of a
numerous army of Africans, was defeated, taken prisoner, and thrown
into a dungeon, where he died in the year A.D. 1087.
[54] This author was by birth an African; but having passed over to
Spain, he was much patronized by Mohammed, Sultan of Seville. After the
fall of his master, Ben Abad returned to Africa, and died at Tangier,
A.D. 1087.
[55] A wicked angel who is permitted to tempt mankind by teaching them
magic; see the legend respecting him in the Koran.
[56] The poet here alludes to the punishments denounced in the Koran
against those who worship a plurality of Gods: "Their couch shall be in
hell, and over them shall be coverings of fire."
[57] Written to a lady upon her refusal of a present of melons, and her
rejection of the addresses of an admirer.
[58] Gazul is the name of one of the Moorish heroes who figure in
the "_Historia de las Guerras Civiles de Granada_." The ballad is
one of very many in which the dexterity of the Moorish cavaliers in
the bullfight is described. The reader will observe that the shape,
activity, and resolution of the unhappy animal destined to furnish the
amusement of the spectators are enlarged upon, just as the qualities of
a modern race-horse might be among ourselves: nor is the bull without
his name. The day of the Baptist is a festival among the Mussulmans, as
well as among Christians.
[59] The reader can not need to be reminded of the fatal effects which
were produced by the feuds subsisting between the two great families,
or rather races, of the Zegris and the Abencerrages of Granada. This
ballad is also from the "_Guerras Civiles_."
[60] Shahar is the name of the coast-line between Oman and Aden.
[61] The word here used is the old and correct one, _Dar-es-sena_ ("the
house of technics"), from which word the present _Tersane_, _i.e._,
"Arsenal," has originated.
[62] Ashik is now a ruin opposite Samira.
[63] _Mowsim Zemani_, literally, "the time of the season." From the
Arabic word _Mowsim_ the English "monsoon" has originated.
[64] A small vessel, worked by sails and oars, for the carrying of
freights, also called _Sacoléve_.
[65] Lahsa and Katif, islands in the Persian Gulf, which, together
with Ormuz, Bahrein, and Kalhata, were famous in the Middle Ages, as
staple-towns for the commerce between Persia and India.
[66] _Filandra_, a small ensign hoisted on the top of the mainmast.
[67] Khorfakan, a place on the east coast of Oman, between Ras Dibba
and Fedzna.
[68] Sohar, also on the east coast of Oman.
[69] This is the same as "Calatu," mentioned by Marco Polo, see
"Travels of Marco Polo," by Col. H. Yule, Vol. II, p. 381.
[70] Kuya appears to be really the name of the town Goa, the
headquarters of the Portuguese in India.
[71] According to Bianchi, "_voile d'artimon_." The following passage
is owing partly to the defective text, partly to the strange naval
technical expressions, unclear and unintelligible.
[72] _Shaika_, a Kirghiz boat.
[73] Compare the Hungarian _d'arda_, _i.e._, "spear," "lance."
[74] Of this expression only the word _longa_ (_lenga_) can be
identified with the Italian.
[75] A harbor-town in Persia, in the vicinity of Beluchistan.
[76] _Rectius_: Kidj-Mekran (Marco Polo's Kesmacoran), as Yule rightly
observes, situated on the coast of that part of Kerman, then belonging
to India. See "Travels of Marco Polo."
[77] On our modern maps given as Shabar, which is the name of the bay
as well as of the place.
[78] Guador, on the west coast of Beluchistan, belonging to the Indian
Empire.
[79] Zofar, or Dhofar, to the east of Shar. In the Middle Ages there
was a city of that name, as mentioned by Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta.
[80] Literally, "Elephant's flood."
[81] Here follow some nautical expressions which I do not understand.
[82] Perhaps meant for Manglaus, Menglaur, in the District of Sahranpur.
[83] Somenat Somnath, a town in the south of the peninsula of
Kathiawar, also the name of the District.
[84] More correctly Diu, an island belonging to the Portuguese in West
India, separated from Kathiawar by a narrow stroke of land, with about
13,000 inhabitants, and politically under Goa. (See "Imperial Gazetteer
of India," IV., p. 305.)
[85] Daman, a Portuguese possession in the bay of Cambay, with about
50,000 inhabitants; was pillaged first in the year 1531, and retaken in
1553.
