This group includes a few large families of small moths that are

linked by their imaginal and larval structure to the Tineidae (in

which they have often been included) and by their pupal structure to

the higher groups that have yet to be considered. The moths have

labial palps with slender pointed terminal segments, and narrow

pointed wings, but the neuration (except in the Elachistidae) is less

degenerate than in most Tineidae. The hairy covering of the head is

smooth, and the maxillary palps are usually vestigial. The egg is

flat, and the larval prolegs have complete circles of hooklets. The

pupa is obtect with only two free abdominal segments (fifth and sixth)

in both sexes and does not move out of the cocoon.

[Illustration: FIG. 26.--_Cerostoma asperella._ Europe.]

[Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Psecadia pusiella._]

Four families are included in this group. The _Plutellidae_ (fig. 26)

have the maxillary palps developed, in some genera, as slender

threadlike appendages directed straight forward. The larvae do not

usually mine in leaves, but feed openly, keeping to the underside for

protection (_Plutella_), or spinning by their united labour a mass of

web over the food-plant (_Hyponomeuta_). In the other three families

the maxillary palps are vestigial or obsolete. The _Elachistidae_ have

remarkably narrow, pointed wings and their larvae mine in leaves or

form portable cases and feed among seeds. In the _Oecophoridae_ (fig.

27) the sub-costal nervure of the hindwing is free and distinct

throughout its length, and the larvae usually feed among spun leaves

or seeds, or in decayed wood. The _Gelechiidae_ are a large family

with similar larval habits; the moths are distinguished by the sinuate

termen of the hindwing and the connexion of its sub-costal nervure

with the discoidal areolet.

_Pyralides._

[Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Pterophorus spilodactylus._ Europe.]

[Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Orneodes hexadactylus_ (24-plumed Moth).

Europe.]

This group includes a number of moths of delicate build with elongate

legs, the maxillae and their palps being usually well developed. The

forewings have two anal nervures, the hindwings three (fig. 30, h, i);

in the hindwing the sub-costal nervure bends towards and often

connects with the radial, and the frenulum is usually present. The egg

is flat. The larva has complete circles of hooklets on its five pairs

of prolegs, and the pupa (usually completely obtect) does not move at

all from its cocoon. This group includes the only Lepidoptera that

have aquatic larvae.

Of the families comprised in this division three deserve special

mention. The _Pterophoridae_ (plume moths, fig. 28) usually have the

wings deeply cleft--a single cleft in the forewing and two in the

hindwing. The hairy larvae feed openly on leaves, while the soft and

hairy pupa remains attached to its cocoon by the cremaster, although

it is incompletely obtect and has three or four free abdominal

segments. The _Orneodidae_ (multiplume moths) have all the wings

six-cleft. Our British species, _Orneodes hexadactyla_ (fig. 29), is

an exquisite little insect, whose larva feeds on the blossoms of

honeysuckle. The pupa is completely obtect, with only two free

abdominal segments. The _Pyralidae_ (figs. 13, 30), a large family

with numerous divisions, have entire wings, and their pupae are

obtect. The caterpillars feed in some kind of shelter, some spinning a

loose case among the leaves of their food-plant, others burrowing into

dry vegetable substances or eating the waxen cells of bees. Several

species of this group, such as the Mediterranean flour moth, _Ephestia

kühniella_ (fig. 30), become serious pests in storehouses and

granaries, their larvae devouring flour and similar food-stuffs.

[Illustration: After Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. 2 (U.S.

Dept. Agr.).

FIG. 30.--Flour Moth (_Ephestia kühniella_).

c, With wings spread.

f, At rest.

g, h, i, Marking and neuration of wings.

a, Larva.

b, Pupa.

d, Head and front body-segments of larva.

e, 2nd and 3rd abdominal segments.]

_Noctuides._

In this group may be included a number of families of moths with the

second median nervure of the forewing arising close to the third. This

feature of neuration characterizes also the Jugatae (see fig. 6),

Tineides, Plutellides and Pyralides. But the Noctuides differ from

these groups in having only two anal nervures in the hindwing. The

maxillary palps are absent or vestigial, and a frenulum is usually

present on the hindwing. The larva has usually ten prolegs, whose

hooklets are arranged only along the inner edge, while the immobile

pupa is always obtect with only two free abdominal segments (the fifth

and sixth). The Lasiocampidae and their allies have flat eggs, but in

the Noctuidae, Arctiidae and their allies the egg is upright.

[Illustration: FIG. 31.--_Claterna cydonia._ India.]

The _Lasiocampidae_, together with a few small families, differ from

the majority of this group in wanting a frenulum. The maxillae of the

Lasiocampidae are so reduced that no food is taken in the imaginal

state, and in correlation with this condition the feelers of the male

are strongly (those of the female more feebly) bipectinated. The moths

are stout, hairy insects, usually brown or yellow in the pattern of

their wings. The caterpillars are densely hairy and many species

hibernate in the larval stage. The pupa is enclosed in a hard, dense

cocoon, whence the name "eggars" is often applied to the family, which

has a wide distribution, but is absent from New Zealand. The

_Drepanulidae_ are an allied family, in which the frenulum is usually

present, while the hindmost pair of larval prolegs are absent, their

segment being prolonged into a pointed process which is raised up when

the caterpillar is at rest. The hook-tip moths represent this family

in the British fauna.

The _Lymantriidae_ resemble the Lasiocampidae in their hairy bodies

ana vestigial maxillae, but the frenulum is usually present on the

hindwing and the feelers are bipectinate only in the males. Some

females of this family--the vapourer moths (_Orgyia_ and allies, fig.

17), for example--are degenerate creatures with vestigial wings. The

larvae (fig. 15) are very hairy, and often carry dense tufts on some

of their segments; hence the name of "tussocks" frequently applied to

them. The pupae are also often hairy (fig. 16)--an exceptional

condition--and are protected by a cocoon of silk mixed with some of

the larval hairs, while the female sheds some hairs from her own

abdomen to cover the eggs. The family is widely distributed, its

headquarters being the eastern tropics. To that part of the world is

restricted the allied family of the _Hypsidae_, distinguished from the

"tussocks" by the slender upturned terminal segment of the labial

palps and by the development of the maxillae.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.--_Ophideres imperator._ Madagascar.]

[Illustration: FIG. 33.--_Cyligramma fluctuosa._ W. Africa.]

[Illustration: From Mally, _Bull._ 24, _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr._

FIG. 34.--e, f, _Heliothis armigera._ Europe, c, Larva; d, pupa in

cell. Natural size. a, b, Egg, highly magnified.]

The _Noctuidae_ are the largest and most dominant family of the

Lepidoptera, comprising some 10,000 known species. They are mostly

moths of dull coloration, flying at dusk or by night. The maxillae are

well developed, the hindwing has a frenulum, and its sub-costal

nervure touches the radial near the base. The larvae of the Noctuidae

(fig. 34, c) are rarely hairy and the pupa (fig. 34, d) usually rests

in an earthen cell, being often the wintering stage for the species;

sometimes the pupa is enclosed in a loose cocoon of silk and leaves.

In some Noctuidae (fig. 32) the hindwings are brightly coloured, but

these are concealed beneath the dull, inconspicuous forewings when the

insect rests (fig. 34, f). Nearly allied to the Noctuidae, but very

different in appearance, are the gaily-coloured _Agaristidae_, a

family of day-flying moths (figs. 35, 36), confined to the warmer

regions of the globe and distinguished by their thickened feelers,

those of the Noctuids being thread-like or slightly pectinate.

The _Arctiidae_ (tiger moths, footmen, &c.) are allied to the

Noctuidae, but their wing-neuration is more specialized, the

sub-costal nervure of the hindwing being confluent with the radial for

the basal part of its course. These moths (fig. 37) have gaily

coloured wings, and the caterpillars are often densely covered with

long smooth hairs. The pupae are enclosed in silken cocoons (fig. 38).

The highest specialization of structure in this group of the

Lepidoptera is reached by the _Syntomidae_, a family nearly allied to

the Arctiidae, but with the sub-costal nervure in the hindwing absent.

The Syntomidae have elongate narrow forewings and short hindwings,

usually dark in colour with clear spots and dashes destitute of scales

(fig. 40). The body, on the other hand, is often brilliantly adorned.

The family, abundant in the tropics of the Old World, has only two

European species.

[Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Rothia pales._ Madagascar.]

_Sphingides._

[Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Aegocera rectilinea._ Tropical Africa.]

[Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Haploa Lecontei._ N. America.]

[Illustration: After Lugger, Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. 2

(U.S. Dept. Agr.).

FIG. 38.--c, Tiger Moth (_Phragmatobia fuliginosa_, Linn.). Europe. a,

Caterpillar; b, cocoon with pupa. Slightly enlarged.]

This group includes a series of families which agree with the

Noctuides in most points, but are distinguished by the origin of the

second median nervure of the forewing close to the first, or from the

discocellular nervure midway between the first and third medians (see

fig. 5). These neurational characters may appear somewhat

insignificant, but such slight though constant distinctions in

structures of no adaptational value may be safely regarded as truly

significant of relationship. Several of the families in this group

have lost the frenulum. In larval and pupal characters the Sphingides

generally resemble the Noctuides, but in some families there is a

reduction in the number of the larval prolegs. The egg is spherical or

flat, upright only in the Notodontidae.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Halias prasinana._ Europe.]

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Euchromia formosa._ S. Africa.]

The Notodontidae are stout, hairy moths (figs. 5, 41, 42 a) with

maxillae and frenulum developed. In the larva the prolegs on the

hindmost segment are sometimes modified into pointed outgrowths which

are carried erect when the caterpillar moves about. From these

structures whip-like, coloured processes are protruded by the

caterpillar (fig. 42 b) of the puss moth (_Cerura_) when alarmed;

these processes are believed to help in "terrifying" the caterpillar's

enemies. Allied to the Notodontidae are the _Cymatophoridae_--a family

of moths agreeing with the Noctuidae in appearance and habits--and the

large and important family of the _Geometridae_. The moths (fig. 43)

of this family are distinguished from the Notodontidae by their

delicate build and elongate feet, the caterpillars (fig. 43, c) by the

absence or vestigial condition of the three anterior pairs of prolegs.

The two hinder pairs of prolegs are therefore alone functional and the

larva progresses by "looping," i.e. bending the body so as to bring

these prolegs close up to the thoracic legs, and then, taking a fresh

grip on the twig whereon it walks, stretching the body straight out

again. Many of these larvae have a striking resemblance both in form

and colour to the twigs of their food-plant. In some of the species

the female has the wings reduced to useless vestiges. The family is

world-wide in its range. The tropical _Uraniidae_ are large handsome

moths (figs. 44, 45), often with exquisite wing-patterns, allied to

the Geometridae, but distinguished by the absence of a frenulum in the

moth and the presence of the normal ten prolegs in the larva.