[86] Compare the Persian _badzed_, "whirlwind," "tempest"; more
correctly "gust of wind," from _Bad_, "wind," and _Zeden_, "to strike."
[87] In the text _Djonk_, "a large ship," used principally in China.
First mentioned by the Monk Odorico di Pordenone in 1331.
[88] Compare "dingy," "dinghy." Literally, the name of a ship or large
boat, on the coast of Mekran; the word is also known in English, but it
originates from Beluchistan. Correctly speaking, it means a pilot-ship.
[89] _Kotwal, kutwal_, "commander of a fortress," also "policeman". Of
Turkish origin, from the word kut, "to guard," "to watch"; would be
more correctly, _kuteol_, meaning "guardian."
[90] _Cheter Kaldirmak_ means, literally, "to raise the sunshade"
(umbrella), this being the symbol of sovereignty in India.
[91] More correctly Broatsh, a place northwest of Surat, in the
province of Gujarat, on the right bank of the Nerbudda. This place has
from time immemorial belonged to the Moslem rulers of Ahmedabad, and
has twice been pillaged by the Portuguese (in 1536 and 1546).
[92] In the text, _Provador_, meaning "Admiral."
[93] Ahmedabad, the chief town of the Province of that name, 310 miles
north of Bombay.
[94] More correctly Balotra, a town in Jodpur (Radjhputana).
[95] Champanir, a mountain fortress in Gujarat, in the Province of
Pendj-Mahal, 250 miles northeast of Bombay.
[96] Compare Tuba-tree, with the Sidra-trees of the Mohammedan paradise.
[97] _Zokum_, a tree which, according to the Koran, grows only in hell.
Its fruit resembles the plantain and serves as food for the condemned.
[98] At present there is only a place of that name known in Oudh, but
not in Gujarat.
[99] _Bir Katar deve_, "a team of camels." _Katar_, "team," means "ten
camels."
[100] Very characteristic is the piece of poetry here introduced. It is
probably a Turkish sea-song of that time. It says:
"We roam the waters far and wide,
And bring confusion upon our enemies;
Revenge and hatred is our motto,
For we are Khairreddin's troops."
(Khairreddin Pasha was Suleiman's renowned Admiral, known in Europe as
Barbarossa.)
[101] In the text _Bami_ may possibly be a slip of the pen and intended
for "Brahmin."
[102] _Banians_, "Indian merchants," more especially from the Province
of Gujarat, who from time immemorial have traded with the harbor-towns
of Arabia.
[103] _Rajput_, a warlike race, probably descended from the ural-Altaic
race.
[104] This can not be the town of that name in Bengal, as this lies
more to the south and could not be reached from Ahmedabad in five days.
[105] Radhanpur, the capital of the district of that name in the
Presidency of Bombay.
[106] More correctly Parkar or Nagar-Parkar, the name of a district and
a place in the Presidency of Bombay.
[107] _Muhre_, "a stone," which, so says the legend, is found in the
head of the serpent and the dragon, and possesses miraculous power.
Many Dervishes carry one of these stones in their girdle to trade upon
the superstition of the ignorant people.
[108] As a town, Wanga is unknown to me, unless it be intended for
Wanna, in the district of Cathiawar in the Presidency of Bombay.
[109] More correctly Junaghar, the name of a Province and town in
Cathiawar, Presidency of Bombay.
[110] The Indus.
[111] Tatta (Thats, or Nagar Thats), in the District of Karachi.
[112] _Nakara_, "a band of music," was formerly considered in Central
Asia as a sign of sovereignty.
[113] _Serpay vermek_, "to distribute festive apparel," is a great mark
of distinction in Central Asia, but as the expression is unknown in
Turkey the author has had to circumscribe it.
[114] "He gave us the name of: a mystic army,"
[115] Literally, "there should be no dragonstone, _i.e._, sorcery, in
your guns."
[116] Argun and Tarkhan are two Turkish tribes in Central Asia, direct
descendants of the Transoxanian warriors, which came with Baber to
India.
[117] Now Nasirabad, the name of several places in Sind.
[118] Perhaps meant for Sehivan in Naushar on the Indus.
[119] Patri, now a station on the railway-line to Bombay, Baroda, and
Central India; also the name of a small State belonging to Kathiawar.
[120] Our author, according to the spirit of the age, was not only
a brave warrior and sailor, but also a poet, using the East-Turkish
Dialect (Djagatai). His muse has no special features, and with regard
to his choice of words they betray a strong tendency toward the Osmanli
dialect. It is nevertheless interesting to note in how short a time he
mastered this dialect and that, more than 100 years after Baber, the
Djagatai tongue maintained itself as the court-and-book-language in
India. In our translation we necessarily omit these poetic effusions as
irrelevant.
[121] Literally, "wandering."
[122] In the text _Kheime_ we _shamiane_, the latter being more a kind
of large sunshade.
[123] As there are several places called Sultanpoor and Mav, the
stations here mentioned are difficult to identify on the map.
[124] Utch, a small place on the left bank of the Pendtjend, a
tributary of the Indus.
[125] On modern maps of India it is marked as Gharra, by which name the
Sutlej is also known.
[126] On the way from Utch to Multan there is a river called Trimba.
But I have not anywhere come upon a river called Machvara.
[127] Sambal, a place in the District of Muradabad, in the northeast of
India.
[128] Also called Firuzpoor, in Punjab.
[129] _I.e._, Khan of the Khans, like the Mirimiran of the Persians,
and the Beglerbeghi of the Turks.
[130] Correctly, _Kurur_, that is, 10,000,000 rupees, equivalent to
about $5,000,000.
[131] _Birshegal_, probably a Hindustani word.
[132] In the text _Kish_, _i.e._, "winter," also "bad weather," "rainy
season." Compare _Kish Kiamet_, _i.e._, "very foul weather."
[133] Opinions differ as to the exact nature of the _Tughra_ (signature
of Turkish rulers: more correctly, _tora_, meaning "decree"). Some say
that it is merely a flourish, others hold that it is the impression of
the hand. In Central Asia, Turkish monarchs used to dip their hand in
blood, hence the expression _al-tamga_, "red seal." The descendants of
Baber first introduced into India the use of the yellow dye, saffron.
[134] Mir Ali Shir, the greatest poet of the Turks in Central Asia, was
born, according to Khondemir, in the year 844 (1440) and died in H. 906
(1500). He wrote under the name of _Newai_. His compositions, which are
unquestionably superior to any other East Turkish productions, enjoy to
this day great popularity amongst the Turks of the interior of Asia.
[135] _Afetabe_, "water-basin," and _Afetabedji_, "he who holds the
water-basin"; a high court dignity in Central Asia, and later on also
among the Moguls in India. The former Khans of Khokand had received the
title of Afetabedji from the Sultan of Turkey.
[136] Our author means by Siwas the old seat of the Osmans, but in
India and in Central Asia, _Rum_ is generally understood to stand for
the West, and more particularly for the Ottoman Empire.
[137] As the Turks never conquered Vienna, this is a mere boast on the
part of the Turkish Admiral. Possibly, in the Far East the news of
the conquest of Vienna may have found credence, for the campaigns of
Suleiman against Vienna fall about this time.
[138] Khatib is the name of the Mollah who on Fridays says the
_Khutbe_, or Friday prayer, in which the names of the Caliph and of the
local ruler are inserted.
[139] Mir Khosru Dehlevi (_i.e._, from Delhi), one of the greatest
poets of India, born 1253, died 1324. He wrote in Persian, which
language had been introduced into India with the spread of Islam.
[140] Elphinstone in the "History of India" relates his death as
follows: "He had been walking on the terrace of his library, and was
descending the stairs (which in such situations are narrow steps on
the outside of the building and only guarded by an ornamental parapet
about a foot high). Hearing the call to prayers from the minarets, he
stopped, as is usual on such occasions, repeated the creed, and sat
down on the steps till the crier had done. He then endeavored to rise,
supporting himself on his staff; the staff slipped on the polished
marble of the steps, and the King fell headlong over the parapet. He
was stunned at the time and, although he soon recovered his senses,
the injury he had received was beyond cure. On the fourth day after
his accident he expired in the forty-ninth year of his age and the
twenty-sixth of his reign, including the 16 years of his banishment
from his capital."
[141] This is meant for Bairam Khan, the faithful follower of Humayun,
and, later on, the Atabek (tutor) of Ekber.
[142] On modern English maps of India, these names are given as Sonpat,
Panipat, Karnal, Tanesar, and Samani, in the same order on the way from
Delhi to Lahore.