[Illustration: FIG. 41.--_Notodonta ziczac_ (Pebble Prominent Moth).

Europe.]

[Illustration: FIG. 42 A.--_Cerura borealis._ N. America.]

[Illustration: FIG. 42 B.--Larva of _Cerura_ (Puss Moth).]

[Illustration: After Grote, _Natural Science_ (J. M. Dent & Co.).

FIG. 43.--Geometrid Moth (_Amphidasys betularia_, Linn.). Europe. a,

Large grey type; b, dark variety; c, caterpillar in looping attitude.]

[Illustration: FIG. 44.--_Urania boisduvalii._ Cuba.]

[Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Urania boisduvalii_ at rest, showing under

surface of wings.]

The _Sphingidae_ (hawk moths) are insects often of large size (figs.

46a, 47), with spindle-shaped feelers, elongate and powerful forewings

and the maxillae very well developed. The hindwing carries a frenulum

and has its sub-costal nervure connected with the radial by a short

bar. The caterpillars have the full number of prolegs, and, in many

genera, carry a prominent dorsal horn on the eighth abdominal segment

(fig. 46b). The pupa lies in an earthen cell. On account of their

powerful flight the moths of this family have a wide range; certain

species--like _Acherontia atropos_ and _Protoparce

convolvuli_--migrate into the British Islands in numbers almost every

summer.

[Illustration: FIG. 46 A.--_Chlaenogramma jasminearum_ (Jessamine

Sphinx). N. America.]

[Illustration: FIG. 46 B.--Larva.]

[Illustration: FIG. 47.--_Smerinthus ocellatus_ (Eyed Hawk moth).

Europe.]

A group of families in which the first maxillae are vestigial, the

feelers bipectinate and the pupa enclosed in a dense silken cocoon,

have been regarded as the most highly specialized of all the moths,

though according to other views the whole series of the Lepidoptera

culminates in the Syntomidae. Of these cocoon-spinning families may be

specially mentioned the _Eupterotidae_, large brown or yellow moths

inhabiting tropical Asia and Africa, and represented in Europe only by

the "processionary moth" (_Cnethocampa processionea_). In this family

the frenulum is present, and the larvae are protected with tufts of

long hair. The _Bombycidae_ have no frenulum, and the larvae are

smooth, with some of the segments humped and the eighth abdominal

often carrying a dorsal spine. The family is tropical in its

distribution, but the common silkworm (_Bombyx mori_, fig. 48) has

become acclimatized in southern Europe and is the source of most of

the silk used in manufacture and art. Of commercial value also is the

silk spun by the great moths of the family _Saturniidae_, well

represented in warm countries and contributing a single species

(_Saturnia pavonia-minor_) to the British fauna. These moths (fig. 49)

have but a single anal nervure in the hindwing and only three radial

nervures in the forewing. The wing-patterns are handsome and striking;

usually an unsealed "eyespot" is conspicuous at the end of each

discoidal areolet. The caterpillars are protected by remarkable

spine-bearing tubercles (fig. 10, B).

[Illustration: After C.V. Riley, _Bull._ 14, _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept.

Agr._

FIG. 48.--_Bombyx mori._ China. a, Caterpillar (the common silkworm);

b, cocoon; c, male moth.]

[Illustration: FIG. 49.--_Epiphora bouhiniae._ W. Africa.]

_Grypocera._

[Illustration: FIG. 50.--_Tagiades sabadius._ S. Africa.]

This group stands at the base of the series of families that are

usually distinguished as "butterflies." The feelers are recurved at

the tip, and thickened just before the extremity. The forewing has the

full number of radial nervures, distinct and evenly spaced, and two

anal nervures; the frenulum is usually absent. The larvae (fig. 51)

have prolegs with complete circles of hooklets, and often feed in

concealed situations, while the pupa is protected by a light cocoon.

The affinities of this group are clearly not with the higher groups of

moths just described, but with some of the lower families. According

to Meyrick they are most closely related to the Pyralidae, but Hampson

and most other students would derive them (through the Castniidae)

from a primitive Tineoid stock allied to the Cossidae and Zygaenidae.

Three families are included in the section. The North American

_Megathymidae_ and the Australian _Euschemonidae_ have a frenulum and

are usually reckoned among the "moths." The _Hesperiidae_ in which the

frenulum is wanting form the large family of the skipper butterflies,

represented in our own fauna by several species. They are insects with

broad head--the feelers being widely separated--usually brown or grey

wings (fig. 50) and a peculiar jerky flight. The family has an

extensive range but is unknown in Greenland, New Zealand, and in many

oceanic islands.

_Rhopalocera._

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Chrysalis and Larva of _Nisoniadestages_

(dingy skipper). Europe.]

This group comprises the typical butterflies which are much more

highly specialized than the Grypocera, and may be readily

distinguished by the knobbed or clubbed feelers and by the absence of

a frenulum. Two or more of the radial nervures in the forewing arise

from a common stalk or are suppressed. The egg is "upright." The

larvae have hooklets only on the inner edges of the prolegs. The pupa

is very highly modified, only two free abdominal segments are ever

recognizable, and in some genera even these have become consolidated.

The cocoon is reduced to a pad of silk, to which the pupa is attached,

suspended by the cremastral hooks; in some families there is also a

silken girdle around the waist-region. In correlation with the exposed

condition of the pupa, we find the presence of a specially developed

"head-piece" or "nose-horn" to protect the head-region of the

contained imago. Their bright colours and conspicuous flight in the

sunshine has made the Rhopalocera the most admired of all insects by

the casual observer.

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Chrysophanus thoe._ N. America.]

A modification that has taken place in several families of butterflies

is the reduction of the first pair of legs. H. W. Bates arranged the

families in a series depending on this character, but neurational and

pupal features must be taken into account as well, and the sequence

followed here is modified from that proposed by A. R. Grote and J. W.

Tutt.

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Rathinda amor._ India.]

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Cheritra freja._ India.]

The _Lycaenidae_ are a large family including the small butterflies

(figs. 52, 53, 54) popularly known as blues, coppers and hairstreaks.

The forelegs in the female are normal, but in the male the tarsal

segments are shortened and the claws sometimes are absent. The

forewing has only three or four radial nervures (fig. 55), the last

two of which arise from a common stalk; the feelers are inserted close

together on the head. The larva is short and hairy, somewhat like a

woodlouse in shape, the broad sides concealing the legs and prolegs,

while the pupa, which is also hairy or bristly, is attached by the

cremaster to a silken pad and cinctured with a silken thread. The

upper surfaces of the wings of these insects are usually of a bright

metallic hue--blue or coppery--while beneath there are often numerous

dark centred "eye-spots." The family is widely distributed. Nearly

related are the _Lemoniidae_, a family abundantly represented in the

Neotropical Region, but scarce in the Old World and having only a

single European species (_Nemeobius lucinia_) which occurs also in

England. In the Lemoniidae (figs. 56, 57) the forelegs of the male are

reduced and useless for walking. The _Libytheidae_ may be recognized

by the elongate snout-like palps, the five-branched radial nervure of

the forewing, the cylindrical hairy larva, and the pupa attached only

by the cremaster.

[Illustration: After Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M. Dent &

Co.).

FIG. 55.--Neuration of Wings in _Lycaena_.

2, Sub-costal.

3, Radial.

4, Median.

5, Cubital.

7, 8, Anal nervures.]

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Eurybia carolina._ Brazil.]

[Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Calephelis caenius._ N. America.]

[Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Papilio machaon_ (Swallow-tail.). Europe.]

[Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Parnassius apollo_ (Apollo). European Alps.]

The _Papilionidae_ are large butterflies with ample wings, and all six

legs fully developed in both sexes. The forewing has five radial and

two anal nervures, the second of the latter being free from the first

and running to the dorsum of the wing, while the hindwing has but a

single anal, and is frequently prolonged into a "tail" at the third

median nervure (fig. 58). The larva is cylindrical, never hairy but

often tuberculate and provided with a dorsal retractile tentacle

(osmaterium) on the prothorax. The pupa, which has a double

"nose-horn," is attached by the cremaster and a waist-girdle to the

food-plant in the Papilioninae (fig. 58), but lies in a web on the

ground among the Parnasiinae (figs. 59, 60). The latter sub-family

includes the well-known Apollo butterflies of the Alps. The former is

represented in the British fauna by the East Anglian swallow-tail

(_Papilio machaon_), and is very abundant in the warmer regions of the

world, including some of the most magnificent and brilliant of

insects.

[Illustration: FIG. 60.--_Thais medesicaste._ S. France.]

[Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Colias hyale_ (Pale clouded Yellow

Butterfly). Europe.]

Agreeing with the Papilionidae in the six perfect legs of both sexes

and the cincture-support of the pupa we find the _Pieridae_--the

family of the white and yellow butterflies (figs. 61, 62)--represented

by ten species in the British fauna and very widely spread over the

earth's surface. In the _Pieridae_ there are two anal nervures in the

hindwing, while the second anal nervure in the forewing runs into the

first; the larva is cylindrical and hairy without an osmaterium. The

pupa has a single "nose-horn," and in the more highly organized genera

there is no mobility whatever between its abdominal segments. The

wintering pupae of the common cabbage butterflies (_Pieris brassicae_

and _P. rapae_) are common objects attached to walls and fences and

their colour harmonizes, to a great extent, with that of their

surroundings.

[Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Appias nero_ (male). Malaya.]

[Illustration: FIG. 63.--_Dione moneta._ Brazil.]

[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Larva of _Argynnis paphia_ (Silver-washed

Fritillary). Europe.]

[Illustration: FIG. 65.--_Vanessa io_ (Peacock) and its pupa.]

[Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Euploea leucostictos_ (male). Malaya.]

[Illustration: After A. R. Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M.

Dent & Co.).

FIG. 67.--Neuration of Wings in a Nymphaline Butterfly.

2, Sub-costal.

3, Radial.

4, Median.

5, Cubital.

6, 7, 8, Anal nervures.]

[Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Nymphalis jason._ W. Africa. Upper and under

surface.]

[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Larva and Pupa of _Apatura ilia_.]

[Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Callithea sapphira._ Brazil.]

The _Nymphalidae_ are by far the largest and most dominant family of

butterflies. In both sexes the forelegs are useless for walking (fig.

63), the tarsal segments being absent and the short shins clothed with

long hairs, whence the name of brush-footed butterflies is often

applied to the family. The neuration of the wings resembles that found

among the Pieridae, but in the Nymphalidae the pupa, which has a

double nose-horn (fig. 65)--as in _Papilio_--is suspended from the

cremaster only, no girdling thread being present, or it lies simply on

the ground. The egg is elongate and sub-conical in form and ornamented

with numerous ribs, while the larva is usually protected by numerous

spines (fig. 64) arising from the segmental tubercles. To this family

belong our common gaily-coloured butterflies--the tortoiseshells,

peacock (fig. 65), admirals, fritillaries and emperors. In most cases

the bright colouring is confined to the upper surface of the wings,

the under-side being mottled and often inconspicuous. Most members of

the group Vanessidi--the peacock and tortoiseshells (_Vanessa_) and

the red admiral (_Pyrameis_) for example--hibernate in the imaginal

state. This large family is divided into several sub-families whose

characters may be briefly given, as they are considered to be distinct

families by many entomologists. The _Danainae_ (or _Euploeinae_, fig.

66) have the anal nervures of the forewing arising from a common

stalk, the discoidal areolets in both wings closed, and the front feet

of the female thickened; their larvae are smooth with fleshy

processes. The danaine butterflies range over all the warmer parts of

the world, becoming most numerous in the eastern tropics, where

flourish the handsome purple _Euploeae_ whose males often have

"brands" on the wings; these insects are conspicuously marked and are

believed to be distasteful to birds and lizards. So are the South

American _Ithomiinae_, distinguished from the Danainae by the slender

feet of the females; the narrow winged, tawny _Acraeinae_, with simple

anal nervures, thick hairy palps and spiny larvae; and the

_Heliconiinae_ whose palps are compressed, scaly at the sides and

hairy in front. This last named sub-family is confined to the

Neotropical Region, while the Acraeinae are most numerous in the

Ethiopian. The _Nymphalinae_ include the British vanessids (fig. 65),

and a vast assemblage of exotic genera (figs. 68, 70), characterized

by the "open" discoidal areolets (fig. 67) owing to the absence of the

transverse "disco-cellular" nervules. In the _Morphinae_--including

some magnificent South American insects with deep or azure blue wings,

and a few rather dull-coloured Oriental genera--the areolets are

closed in the forewings and often in the hindwings. The larvae of the

Morphinae (fig. 71) are smooth or hairy with a curiously forked

tail-segment. A similar larva characterizes the South American

_Brassolinae_ or owl-butterflies--robust insects (figs. 72, 73) with

the areolets closed in both wings, which are adorned with large

"eye-spots" beneath. The _Satyrinae_, including our native browns and

the Alpine _Erebiae_, resemble the foregoing group in many respects of

structure, but the sub-costal nervure is greatly thickened at the base

(fig. 74). This sub-family is world-wide in its distribution. One

genus (_Oeneis_, fig. 75) is found in high northern latitudes, but

reappears in South America. The dark, spotted species of _Erebia_ are

familiar insects to travellers among the Alps; yet butterflies nearly

related to these Alpine insects occur in Patagonia, in South Africa

and in New Zealand. Such facts of distribution clearly show that

though the Nymphalidae have attained a high degree of specialization

among the Lepidoptera, some of their genera have a history which goes

back to a time when the distribution of land and water on the earth's

surface must have been very different from what it is to-day.

[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Larva of _Amathusia phidippus_.]

[Illustration: FIG. 72.--_Opsiphanes syme._ Brazil.]

[Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Brassolis astyra._ Brazil.]

[Illustration: After A. R. Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M.

Dent & Co.).

FIG. 74.--Neuration of wings in _Pararge_, a satyrid butterfly.

2, Sub-costal.

3, Radial.

4, Median.

5, Cubital.

7, 8, Anal nervures.]

[Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Oeneis jutta._ Arctic Regions.]

[Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Bia actorion._ Brazil.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The handsome Lepidoptera, with their interesting and

easily observed life-histories, have naturally attracted many

students, and the literature of the order is enormous. M. Malpighi's

treatise on the anatomy of the silkworm (_De Bombycibus_, London,

1669) and P. Lyonnet's memoir on the Goat-caterpillar, are among the

earliest and most famous of entomological writings. W. F. Kirby's

_Handbook to the Order Lepidoptera_ (5 vols., London, 1894-1897)

should be consulted for references to the older systematic writers

such as Linnaeus, J. C. Fabricius, J. Hübner, P. Cramer, E. Doubleday

and W. C. Hewitson. Kirby's _Catalogues_ are also invaluable for the

systematist. For the jaws of the Lepidoptera see F. Darwin, _Quart.

Journ. Mic. Sci._ xv. (1875); E. Burgess, _Amer. Nat._ xiv. (1880); A.

Walter, _Jen. Zeits. f. Naturw._ xviii. (1885); W. Breitenbach, Ib.

xv. (1882); V. L. Kellogg, _Amer. Nat._ xxix. (1895). The last-named

deals also with wing structure, which is further described by A.

Spuler, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ liii. (1892) and _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._

viii. (1895); A. R. Grote, _Mitt. aus dem Roemer-Museum_ (Hildesheim,

1896-1897); G. Enderlein, _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xvi. (1903), and many

others. For scales see A. G. Mayer, _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard_,

xxix. (1896). For internal anatomy W. H. Jackson, _Trans. Linn. Soc.

Zool._ (2) v. (1891), and W. Petersen, _Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St

Petersburg_ (8) ix. (1900). The early stages and transformations of

Lepidoptera are described by J. Gonin, _Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat._

xxx. (1894); E. B. Poulton, _Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool._ (2) v. (1891);

H. G. Dyar, _Ann. New York Acad. Sci._ viii. (1894); T. A. Chapman,

_Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1893), &c. For habits and life-relations

see A. Seitz, _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._ v., vii. (1890, 1894); A. Weismann,

_Studies in the Theory of Descent_ (London, 1882) and _Entomologist_,

xxix. (1896); F. Merrifield, _Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1890, 1893,

1905); M. Standfuss, _Handbuch der paläarktischen

Gross-schmetterlinge_ (Jena, 1896); R. Trimen, _Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond._

(1898); E. B. Poulton, _Colours of Animals_ (London, 1890); _Trans.

Entom. Soc._ (1892 and 1903), and _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ xxvi.

(1898); F. E. Beddard, _Animal Coloration_ (London, 1892). For

distribution see H. J. Elwes, _Proc. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1894); J. W.

Tutt, _Migration and Dispersal of Insects_ (London, 1902); Fossil

Lepidoptera, S. H. Scudder, _8th Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey_ (1889). Among

recent general works on the Lepidoptera, most of which contain

numerous references to the older literature, may be mentioned A. S.

Packard's unfinished work on the Bombycine Moths of N. America, _Mem.

Nat. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia_, vii. (1895), and _Mem. Acad. Sci.

Washington_, lx. (1905); D. Sharp's chapter in _Cambridge Nat. Hist._

vi. (London, 1898); G. F. Hampson, _Moths of India_ (4 vols., London,

1892-1896), and _Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenae_ (1895) and

onwards; S. H. Scudder, _Butterflies of New England_ (3 vols.,

Cambridge, Mass., 1888-1889); W. J. Holland, _Butterfly Book_ (New

York, 1899). Works on the British Lepidoptera are numerous, for

example, those of H. T. Stainton (1851), C. G. Barrett (1893-1907), E.

Meyrick (1895), and J. W. Tutt (1899 and onwards). For recent general

systematic works, the student should consult the catalogues mentioned

above and the _Zoological Record_. The writings of O. Staudinger, E.

Schatz, C. Oberthür, K. Jordan, C. Aurivillius and P. Mabille may be

specially mentioned. (G. H. C.)

LEPIDUS, the name of a Roman patrician family in the Aemilian gens.

1. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, one of the three ambassadors sent to Egypt

in 201 B.C. as guardians of the infant king Ptolemy V. He was consul in

187 and 175, censor 179, _pontifex maximus_ from 180 onwards, and was

six times chosen by the censors _princeps senatus_. He died in 152. He

distinguished himself in the war with Antiochus III. of Syria, and

against the Ligurians. He made the Via Aemilia from Ariminum to

Placentia, and led colonies to Mutina and Parma.

Livy xl. 42-46, _epit._ 48; Polybius xvi. 34.

2. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, surnamed PORCINA (probably from his personal

appearance), consul 137 B.C. Being sent to Spain to conduct the

Numantine war, he began against the will of the senate to attack the

Vaccaei. This enterprise was so unsuccessful that he was deprived of his

command in 136 and condemned to pay a fine. He was among the greatest of

the earlier Roman orators, and Cicero praises him for having introduced

the well-constructed sentence and even flow of language from Greek into

Roman oratory.

Cicero, _Brutus_, 25, 27, 86, 97; Vell. Pat. ii. 10; Appian, _Hisp._

80-83; Livy, _epit._ 56.

3. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, father of the triumvir. In 81 B.C. he was

praetor of Sicily, where he made himself detested by oppression and

extortion. In the civil wars he sided with Sulla and bought much of the

confiscated property of the Marian partisans. Afterwards he became

leader of the popular party, and with the help of Pompey was elected

consul for 78, in spite of the opposition of Sulla. When the dictator

died, Lepidus tried in vain to prevent the burial of his body in the

Campus Martius, and to alter the constitution established by him. His

colleague Lutatius Catulus found a tribune to place his veto on

Lepidus's proposals; and the quarrel between the two parties in the

state became so acute that the senate made the consuls swear not to take

up arms. Lepidus was then ordered by the senate to go to his province,

Transalpine Gaul; but he stopped in Etruria on his way from the city and

began to levy an army. He was declared a public enemy early in 77, and

forthwith marched against Rome. A battle took place in the Campus

Martius, Pompey and Catulus commanding the senatorial army, and Lepidus

was defeated. He sailed to Sardinia, in order to put himself into

connexion with Sertorius in Spain, but here also suffered a repulse, and

died shortly afterwards.

Plutarch, _Sulla_, 34, 38, _Pompey_, 15; Appian, _B.C._ i. 105, 107;

Livy, _epit._ 90; Florus iii. 23; Cicero, _Balbus_, 15.

4. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, the triumvir. He joined the party of Julius

Caesar in the civil wars, and was by the dictator thrice nominated

_magister equitum_ and raised to the consulship in 46 B.C. He was a man

of great wealth and influence, and it was probably more on this ground

than on account of his ability that Caesar raised him to such honours.

In the beginning of 44 B.C. he was sent to Gallia Narbonensis, but

before he had left the city with his army Caesar was murdered. Lepidus,

as commander of the only army near Rome, became a man of great

importance in the troubles which followed. Taking part with Marcus

Antonius (Mark Antony), he joined in the reconciliation which the latter

effected with the senatorial party, and afterwards sided with him when

open war broke out. Antony, after his defeat at Mutina, joined Lepidus

in Gaul, and in August 43 Octavian (afterwards the emperor Augustus),

who had forced the senate to make him consul, effected an arrangement

with Antony and Lepidus, and their triumvirate was organized at Bononia.