[143] Very striking is the want of reserve wherewith this lie is spread
to serve a political purpose.
[144] Matchivara, a town in Punjab in Ludiana.
[145] Perhaps Bachrewan, a town in the province of Oudh.
[146] A stronghold built by Selim Shah on the boundary mountains of
Sewalik, against the Sakkars.
[147] Elphinstone, "History of India," calls this man Pir Mohammed, the
teacher or tutor of Ekber, while our author calls him Khodja Bairam
Khan.
[148] Ebul Maali, a Said from Kashgar, who had entered the service of
Humayun in 1551. He had rebelled against Ekber and had taken possession
of Kabul, where he was afterward defeated and imprisoned in Lahore. He
died in 1563.
[149] Literally, "Believers in the Book"; these, therefore, have none
of the four Sacred Books, viz., Koran, Tevrat, Gospels, and Psalms.
Consequently they are heathen.
[150] The burning of widows (Suttee) has in recent times been put a
stop to by the English, and it is very characteristic that the Moguls
had, long before that time, endeavored to check the custom.
[151] Also called _khutaz_ and _kudaz_, a kind of horned cattle. Their
tail is used as an ornament to hang round the horse's neck.
[152] It appears from this passage that the Emperor's guests only
received the gifts allotted to them when on their return journey; had,
in fact, to collect them from the authorities of the districts through
which they passed.
[153] Khoshab, the name of a town in Punjab, situated on the river
Djehlam, and not the name of the river itself, as our author states.
[154] Nilab, "blue water," can not possibly be the river Kabul.
[155] Bakhtar-Zemin, or Bakhtarland, _i.e._, Bactria.
[156] Generally translated by "rhinoceros." Baber (1356) makes mention
of this animal under the name of _gherek_, and he describes it as being
about the size of a buffalo.
[157] Perhaps more correctly Lughman, east of Kabul.
[158] Hezare is the name of the mountainous region, northeast of
Peshawur; also the name of an Iranian Mongol tribe, dwelling between
Herat and Kabul.
[159] _Luli_ is, in Central Asia, the name given to the Gipsies,
to which tribe the dancing and singing damsels and the prostitutes
generally belonged. This used also to be the case in Turkey; compare
_Tchenghi_, "musician," "dancing girl," and _Tchingane_, "Gipsy."
[160] Kara-bag (black garden), marked on the maps merely as Bag
(garden). Tcliarikar lies north of Kabul, and Pervane lies in the
same direction as the pass of that name at the foot of the Hindu
Kush. Our author did not take the route now generally used, across
the Dendanshiken (tooth-breaker), but the other, which lies more to
the east, and which was the one followed by Baber. This is one of the
Pervan passes, which, starting from the place of that same name, leads
to Badjgah, and from there into the valley of Enderab.
[161] Suleiman Shah was the son of Khan Mirza the Wise, a cousin
of Baber's. He had usurped the throne of Bedakhshan in 1508, and
was afterward established by Humayun as ruler over the whole of the
Upper-Oxus territory.
[162] From the political condition already referred to, it is quite
evident why our author chose this very difficult, roundabout route past
Badakhshan, the same route which was taken by Sheibani Khan, Baber's
adversary, during his campaign against Khosru Shah. Part of ancient
Khatlan, also called Khotl, is now included in the Province of Kulab.
[163] Feizabad is now the capital of Badakhshan. It was Suleiman Shah,
who made Kishm his residence.
[164] Kalai Zafar (castle of victory) is situated on the Kotchke, a
tributary of the Oxus.
[165] Now Semti, on the left side of the Pendje.
[166] Now Kulab (1,810 feet above the sea), situated on a tributary of
the Oxus.
[167] Neither Charsui nor Pul-i-Senghin are to be found on any modern
map, but as the author identifies Hissar with Chaganian, _i.e._, places
the former in the dominion of the latter province, we may take it that
the Kafirnihan river was then the boundary-line of Transoxania.
[168] Hissar, situated at the confluence of the Ilek and the
Khanka-Derya, formerly known as Hissar-i-Shadman.
[169] Probably an ancient title, which, in its present form, is not
mentioned in any lexicons or vocabularies.
[170] Senghirdek is mentioned on the modern maps of Central Asia,
between Sehri-Sebz and Sari-Asiya (Yellow Mill), as the name of a
stream and of a place, but not as the name of a mountain. _Sengghirdek_
means "a stone tent."
[171] This must be Mount Karatepe (Black Hill), (5181 feet).
[172] Borak Khan, a son of Mahmud Khan, who was defeated by Sheibani.
He was a native of the steppes in the northeast of Transoxania, and,
favored by the bad government of Burhan Khan, he and his horsemen,
consisting of Kirghises and Kalmuks, invaded the land, and took
possession of the capital, Samarkand. He died in the year 1555. The
incidents connected with his reign, which our author mentions, are the
more valuable to us as we find no mention of them anywhere else.
[173] He died in the year 1551.
[174] Called by abbreviation Burhan Khan, an uncle of Obeidullah. He
reigned only a short time, and died in 1556.
[175] Aga of the Osmans was the title of a commander of the Janissaries
which Sultan Suleiman had sent from Constantinople to Samarkand to
support the authority of the Eastern Turks. Our author, therefore, came
here unexpectedly in contact with his countrymen.
[176] Khodja Ahmed Jesewi, the patron saint of Turkestan, whose grave
in Aulia Ata is to this day eagerly visited by pilgrims.
[177] When in Samarkand I could learn nothing about the cloak and the
_Naalin_ (wooden shoes) of the Prophet, but the copy of the Koran here
referred to was extant in the Mausoleum of Timur. This latter, however,
although a very old manuscript in Kufi letters, has not descended from
Caliph Ali, nor yet from Caliph Osman; it has been brought to Turkestan
by the descendants of Khodja Ahrar, and from Samarkand the Russians
took it to St. Petersburg.
[178] Consequently they belonged at that time still to the Shaman
faith, an interesting fact and easily explained when we consider that,
at the time of Timur, both Kirghizes and Turkomans are described as
heathen.
[179] Its name is Zerefshan, or Kohik.
[180] Ghidjduvan, the most northerly town of the Khanate on the Wafkend
river.
[181] May stand for colored coat, and merely indicates the
distinguishing color of the regiment.
[182] Literally, "Red feet," meaning people that go barefoot, hence the
expressions, "vagabond," and "vagrant."
[183] Tchardjui (more correctly Tchihar-djui, meaning "four brooks,"
after four tributaries of the Oxus which are there) was at that time
Persian territory, and came only to be reckoned to Bokhara after the
seizure of Abdullah Khan.
[184] Name of the Shiite saint in Meshed.
[185] Consequently the left side of the river.
[186] Curious it seems that 300 years ago lions were so plentiful in
those parts, while in modern times there has been no sign of them in
the steppes of Turkestan.
[187] In the text called Hezarus, by mistake.
[188] Dost Mohammed Khan, or simply Dost, who was then the ruler of
Kharezm, and his brother Esh-Sultan, were both sons of Budjuga Khan.
Their rival to the throne was Hadjim Khan, who conquered both in turn
and put them to death.
[189] The tribe of the Manghit, now belonging to the settled population
of Khiwa, seems at that time still to have led a nomadic life,
inhabiting the steppe between the Aral and the Caspian Sea, now the
home of the Kirghizes.
[190] The Nomads of Central Asia feared the Russians, for three years
before that time (1554) Czar Ivan Wassilyewich had conquered Astrakhan.
[191] By Deshti-Kipchak, _i.e._, the steppe of the Kipchaks, Oriental
writers understand the steppe situated between Kharezm and the Volga
territory. Ibn Batuta likewise accomplished the distance between
Kharezm (now Urghendj) and Saraidjik in 30 days.
[192] Saraidjik, small palace on the bank of the Ural, about one hour's
distance from the Caspian Sea. Jenkinson in 1558 found the place still
intact, but Pallas in the past century found only extensive ruins to
indicate the place.
[193] Ancient Theodosia in the Crimea.
[194] At that time the King of Persia was Thamasp Shah, and it so
happened that he was on friendly terms with Sultan Suleiman, for about
this time a gorgeous ambassy was sent by the ruler of the Ottoman
Empire to Kazvin, as recorded by Rauzat es Sefa in the Seventh Book.
[195] _Istikhare_, "horoscope," is consulted by opening the Koran at
hazard and the passage at which it opens gives the answer. Another
way is by the throwing of dice, or by seizing the rosary (_Tesbih_)
at hazard, when the even or uneven number of the beads decides the
question.