Antony and Octavian soon reduced Lepidus to an inferior position. His

province of Gaul and Spain was taken from him; and, though he was

included in the triumvirate when it was renewed in 37, his power was

only nominal. He made an effort in the following year to regain some

reality of power, conquered part of Sicily, and claimed the whole island

as his province, but Octavian found means to sap the fidelity of his

soldiers, and he was obliged to supplicate for his life. He was allowed

to retain his fortune and the office of _pontifex maximus_ to which he

had been appointed in 44, but had to retire into private life. According

to Suetonius (_Augustus_, 16) he died at Circeii in the year 13.

See ROME: _History_ ii., "The Republic," Period C, _ad fin._; Appian,

_Bell. Civ._ ii.-v.; Dio Cassius xli.-xlix.; Vell. Pat. ii. 64, 80;

Orelli's _Onomasticon_ to Cicero.

LE PLAY, PIERRE GUILLAUME FRÉDÉRIC (1806-1882), French engineer and

economist, was born at La Rivière-Saint-Sauveur (Calvados) on the 11th

of April 1806, the son of a custom-house official. He was educated at

the École Polytechnique, and from there passed into the State Department

of Mines. In 1834 he was appointed head of the permanent committee of

mining statistics, and in 1840 engineer-in-chief and professor of

metallurgy at the school of mines, where he became inspector in 1848.

For nearly a quarter of a century Le Play spent his vacations travelling

in the various countries of Europe, and collected a vast quantity of

material bearing upon the social condition of the working classes. In

1855 he published _Les Ouvriers européens_, which comprised a series of

thirty-six monographs on the budgets of typical families selected from

the most diverse industries. The Académie des Sciences conferred on him

the Montyon prize. Napoleon III., who held him in high esteem, entrusted

him with the organization of the Exhibition of 1855, and appointed him

counsellor of state, commissioner general of the Exhibition of 1867,

senator of the empire and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. He died

in Paris on the 5th of April 1882.

In 1856 Le Play founded the _Société internationale des études

pratiques d'Économie sociale_, which has devoted its energies

principally to forwarding social studies on the lines laid down by its

founder. The journal of the society, _La Réforme sociale_, founded in

1881, is published fortnightly. Other works of Le Play are _La Réforme

sociale_ (2 vols., 1864; 7th ed., 3 vols., 1887); _L'Organisation de

la famille_ (1871); _La Constitution de l'Angleterre_ (in

collaboration with M. Delaire, 1875). See article in _Harvard

Quarterly Journal of Economics_ (June 1890), by H. Higgs.

LEPROSY (_Lepra Arabum_, _Elephantiasis Graecorum_, _Aussatz_,

_Spedalskhed_), the greatest disease of medieval Christendom,

identified, on the one hand, with a disease endemic from the earliest

historical times (1500 B.C.) in the delta and valley of the Nile, and,

on the other hand, with a disease now common in Asia, Africa, South

America, the West Indies, and certain isolated localities of Europe. An

authentic representation of the leprosy of the middle ages exists in a

picture at Munich by Holbein, painted at Augsburg in 1516; St Elizabeth

gives bread and wine to a prostrate group of lepers, including a bearded

man whose face is covered with large round reddish knobs, an old woman

whose arm is covered with brown blotches, the leg swathed in bandages

through which matter oozes, the bare knee also marked with discoloured

spots, and on the head a white rag or plaster, and, thirdly, a young man

whose neck and face (especially round the somewhat hairless eyebrows)

are spotted with brown patches of various size. It is conjectured by

Virchow that the painter had made studies of lepers from the

leper-houses then existing at Augsburg. These external characters of

medieval leprosy agree with the descriptions of it by the ancients, and

with the pictures of modern leprosy given by Danielssen and Boeck for

Norway, by various authors for sporadic European cases, by Anderson for

Malacca, by Carter for India, by Wolff for Madeira and by Hillis for

British Guiana. There has been some confusion in the technical naming of

the disease; it is called _Elephantiasis_ (_Leontiasis_, _Satyriasis_)

by the Greek writers, and _Lepra_ by the Arabians.

Leprosy is now included among the parasitic diseases (see PARASITIC

DISEASES). The cause is believed to be infection by the bacillus leprae,

a specific microbe discovered by Armauer Hansen in 1871. It is worthy of

note that tuberculosis is very common among lepers, and especially

attacks the serous membranes. The essential character of leprosy is a

great multiplication of cells, resembling the "granulation cells" of

lupus and syphilis, in the tissues affected, which become infiltrated

and thickened, with degeneration and destruction of their normal

elements. The new cells vary in size from ordinary leucocytes to giant

cells three or four times larger. The bacilli are found in these cells,

sometimes in small numbers, sometimes in masses. The structures most

affected are the skin, nerves, mucous membranes and lymphatic glands.

The symptoms arise from the anatomical changes indicated, and they vary

according to the parts attacked. Three types of disease are usually

described--(1) nodular, (2) smooth or anaesthetic, (3) mixed. In the

first the skin is chiefly affected, in the second the nerves; the third

combines the features of both. It should be understood that this

classification is purely a matter of convenience, and is based on the

relative prominence of symptoms, which may be combined in all degrees.

The incubation period of leprosy--assuming it to be due to infection--is

unknown, but cases are on record which can only be explained on the

hypothesis that it may be many years. The invasion is usually slow and

intermittent. There are occasional feverish attacks, with the usual

constitutional disturbance and other slight premonitory signs, such as

changes in the colour of the skin and in its sensibility. Sometimes, but

rarely, the onset is acute and the characteristic symptoms develop

rapidly. These begin with an eruption which differs markedly according

to the type of disease. In the nodular form dark red or coppery patches

appear on the face, backs of the hands, and feet or on the body; they

are generally symmetrical, and vary from the size of a shilling upwards.

They come with one of the feverish attacks and fade away when it has

gone, but only to return. After a time infiltration and thickening of

the skin become noticeable, and the nodules appear. They are lumpy

excrescences, at first pink but changing to brown. Thickening of the

skin of the face produces a highly characteristic appearance, recalling

the aspect of a lion. The tissues of the eye undergo degenerative

changes; the mucous membrane of the nose and throat is thickened,

impairing the breathing and the voice; the eyebrows fall off; the ears

and nose become thickened and enlarged. As the disease progresses the

nodules tend to break down and ulcerate, leaving open sores. The

patient, whose condition is extremely wretched, gradually becomes

weaker, and eventually succumbs to exhaustion or is carried off by some

intercurrent disease, usually inflammation of the kidneys or

tuberculosis. A severe case may end fatally in two years, but, as a

rule, when patients are well cared for the illness lasts several years.

There is often temporary improvement, but complete recovery from this

form of leprosy rarely or never occurs. The smooth type is less severe

and more chronic. The eruption consists of patches of dry, slightly

discoloured skin, not elevated above the surface. These patches are the

result of morbid changes affecting the cutaneous nerves, and are

accompanied by diminished sensibility over the areas of skin affected.

At the same time certain nerve trunks in the arm and leg, and

particularly the ulnar nerve, are found to be thickened. In the further

stages the symptoms are those of increasing degeneration of the nerves.

Bullae form on the skin, and the discoloured patches become enlarged;

sensation is lost, muscular power diminished, with wasting, contraction

of tendons, and all the signs of impaired nutrition. The nails become

hard and clawed; perforating ulcers of the feet are common; portions of

the extremities, including whole fingers and toes, die and drop off.

Later, paralysis becomes more marked, affecting the muscles of the face

and limbs. The disease runs a very chronic course, and may last twenty

or thirty years. Recovery occasionally occurs. In the mixed form, which

is probably the most common, the symptoms described are combined in

varying degrees. Leprosy may be mistaken for syphilis, tuberculosis,

ainhum (an obscure disease affecting negroes, in which the little toe

drops off), and several affections of the skin. Diagnosis is established

by the presence of the bacillus leprae in the nodules or bullae, and by

the signs of nerve degeneration exhibited in the anaesthetic patches of

skin and the thickened nerve trunks.

In former times leprosy was often confounded with other skin diseases,

especially psoriasis and leucoderma; the white leprosy of the Old

Testament was probably a form of the latter. But there is no doubt that

true leprosy has existed from time immemorial. Prescriptions for

treating it have been found in Egypt, to which a date of about 4600 B.C.

is assigned. The disease is described by Aristotle and by later Greek

writers, but not by Hippocrates, though leprosy derives its name from

his "lepra" or "scaly" disease, which was no doubt psoriasis. In ancient

times it was widely prevalent throughout Asia as well as in Egypt, and

among the Greeks and Romans. In the middle ages it became extensively

diffused in Europe, and in some countries--France, England, Germany and

Spain--every considerable town had its leper-house, in which the

patients were segregated. The total number of such houses has been

reckoned at 19,000. The earliest one in England was established at

Canterbury in 1096, and the latest at Highgate in 1472. At one time

there were at least 95 religious hospitals for lepers in Great Britain

and 14 in Ireland (Sir James Simpson). During the 15th century the

disease underwent a remarkable diminution. It practically disappeared in

the civilized parts of Europe, and the leper-houses were given up. It is

a singular fact that this diminution was coincident with the great

extension of syphilis (see PROSTITUTION). The general disappearance of

leprosy at this time is the more unintelligible because it did not take

effect everywhere. In Scotland the disease lingered until the 19th

century, and in some other parts it has never died out at all. At the

present time it still exists in Norway, Iceland, along the shores of the

Baltic, in South Russia, Greece, Turkey, several Mediterranean islands,

the Riviera, Spain and Portugal. Isolated cases occasionally occur

elsewhere, but they are usually imported. The Teutonic races seem to be

especially free from the taint. Leper asylums are maintained in Norway

and at two or three places in the Baltic, San Remo, Cyprus,

Constantinople, Alicante and Lisbon. Except in Spain, where some

increase has taken place, the disease is dying out. The number of lepers

in Norway was 3000 in 1856, but has now dwindled to a few hundreds. They

are no longer numerous in any part of Europe. On the other hand, leprosy

prevails extensively throughout Asia, from the Mediterranean to Japan,

and from Arabia to Siberia. It is also found in nearly all parts of

Africa, particularly on the east and west coasts near the equator. In

South Africa it has greatly increased, and attacks the Dutch as well as

natives. Leper asylums have been established at Robben Island near Cape

Town, and in Tembuland. In Australia, where it was introduced by

Chinese, it has also spread to Europeans. In New Zealand the Maoris are

affected; but the amount of leprosy is not large in either country. A

much more remarkable case is that of the Hawaiian Islands, where the

disease is believed to have been imported by Chinese. It was unknown

before 1848, but in 1866 the number of lepers had risen to 230 and in

1882 to 4000 (Liveing). All attempts to stop it by segregating lepers in

the settlement of Molokai appear to have been fruitless. In the West

Indies and on the American continent, again, leprosy has a wide

distribution. It is found in nearly all parts of South and Central

America, and in certain parts of North America--namely, Louisiana,

California (among Chinese), Minnesota, Wisconsin and North and South

Dakota (Norwegians), New Brunswick (French Canadians).