[196] This passage is of special geographical interest. As our author
came from Kharezm, on the left shore of the Oxus, and crossed the
river on his way to Khorassan, he refers here undoubtedly to the old
course of this river, mentioned by Abulgazi. As the Oxus, in its
course down-stream from Tchardjui, reveals several old river-beds,
the direction here indicated by Sidi Ali must be one of the two
courses which ran either from Hezaresp or from Khanka in southwesterly
direction into the Caspian Sea. Most likely it was the latter branch,
as it was at that time the more important of the two, and, according to
Abulgazi, culture had reached a considerable height along its shores.
[197] This is Derum, frequently mentioned by Abulgazi, as situated on
the old road from Kharezm to Khorassan.
[198] Bagwai, on the same road, but is now no longer marked on the map.
[199] Nesa, frequently mentioned in the Middle Ages, situated in the
north of Persia. Its ruins have been visited by many modern travelers
in the neighborhood of Ashkabad.
[200] Abiwerd is more correct; it is the modern Kahka, a station on the
Trans-Caspian line.
[201] Curiously enough, the same custom still prevails in Persia,
for when I visited this land three hundred years later, disguised as
an Osmanli, I had much to suffer from the indiscretion of the Shiite
fanatics. By night and by day, on the march and at rest, it was always
this same vexed question of the succession, which had to be discussed.
[202] _Murabba_, "quatrain," a poem consisting of four-line verses.
[203] Ashura days, the first ten days of the month Muharram, which,
especially in the Shiite part of Persia, were kept as holy days.
[204] _Boluk-Bashi_, a degree of rank amongst the Janissaries;
literally, "captain of a division."
[205] In the immediate vicinity of Teheran.
[206] _Kurdji-bashi_, "chief armor-bearer."
[207] This surely must mean a month and a half after entering
Persia, for the distance from Rei (Teheran) to Kazvin can easily be
accomplished in two or three days. Kazvin was at that time the capital
of Persia.
[208] _Divan Bey_, "first secretary."
[209] _Ishik Agasi_, "chief porter," a sort of master of ceremonies.
[210] Literally, "representative"; at the court of the Shah it is also
the title of the overseer over the culinary department.
[211] _Tumen_ means "ducat" in Persian, but as the word is here used in
the dative it would appear that something has been omitted.
[212] The Circassians were at that time not yet Mohammedans, for they
were converted later on by Ferrukh Pasha.
It appears from this passage that the Pilgrims' route from Central Asia
to Mecca led in those days past Astrakhan, _i.e._, by Kharezm and the
lower Volga, and from there across the Caucasus via Constantinople to
Arabia, about the same as in modern times, when pilgrims travel by the
Trans-Caspian line, via Batum Baku and Constantinople to Mecca.
[213] Lakh, about $500,000, a sum only used in India.
[214] Our author refers here to the Feudal system still in use in
Central Asia at the time that I was there, and he rightly criticizes
the limited power of the rulers, which is the necessary result of it.
In Persia the relation between the Khans and the Shah was based upon
this principle till quite within modern times. The Sultans of Turkey,
when at the zenith of their power, were absolute sovereigns of their
land. But at the commencement of the decline the same relationship was
established there, as we see from the conduct of the Derebeys.
[215] _Demtiz_ means "some one possessing strong, _i.e._, active or
powerful _dem_ or _nefes_ (breath)."
[216] _Huma_, name of a mythical bird, a kind of Phoenix, which, as
the legend says, lives in the air and never touches the earth, and
is held to be a good omen. Thus, for instance, any one who has been
overshadowed by this bird is destined to be a ruler. Hence the word
_Humayun_, _i.e._, "Imperial," an epithet applied to royal persons.
[217] _Tokuz Olum_, signifying "nine fords" (if _Olum_ be taken for the
Turkoman word of the same meaning), is not known as the name of a great
river, because, besides the Tigris, there are no large rivers in the
neighborhood of Bagdad.
[218] _Chashneghir_, _i.e._, "cup-bearer," probably the name of the
builder.
[219] Iznikmid, now Ismid, has better preserved the ancient Greek name.
[220] _Timar Defterdarlighi_, _i.e._, superintendent of the finances of
the army.
* * * * *