It is difficult to find any explanation of the geographical distribution

and behaviour of leprosy. It seems to affect islands and the sea-coast

more than the interior, and to some extent this gives colour to the old

belief that it is caused or fostered by a fish diet, which has been

revived by Mr Jonathan Hutchinson, but is not generally accepted.

Leprosy is found in interiors where fish is not an article of diet.

Climate, again, has obviously little, if any, influence. The theory of

heredity is equally at fault, whether it be applied to account for the

spread of the disease by transmission or for its disappearance by the

elimination of susceptible persons. The latter is the manner in which

heredity might be expected to act, if at all, for lepers are remarkably

sterile. But we see the disease persisting among the Eastern races, who

have been continuously exposed to its selective influence from the

earliest times, while it has disappeared among the Europeans, who were

affected very much later. The opposite theory of hereditary transmission

from parents to offspring is also at variance with many observed facts.

Leprosy is very rarely congenital, and no cases have occurred among the

descendants to the third generation of 160 Norwegian lepers settled in

the United States. Again, if hereditary transmission were an effective

influence, the disease could hardly have died down so rapidly as it did

in Europe in the 15th century. Then we have the theory of contagion.

There is no doubt that human beings are inoculable with leprosy, and

that the disease may be communicated by close contact. Cases have been

recorded which prove it conclusively; for instance, that of a man who

had never been out of the British islands, but developed leprosy after

sharing for a time the bed and clothes of his brother, who had

contracted the disease in the West Indies. Some of the facts noted, such

as the extensive dissemination of the disease in Europe during the

middle ages, and its subsequent rapid decline, suggest the existence of

some unknown epidemic factor. Poverty and insanitation are said to go

with the prevalence of leprosy, but they go with every malady, and there

is nothing to show that they have any special influence. Vaccination has

been blamed for spreading it, and a few cases of communication by

arm-to-arm inoculation are recorded. The influence of this factor,

however, can only be trifling. Vaccination is a new thing, leprosy a

very old one; where there is most vaccination there is no leprosy, and

where there is most leprosy there is little or no vaccination. In India

78% of the lepers are unvaccinated, and in Canton since vaccination was

introduced leprosy has declined (Cantlie). On the whole we must conclude

that there is still much to be learnt about the conditions which govern

the prevalence of leprosy.

With regard to prevention, the isolation of patients is obviously

desirable, especially in the later stages, when open sores may

disseminate the bacilli; but complete segregation, which has been urged,

is regarded as impracticable by those who have had most experience in

leprous districts. Scrupulous cleanliness should be exercised by persons

attending on lepers or brought into close contact with them. In

treatment the most essential thing is general care of the health, with

good food and clothing. The tendency of modern therapeutics to attach

increasing importance to nutrition in various morbid states, and notably

in diseases of degeneration, such as tuberculosis and affections of the

nervous system, is borne out by experience in leprosy, which has

affinities to both; and this suggests the application to it of modern

methods for improving local as well as general nutrition by physical

means. A large number of internal remedies have been tried with varying

results; those most recommended are chaulmoogra oil, arsenic, salicylate

of soda, salol and chlorate of potash. Vergueira uses Collargol

intravenously and subcutaneously, and states that in all the cases

treated there was marked improvement, and hair that had been lost grew

again. Calmette's Anterenene injected subcutaneously has been followed

by good results. Deycke together with R. Bey isolated from a

non-ulcerated leprous nodule a streptothrix which they call S.

leproides. Its relation to the bacillus is uncertain. They found that

injections of this organism had marked curative effects, due to a

neutral fat which they named "Nastin." Injections of Nastin together

with Benzoyl Chloride directly act on the lepra bacilli. Some cases were

unaffected by this treatment, but with others the effect was marvellous.

Dr W. A. Pusey of Chicago uses applications of carbon dioxide snow with

good effect. In the later stages of the disease there is a wide field

for surgery, which is able to give much relief to sufferers.

LITERATURE.--For history and geographical distribution, see Hirsch,

_Handbuch der historisch-geographischen Pathologie_ (1st ed.,

Erlangen, 1860, with exhaustive literature). For pathology, Virchow,

_Die krankhaften Geschwülste_ (Berlin, 1863-1867), vol. ii. For

clinical histories, R. Liveing, _Elephantiasis Graecorum or True

Leprosy_ (London, 1873), ch. iv. For medieval leprosy--in Germany,

Virchow, in _Virchow's Archiv_, five articles, vols. xviii.-xx.

(1860-1861); in the Netherlands, Israëls, in _Nederl. Tijdschr. voor

Geneeskunde_, vol. i. (1857); in Britain, J. Y. Simpson, _Edin. Med.

and Surg. Journ._, three articles, vols. lxvi. and lxvii. (1846-1847).

Treatises on modern leprosy in particular localities: Danielssen and

Boeck (Norway), _Traité de la Spédalskhed_, with atlas of twenty-four

coloured plates (Paris, 1848); A. F. Anderson, _Leprosy as met with in

the Straits Settlements_, coloured photographs with explanatory notes

(London, 1872); H. Vandyke Carter (Bombay), _On Leprosy and

Elephantiasis_, with coloured plates (London, 1874); Hillis, _Leprosy

in British Guiana_, an account of West Indian leprosy, with twenty-two

coloured plates (London, 1882). See also the dermatological works of

Hebra, Erasmus Wilson, Bazin and Jonathan Hutchinson (also the

latter's letters to _The Times_ of the 11th of April and the 25th of

May 1903); _British Medical Journal_ (April 1, 1908); _American

Journal of Dermatology_ (Dec. 1907); _The Practitioner_ (February

1910). An important early work is that of P. G. Hensler, _Vom

abendländischen Aussatze im Mittelalter_ (Hamburg, 1790).

LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD (1810-1884), German Egyptologist, was born at

Naumburg-am-Saale on the 23rd of December 1810, and in 1823 was sent to

the "Schulpforta" school near Naumburg, where he came under the

influence of Professor Lange. In 1829 he entered the university of

Leipzig, and one year later that of Göttingen, where, under the

influence of Otfried Müller, he finally decided to devote himself to the

archaeological side of philology. From Göttingen he proceeded to Berlin,

where he graduated in 1833 as doctor with the thesis _De tabulis

Eugubinis_. In the same year he proceeded to study in Paris, and was

commissioned by the duc de Luynes to collect material from the Greek and

Latin writers for his work on the weapons of the ancients. In 1834 he

took the Volney prize with his _Paläographie als Mittel der

Sprachforschung_. Befriended by Bunsen and Humboldt, Lepsius threw

himself with great ardour into Egyptological studies, which, since the

death of Champollion in 1832, had attracted no scholar of eminence and

weight. Here Lepsius found an ample field for his powers. After four

years spent in visiting the Egyptian collections of Italy, Holland and

England, he returned to Germany, where Humboldt and Bunsen united their

influence to make his projected visit to Egypt a scientific expedition

with royal support. For three years Lepsius and his party explored the

whole of the region in which monuments of ancient Egyptian and Ethiopian

occupation are found, from the Sudan above Khartum to the Syrian coast.

At the end of 1845 they returned home, and the results of the

expedition, consisting of casts, drawings and squeezes of inscriptions

and scenes, maps and plans collected with the utmost thoroughness, as

well as antiquities and papyri, far surpassed expectations. In 1846 he

married Elisabeth Klein, and his appointment to a professorship in

Berlin University in the following August afforded him the leisure

necessary for the completion of his work. In 1859 the twelve volumes of

his vast _Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien_ were finished,

supplemented later by a text prepared from the note-books of the

expedition; they comprise its entire archaeological, palaeographical and

historical results. In 1866 Lepsius again went to Egypt, and discovered

the famous Decree of Tanis or Table of Canopus, an inscription of the

same character as the Rosetta Stone, in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek.

In 1873 he was appointed keeper of the Royal Library, Berlin, which,

like the Berlin Museum, owes much to his care. About ten years later he

was appointed Geheimer Oberregierungsrath. He died at Berlin on the 10th

of July 1884. Besides the colossal _Denkmäler_ and other publications of

texts such as the _Todtenbuch der Ägypter_ (_Book of the Dead_, 1842)

his other works, amongst which may be specially named his _Königsbuch

der Ägypter_ (1858) and _Chronologie der Ägypter_ (1849), are

characterized by a quality of permanence that is very remarkable in a

subject of such rapid development as Egyptology. In spite of his

scientific training in philology Lepsius left behind few translations of

inscriptions or discussions of the meanings of words: by preference he

attacked historical and archaeological problems connected with the

ancient texts, the alphabet, the metrology, the names of metals and

minerals, the chronology, the royal names. On the other hand one of his

latest works, the _Nubische Grammatik_ (1880), is an elaborate grammar

of the then little-known Nubian language, preceded by a linguistic

sketch of the African continent. Throughout his life he profited by the

gift of attaching to himself the right men, whether as patrons or, like

Weidenbach and Stern, as assistants. Lepsius was a fine specimen of the

best type of German scholar.

See _Richard Lepsius_, by Georg Ebers (New York, 1887), and art.

EGYPT, section _Exploration and Research_.

LEPTINES, an Athenian orator, known as the proposer of a law that no

Athenian, whether citizen or resident alien (with the sole exception of

the descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton), should be exempt from

the public charges ([Greek: leitourgiai]) for the state festivals. The

object was to provide funds for the festivals and public spectacles at a

time when both the treasury and the citizens generally were short of

money. It was further asserted that many of the recipients of immunity

were really unworthy of it. Against this law Demosthenes delivered (354

B.C.) his well-known speech _Against Leptines_ in support of the

proposal of Ctesippus that all the cases of immunity should be carefully

investigated. Great stress is laid on the reputation for ingratitude and

breach of faith which the abolition of immunities would bring upon the

state. Besides, the law itself had been passed unconstitutionally, for

an existing law confirmed these privileges, and by the constitution of

Solon no law could be enacted until any existing law which it

contravened had been repealed. The law was probably condemned. Nothing

further is known of Leptines.

See the edition of the speech by J. E. Sandys (1890).

LEPTIS, the name of two towns in ancient Africa. The first, Leptis Magna

([Greek: Leptimagna]), the modern Lebda, was in Tripolitana between

Tripolis and Mesrata at the mouth of the Cinyps; the second, Leptis

Parva ([Greek: Leptis hê mikra]), known also as Leptiminus or Leptis

minor, the modern Lamta, was a small harbour of Byzacena between Ruspina

(Monastir) and Thapsus (Dimas).

1. LEPTIS MAGNA was one of the oldest and most flourishing of the

Phoenician emporia established on the coasts of the greater Syrtis, the

chief commercial entrepot for the interior of the African continent. It

was founded by the Sidonians (Sallust, _Jug._ 78) who were joined later

by people of Tyre (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ v. 17). Herodotus enlarges on the

fertility of its territory (iv. 175, v. 42). It was tributary to

Carthage to which it paid a contribution of a talent a day (Livy xxxiv.

62). After the Second Punic War Massinissa made himself master of it

(Sallust, _Jug._ 78; Livy xxxiv. 62; Appian viii. 106). During the

Jugurthine War it appealed for protection to Rome (Sallust, _Jug._ 78).

Though captured and plundered by Juba, it maintained its allegiance to

Rome, supported the senatorial cause, received Cato the younger with the

remains of the Pompeian forces after Pharsalus 48 B.C. After his victory

Julius Caesar imposed upon it an annual contribution of 300,000 measures

of oil. Nevertheless, it preserved its position as a free city governed

by its own magistrates (_C.I.L._ viii. 7). It received the title of

_municipium_ (_C.I.L._ viii. 8), and was subsequently made a _colonia_

by Trajan (_C.I.L._ viii. 10). Septimius Severus, who was born there,

beautified the place and conferred upon it the _Ius Italicum_. Leptis

Magna was the limit of the Roman state, the last station of the _limes

Tripolitanus_; hence, especially during the last centuries of the

Empire, it suffered much from the Nomads of the desert, the Garamantes,

the Austuriani and the Levathae (Ammian. Marc. xxviii. 6; Procop. _De

Aedif._ vi. 4). Its commerce declined and its harbour silted up.

Justinian made a vain attempt to rebuild it (Procop. _ibid._; Ch. Diehl,

_L'Afrique byzantine_, p. 388). It was the seat of a bishopric, but no

mention is made of its bishops after 462.

Leptis Magna had a citadel which protected the commercial city which was

generally called Neapolis, the situation of which may be compared with

that of Carthage at the foot of Byrsa. Its ruins are still imposing;

remains of ramparts and docks, a theatre, a circus and various buildings

of the Roman period still exist. Inscriptions show that the current

pronunciation of the name was Lepcis, Lepcitana, instead of Leptis,

Leptitana (Tissot, _Géogr. comp. de la prov. d'Afrique_, ii. 219;

Clermont-Ganneau, _Recueil d'archéologie orientale_, vi. 41; _Comptes

rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et B.-Lettres_, 1903, p. 333; Cagnat, _C.R.

Acad._, 1905, p. 531). The coins of Leptis Magna, like the majority of

the emporia in the neighbourhood, present a series from the Punic

period. They are of bronze with the legend [Hebrew: lepqi] (_Lepqi_).

They have on one side the head of Bacchus, Hercules or Cybele, and on

the other various emblems of these deities. From the Roman period we

have also coins bearing the heads of Augustus, Livia and Tiberius, which

still have the name of the town in Neo-Punic script (Lud. Müller,

_Numism. de l'anc. Afrique_, ii. 3).

The ruins of Leptis Magna have been visited by numerous travellers

since the time of Frederick William and Henry William Beechey

(_Travels_, pp. 51 and 74) and Heinrich Barth (_Wanderungen_, pp. 306,

360); they are described by Ch. Tissot (_Géogr. comp._ ii. 219 et

seq.); Cl. Perroud, _De Syrticis emporiis_, p. 33 (Paris, 1881, in

8°); see also a description in the New York journal, _The Nation_

(1877), vol. xxvii. No. 683. M. Méhier de Mathuisieulx explored the

site afresh in 1901; his account is inserted in the _Nouvelles

Archives des missions_, x. 245-277; cf. vol. xii. See also J. Toutain,

"Le Limes Tripolitanus en Tripolitaine," in the _Bulletin

archéologique áu comité des travaux historiques_ (1905).

2. LEPTIS PARVA (Lamta), 7½ m. from Monastir, which is often confused by

modern writers with Leptis Magna in their interpretations of ancient

texts (Tissot, _Géogr. comp._ ii. 169), was, according to the _Tabula

Peutingeriana_, 18 m. south of Hadrumetum. Evidently Phoenician in

origin like Leptis Magna, it was in the Punic period of comparatively

slight importance. Nevertheless, it had fortifications, and the French

engineer, A. Daux, has discovered a probable line of ramparts. Like its

neighbour Hadrumetum, Leptis Parva declared for Rome after the last

Punic War. Also after the fall of Carthage in 146 it preserved its

autonomy and was declared a _civitas libera et immunis_ (Appian,

_Punica_, 94; _C.I.L._ i. 200; _De bell. Afric._ c. xii.). Julius Caesar

made it the base of his operations before the battle of Thapsus in 46

(Ch. Tissot, _Géogr. comp._ ii. 728). Under the Empire Leptis Parva

became extremely prosperous; its bishops appeared in the African

councils from 258 onwards. In Justinian's reorganization of Africa we

find that Leptis Parva was with Capsa one of the two residences of the

_Dux Byzacenae_ (Tissot, _op. cit._ p. 171). The town had coins under

Augustus and Tiberius. On the obverse is the imperial effigy with a

Latin legend, and on the reverse the Greek legend [Greek: LEPTIS] with

the bust of Mercury (Lud. Müller, _Numism. de l'anc. Afrique_, ii. 49).

The ruins extend along the sea-coast to the north-west of Lemta; the

remains of docks, the amphitheatre and the acropolis can be

distinguished; a Christian cemetery has furnished tombs adorned with

curious mosaics.

See _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscrip. et B.-Lettres_ (1883), p.

189; Cagnat and Saladin, "Notes d'archéol. tunisiennes," in the

_Bulletin monumental_ of 1884; _Archives des missions_, xii. 111;

Cagnat, _Explorations archéol. en Tunisie_, 3^me fasc. pp. 9-16, and

_Tour du monde_ (1881), i. 292; Saladin, _Rapport sur une mission en

Tunisie_ (1886), pp. 9-20; _Bulletin archéol. du comité de travaux

historiques_ (1895), pp. 69-71 (inscriptions of Lamta); _Bulletin de

la Soc. archéol. de Sousse_ (1905; plan of the ruins of Lamta).

(E. B.*)

LE PUY, or LE PUY EN VELAY, a town of south-eastern France, capital of

the department of Haute-Loire, 90 m. S.W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon

railway. Pop. (1906) town, 17,291; commune, 21,420. Le Puy rises in the

form of an amphitheatre from a height of 2050 ft. above sea-level upon

Mont Anis, a hill that divides the left bank of the Dolézon from the

right bank of the Borne (a rapid stream joining the Loire 3 m. below).

From the new town, which lies east and west in the valley of the

Dolézon, the traveller ascends the old feudal and ecclesiastical town

through narrow steep streets, paved with pebbles of lava, to the

cathedral commanded by the fantastic pinnacle of Mont Corneille. Mont

Corneille, which is 433 ft. above the Place de Breuil (in the lower

town), is a steep rock of volcanic breccia, surmounted by an iron statue

of the Virgin (53 ft. high) cast, after a model by Bonassieux, out of

guns taken at Sebastopol. Another statue, that of Msgr de Morlhon,

bishop of Le Puy, also sculptured by Bonassieux, faces that of the

Virgin. From the platform of Mont Corneille a magnificent panoramic view

is obtained of the town and of the volcanic mountains, which make this

region one of the most interesting parts of France.

The Romanesque cathedral (Notre-Dame), dating chiefly from the first

half of the 12th century, has a particoloured façade of white sandstone

and black volcanic breccia, which is reached by a flight of sixty steps,

and consists of three tiers, the lowest composed of three high arcades

opening into the porch, which extends beneath the first bays of the

nave; above are three windows lighting the nave; and these in turn are

surmounted by three gables, two of which, those to the right and the

left, are of open work. The staircase continues within the porch, where

it divides, leading on the left to the cloister, on the right into the

church. The doorway of the south transept is sheltered by a fine

Romanesque porch. The isolated bell-tower (184 ft.), which rises behind

the choir in seven storeys, is one of the most beautiful examples of the

Romanesque transition period. The bays of the nave are covered in by

octagonal cupolas, the central cupola forming a lantern. The choir and

transepts are barrel-vaulted. Much veneration is paid to a small image

of the Virgin on the high altar, a modern copy of the medieval image

destroyed at the Revolution. The cloister, to the north of the choir, is

striking, owing to its variously-coloured materials and elegant shafts.

Viollet-le-Duc considered one of its galleries to belong to the oldest

known type of cathedral cloister (8th or 9th century). Connected with

the cloister are remains of fortifications of the 13th century, by which

it was separated from the rest of the city. Near the cathedral the

baptistery of St John (11th century), built on the foundations of a

Roman building, is surrounded by walls and numerous remains of the

period, partly uncovered by excavations. The church of St Lawrence (14th

century) contains the tomb and statue of Bertrand du Guesclin, whose

ashes were afterwards carried to St Denis.

Le Puy possesses fragmentary remains of its old line of fortifications,

among them a machicolated tower, which has been restored, and a few

curious old houses dating from the 12th to the 17th century. In front of

the hospital there is a fine medieval porch under which a street passes.

Of the modern monuments the statue of Marie Joseph Paul, marquis of La

Fayette, and a fountain in the Place de Breuil, executed in marble,

bronze and syenite, may be specially mentioned. The museum, named after

Charles Crozatier, a native sculptor and metal-worker to whose

munificence it principally owes its existence, contains antiquities,

engravings, a collection of lace, and ethnographical and natural history

collections. Among the curiosities of Le Puy should be noted the church

of St Michel d'Aiguilhe, beside the gate of the town, perched on an

isolated rock like Mont Corneille, the top of which is reached by a

staircase of 271 steps. The church dates from the end of the 10th

century and its chancel is still older. The steeple is of the same type

as that of the cathedral. Three miles from Le Puy are the ruins of the

Château de Polignac, one of the most important feudal strongholds of

France.

Le Puy is the seat of a bishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes, and

has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade

arbitration, a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France.

Its educational institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, lycées

and training colleges for both sexes and municipal industrial schools of

drawing, architecture and mathematics applied to arts and industries.

The principal manufacture is that of lace and guipure (in woollen,

linen, cotton, silk and gold and silver threads), and distilling,

leather-dressing, malting and the manufacture of chocolate and cloth are

carried on. Cattle, woollens, grain and vegetables are the chief

articles of trade.

It is not known whether Le Puy existed previously to the Roman

invasion. Towards the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th century

it became the capital of the country of the Vellavi, at which period

the bishopric, originally at Revession, now St Paulien, was

transferred hither. Gregory of Tours speaks of it by the name of

Anicium, because a chapel "ad Deum" had been built on the mountain,

whence the name of Mont Adidon or Anis, which it still retains. In the

10th century it was called Podium Sanctae Mariae, whence Le Puy. In

the middle ages there was a double enclosure, one for the cloister,

the other for the town. The sanctuary of Nôtre Dame was much

frequented by pilgrims, and the city grew famous and populous.

Rivalries between the bishops who held directly of the see of Rome and

had the right of coining money, and the lords of Polignac, revolts of

the town against the royal authority, and the encroachments of the

feudal superiors on municipal prerogatives often disturbed the quiet

of the town. The Saracens in the 8th century, the Routiers in the

12th, the English in the 14th, the Burgundians in the 15th,

successively ravaged the neighbourhood. Le Puy sent the flower of its

chivalry to the Crusades in 1096, and Raymond d'Aiguille, called

d'Agiles, one of its sons, was their historian. Many councils and

various assemblies of the states of Languedoc met within its walls;

popes and sovereigns, among the latter Charlemagne and Francis I.,

visited its sanctuary. Pestilence and the religious wars put an end to

its prosperity. Long occupied by the Leaguers, it did not submit to

Henry IV. until many years after his accession.

LERDO DE TEJADA, SEBASTIAN (1825-1889), president of Mexico, was born at

Jalapa on the 25th of April 1825. He was educated as a lawyer and became

a member of the supreme court. He became known as a liberal leader and a

supporter of President Juarez. He was minister of foreign affairs for

three months in 1857, and became president of the Chamber of Deputies in

1861. During the French intervention and the reign of the emperor

Maximilian he continued loyal to the patriotic party, and had an active

share in conducting the national resistance. He was minister of foreign

affairs to President Juarez, and he showed an implacable resolution in

carrying out the execution of Maximilian at Querétaro. When Juarez died

in 1872 Lerdo succeeded him in office in the midst of a confused civil

war. He achieved some success in pacifying the country and began the

construction of railways. He was re-elected on the 24th of July 1876,

but was expelled in January of the following year by Porfirio Diaz. He

had made himself unpopular by the means he took to secure his

re-election and by his disposition to limit state rights in favour of a

strongly centralized government. He fled to the United States and died

in obscurity at New York in 1889.

See H. H. Bancroft, _Pacific States_, vol. 9 (San Francisco,

1882-1890).

LERICI, a village of Liguria, Italy, situated on the N.E. side of the

Gulf of Spezia, about 12 m. E.S.E. of Spezia, and 4 m. W.S.W. of Sarzana

by road, 17 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 9326. Its small harbour is

guarded by an old castle, said to have been built by Tancred; in the

middle ages it was the chief place on the gulf. S. Terenzo, a hamlet

belonging to Lerici, was the residence of Shelley during his last days.

Farther north-west is the Bay of Pertusola, with its large lead-smelting

works.

LÉRIDA, a province of northern Spain, formed in 1833 of districts

previously included in the ancient province of Catalonia, and bounded on

the N. by France and Andorra, E. by Gerona and Barcelona, S. by

Tarragona and W. by Saragossa and Huesca. Pop. (1900) 274,590; area 4690

sq. m. The northern half of Lérida belongs entirely to the Mediterranean

or eastern section of the Pyrenees, and comprises some of the finest

scenery in the whole chain, including the valleys of Aran and La

Cerdaña, and large tracts of forest. It is watered by many rivers, the

largest of which is the Segre, a left-hand tributary of the Ebro. South

of the point at which the Segre is joined on the right by the Noguera

Pallaresa, the character of the country completely alters. The Llaños de

Urgel, which comprise the greater part of southern Lérida, are extensive

plains forming part of the Ebro valley, but redeemed by an elaborate

system of canals from the sterility which characterizes so much of that

region in Aragon. Lérida is traversed by the main railway from Barcelona

to Saragossa, and by a line from Tarragona to the city of Lérida. In

1904 the Spanish government agreed with France to carry another line to

the mouth of an international tunnel through the Pyrenees. Industries

are in a more backward condition than in any other province of

Catalonia, despite the abundance of water-power. There are, however,

many saw-mills, flour-mills, and distilleries of alcohol and liqueurs,

besides a smaller number of cotton and linen factories, paper-mills,

soap-works, and oil and leather factories. Zinc, lignite and common salt

are mined, but the output is small and of slight value. There is a

thriving trade in wine, oil, wool, timber, cattle, mules, horses and

sheep, but agriculture is far less prosperous than in the maritime

provinces of Catalonia. Lérida (q.v.) is the capital (pop. 21,432), and

the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants. Séo de Urgel, near the

headwaters of the Segre, is a fortified city which has been an episcopal

see since 840, and has had a close historical connexion with Andorra

(q.v.). Solsona, on a small tributary of the Cardoner, which flows

through Barcelona to the Mediterranean, is the _Setelix_ of the Romans,

and contains in its parish church an image of the Virgin said to possess

miraculous powers, and visited every year by many hundreds of pilgrims.

Cervera, on a small river of the same name, contains the buildings of a

university which Philip V. established here in 1717. This university had

originally been founded at Barcelona in the 15th century, and was

reopened there in 1842. In character, and especially in their industry,

intelligence and keen local patriotism, the inhabitants of Lérida are

typical Catalans. (See CATALONIA.)

LÉRIDA, the capital of the Spanish province of Lérida, on the river

Segre and the Barcelona-Saragossa and Lérida-Tarragona railways. Pop.

(1900) 21,432. The older parts of the city, on the right bank of the

river, are a maze of narrow and crooked streets, surrounded by ruined

walls and a moat, and commanded by the ancient citadel, which stands on

a height overlooking the plains of Noguera on the north and of Urgel on

the south. On the left bank, connected with the older quarters by a fine

stone bridge and an iron railway bridge, are the suburbs, laid out

after 1880 in broad and regular avenues of modern houses. The old

cathedral, last used for public worship in 1707, is a very interesting

late Romanesque building, with Gothic and Mauresque additions; but the

interior was much defaced by its conversion into barracks after 1717. It

was founded in 1203 by Pedro II. of Aragon, and consecrated in 1278. The

fine octagonal belfry was built early in the 15th century. A second

cathedral, with a Corinthian façade, was completed in 1781. The church

of San Lorenzo (1270-1300) is noteworthy for the beautiful tracery of

its Gothic windows; its nave is said to have been a Roman temple,

converted by the Moors into a mosque and by Ramon Berenguer IV., last

count of Barcelona, into a church. Other interesting buildings are the

Romanesque town hall, founded in the 13th century but several times

restored, the bishop's palace and the military hospital, formerly a

convent. The museum contains a good collection of Roman and Romanesque

antiquities; and there are a school for teachers, a theological seminary

and academies of literature and science. Leather, paper, glass, silk,

linen and cloth are manufactured in the city, which has also some trade

in agricultural produce.

Lérida is the _Ilerda_ of the Romans, and was the capital of the people

whom they called _Ilerdenses_ (Pliny) or _Ilergetes_ (Ptolemy). By

situation the key of Catalonia and Aragon, it was from a very early

period an important military station. In the Punic wars it sided with

the Carthaginians and suffered much from the Roman arms. In its

immediate neighbourhood Hanno was defeated by Scipio in 216 B.C., and it

afterwards became famous as the scene of Caesar's arduous struggle with

Pompey's generals Afranius and Petreius in the first year of the civil

war (49 B.C.). It was already a _municipium_ in the time of Augustus,

and enjoyed great prosperity under later emperors. Under the Visigoths

it became an episcopal see, and at least one ecclesiastical council is

recorded to have met here (in 546). Under the Moors _Lareda_ became one

of the principal cities of the province of Saragossa; it became

tributary to the Franks in 793, but was reconquered in 797. In 1149 it

fell into the hands of Ramon Berenguer IV. In modern times it has come

through numerous sieges, having been taken by the French in November

1707 during the War of Succession, and again in 1810. In 1300 James II.

of Aragon founded a university at Lérida, which achieved some repute in

its day, but was suppressed in 1717, when the university of Cervera was

founded.

LERMA, FRANCISCO DE SANDOVAL Y ROJAS, DUKE OF (1552-1625), Spanish

minister, was born in 1552. At the age of thirteen he entered the royal

palace as a page. The family of Sandoval was ancient and powerful, but

under Philip II. (1556-1598) the nobles, with the exception of a few who

held viceroyalties or commanded armies abroad, had little share in the

government. The future duke of Lerma, who was by descent marquis of

Denia, passed his life as a courtier, and possessed no political power

till the accession of Philip III. in 1598. He had already made himself a

favourite with the prince, and was in fact one of the incapable men who,

as the dying king Philip II. foresaw, were likely to mislead the new

sovereign. The old king's fears were fully justified. No sooner was

Philip III. king than he entrusted all authority to his favourite, whom

he created duke of Lerma in 1599 and on whom he lavished an immense list

of offices and grants. The favour of Lerma lasted for twenty years, till

it was destroyed by a palace intrigue carried out by his own son. Philip

III. not only entrusted the entire direction of his government to Lerma,

but authorized him to affix the royal signature to documents, and to

take whatever presents were made to him. No royal favourite was ever

more amply trusted, or made a worse use of power. At a time when the

state was practically bankrupt, he encouraged the king in extravagance,

and accumulated for himself a fortune estimated by contemporaries at

forty-four millions of ducats. Lerma was pious withal, spending largely

on religious houses, and he carried out the ruinous measures for the

expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1610--a policy which secured him the

admiration of the clergy and was popular with the mass of the nation. He

persisted in costly and useless hostilities with England till, in 1604,

Spain was forced by exhaustion to make peace, and he used all his

influence against a recognition of the independence of the Low

Countries. The fleet was neglected, the army reduced to a remnant, and

the finances ruined beyond recovery. His only resources as a finance

minister were the debasing of the coinage, and foolish edicts against

luxury and the making of silver plate. Yet it is probable that he would

never have lost the confidence of Philip III., who divided his life

between festivals and prayers, but for the domestic treachery of his

son, the duke of Uceda, who combined with the king's confessor, Aliaga,

whom Lerma had introduced to the place, to turn him out. After a long

intrigue in which the king was all but entirely dumb and passive, Lerma

was at last compelled to leave the court, on the 4th of October 1618. As

a protection, and as a means of retaining some measure of power in case

he fell from favour, he had persuaded Pope Paul V. to create him

cardinal, in the year of his fall. He retired to the town of Lerma in

Old Castile, where he had built himself a splendid palace, and then to

Valladolid. Under the reign of Philip IV., which began in 1621 he was

despoiled of part of his wealth, and he died in 1625.

The history of Lerma's tenure of office is in vol. xv. of the

_Historia General de España_ of Modesto Lafuente (Madrid, 1855)--with

references to contemporary authorities.

LERMONTOV, MIKHAIL YUREVICH (1814-1841), Russian poet and novelist,

often styled the poet of the Caucasus, was born in Moscow, of Scottish

descent, but belonged to a respectable family of the Tula government,

and was brought up in the village of Tarkhanui (in the Penzensk

government), which now preserves his dust. By his grandmother--on whom

the whole care of his childhood was devolved by his mother's early death

and his father's military service--no cost nor pains was spared to give

him the best education she could think of. The intellectual atmosphere

which he breathed in his youth differed little from that in which

Pushkin had grown up, though the domination of French had begun to give

way before the fancy for English, and Lamartine shared his popularity

with Byron. From the academic gymnasium in Moscow Lermontov passed in

1830 to the university, but there his career came to an untimely close

through the part he took in some acts of insubordination to an obnoxious

teacher. From 1830 to 1834 he attended the school of cadets at St

Petersburg, and in due course he became an officer in the guards. To his

own and the nation's anger at the loss of Pushkin (1837) the young

soldier gave vent in a passionate poem addressed to the tsar, and the

very voice which proclaimed that, if Russia took no vengeance on the

assassin of her poet, no second poet would be given her, was itself an

intimation that a poet had come already. The tsar, however, seems to

have found more impertinence than inspiration in the address, for

Lermontov was forthwith sent off to the Caucasus as an officer of

dragoons. He had been in the Caucasus with his grandmother as a boy of

ten, and he found himself at home by yet deeper sympathies than those of

childish recollection. The stern and rocky virtues of the mountaineers

against whom he had to fight, no less than the scenery of the rocks and

mountains themselves, proved akin to his heart; the emperor had exiled

him to his native land. He was in St Petersburg in 1838 and 1839, and in

the latter year wrote the novel, _A Hero of Our Time_, which is said to

have been the occasion of the duel in which he lost his life in July

1841. In this contest he had purposely selected the edge of a precipice,

so that if either combatant was wounded so as to fall his fate should be

sealed.

Lermontov published only one small collection of poems in 1840. Three

volumes, much mutilated by the censorship, were issued in 1842 by

Glazounov; and there have been full editions of his works in 1860 and

1863. To Bodenstedt's German translation of his poems (_Michail

Lermontov's poetischer Nachlass_, Berlin, 1842, 2 vols.), which indeed

was the first satisfactory collection, he is indebted for a wide

reputation outside of Russia. His novel has found several translators

(August Boltz, Berlin, 1852, &c.). Among his best-known pieces are

"Ismail-Bey," "Hadji Abrek," "Walerik," "The Novice," and, remarkable

as an imitation of the old Russian ballad, "The song of the tsar Ivan

Vasilivitch, his young bodyguard, and the bold merchant Kalashnikov."

See Taillandier, "Le Poète du Caucase," in _Revue des deux mondes_

(February 1855), reprinted in _Allemagne et Russie_ (Paris, 1856);

Duduishkin's "Materials for the Biography of Lermontov," prefixed to

the 1863 edition of his works. _The Demon_, translated by Sir

Alexander Condie Stephen (1875), is an English version of one of his

longer poems. (W. R. S. R.)

LEROUX, PIERRE (1798-1871), French philosopher and economist, was born

at Bercy near Paris on the 7th of April 1798, the son of an artisan. His

education was interrupted by the death of his father, which compelled

him to support his mother and family. Having worked first as a mason and

then as a compositor, he joined P. Dubois in the foundation of _Le

Globe_ which became in 1831 the official organ of the Saint-Simonian

community, of which he became a prominent member. In November of the

same year, when Enfantin preached the enfranchisement of women and the

functions of the _couple-prêtre_, Leroux separated himself from the

sect. In 1838, with J. Regnaud, who had seceded with him, he founded the

_Encyclopédie nouvelle_ (eds. 1838-1841). Amongst the articles which he

inserted in it were _De l'égalité_ and _Réfutation de l'éclectisme_,

which afterwards appeared as separate works. In 1840 he published his

treatise _De l'humanité_ (2nd ed. 1845), which contains the fullest

exposition of his system, and was regarded as the philosophical

manifesto of the Humanitarians. In 1841 he established the _Revue

indépendante_, with the aid of George Sand, over whom he had great

influence. Her _Spiridion_, which was dedicated to him, _Sept cordes de

la lyre_, _Consuelo_, and _La Comtesse de Rudolstadt_, were written

under the Humanitarian inspiration. In 1843 he established at Boussac

(Creuse) a printing association organized according to his systematic

ideas, and founded the _Revue sociale_. After the outbreak of the

revolution of 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and in

1849 to the Legislative Assembly, but his speeches on behalf of the

extreme socialist wing were of so abstract and mystical a character that

they had no effect. After the _coup d'état_ of 1851 he settled with his

family in Jersey, where he pursued agricultural experiments and wrote

his socialist poem _La Grève de Samarez_. On the definitive amnesty of

1869 he returned to Paris, where he died in April 1871, during the

Commune.

The writings of Leroux have no permanent significance in the history

of thought. He was the propagandist of sentiments and aspirations

rather than the expounder of a systematic theory. He has, indeed, a

system, but it is a singular medley of doctrines borrowed, not only

from Saint-Simonian, but from Pythagorean and Buddhistic sources. In

philosophy his fundamental principle is that of what he calls the

"triad"--a triplicity which he finds to pervade all things, which in

God is "power, intelligence and love," in man "sensation, sentiment

and knowledge." His religious doctrine is Pantheistic; and, rejecting

the belief in a future life as commonly conceived, he substitutes for

it a theory of metempsychosis. In social economy his views are very

vague; he preserves the family, country and property, but finds in all

three, as they now are, a despotism which must be eliminated. He

imagines certain combinations by which this triple tyranny can be

abolished, but his solution seems to require the creation of families

without heads, countries without governments and property without

rights of possession. In politics he advocates absolute equality--a

democracy pushed to anarchy.

See Raillard, _Pierre Leroux et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1899); Thomas,

_Pierre Leroux: sa vie, son oeuvre, sa doctrine_ (Paris, 1904); L.

Reybaud, _Études sur les réformateurs et socialistes modernes_;

article in R. H. Inglis Palgrave's _Dictionary of Pol. Econ._

LEROY-BEAULIEU, HENRI JEAN BAPTISTE ANATOLE (1842- ), French publicist,

was born at Lisieux, on the 12th of February 1842. In 1866 he published

_Une troupe de comédiens_, and afterwards _Essai sur la restauration de

nos monuments historiques devant l'art et devant le budget_, which deals

particularly with the restoration of the cathedral of Evreux. He visited

Russia in order to collect documents on the political and economic

organization of the Slav nations, and on his return published in the

_Revue des deux mondes_ (1882-1889) a series of articles, which appeared

shortly afterwards in book form under the title _L'Empire des tsars et

les Russes_ (4th ed., revised in 3 vols., 1897-1898). The work entitled

_Un empereur, un roi, un pape, une restauration_. published in 1879, was

an analysis and criticism of the politics of the Second Empire. _Un

homme d'état russe_ (1884) gave the history of the emancipation of the

serfs by Alexander II. Other works are _Les Catholiques libéraux,

l'église et le libéralisme_ (1890), _La Papauté, le socialisme et la

démocracie_ (1892), _Les Juifs et l'antisémitisme; Israël chez les

nations_ (1893), _Les Arméniens et la question arménienne_ (1896),

_L'Antisémitisme_ (1897), _Études russes et européennes_ (1897). These

writings, mainly collections of articles and lectures intended for the

general public, display enlightened views and wide information. In 1881

Leroy-Beaulieu was elected professor of contemporary history and eastern

affairs at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques, becoming director of

this institution on the death of Albert Sorel in 1906, and in 1887 he

became a member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques.

Two of Leroy-Beaulieu's works have been translated into English: one

as the _Empire of the Tsars and the Russians_, by Z. A. Regozin (New

York, 1893-1896), and another as _Papacy, Socialism, Democracy_, by B.

L. O'Donnell (1892). See W. E. H. Lecky, _Historical and Political

Essays_ (1908).

LEROY-BEAULIEU, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French economist, brother of the

preceding, was born at Saumur on the 9th of December 1843, and educated

in Paris at the Lycée Bonaparte and the École de Droit. He afterwards

studied at Bonn and Berlin, and on his return to Paris began to write

for _Le Temps_, _Revue nationale_ and _Revue contemporaine_. In 1867 he

won a prize offered by the Academy of Moral Science with an essay

entitled "L'Influence de l'état moral et intellectuel des populations

ouvrières sur le taux des salaires." In 1870 he gained three prizes for

essays on "La Colonization chez les peuples modernes," "L'Administration

en France et en Angleterre," and "L'Impôt foncier et ses conséquences

économiques." In 1872 Leroy-Beaulieu became professor of finance at the

newly-founded École Libre des Sciences Politiques, and in 1880 he

succeeded his father-in-law, Michel Chevalier, in the chair of political

economy in the Collège de France. Several of his works have made their

mark beyond the borders of his own country. Among these may be mentioned

his _Recherches économiques, historiques et statistiques sur les guerres

contemporaines_, a series of studies published between 1863 and 1869, in

which he calculated the loss of men and capital caused by the great

European conflicts. Other works by him are--_La Question monnaie au

dix-neuvième siècle_ (1861), _Le Travail des femmes au dix-neuvième

siècle_ (1873), _Traité de la science des finances_ (1877), _Essai sur

la repartition des richesses_ (1882), _L'Algérie et la Tunisie_ (1888),

_Précis d'économie politique_ (1888), and _L'État moderne et ses

fonctions_ (1889). He also founded in 1873 the _Économiste français_, on

the model of the English _Economist_. Leroy-Beaulieu may be regarded as

the leading representative in France of orthodox political economy, and

the most pronounced opponent of protectionist and collectivist

doctrines.

LERWICK, a municipal and police burgh of Shetland, Scotland, the most

northerly town in the British Isles. Pop. (1901) 4281. It is situated on

Brassay Sound, a fine natural harbour, on the east coast of the island

called Mainland, 115 m. N.E. of Kirkwall, in Orkney, and 340 m. from

Leith by steamer. The town dates from the beginning of the 17th century,

and the older part consists of a flagged causeway called Commercial

Street, running for 1 m. parallel with the sea (in which the gable ends

of several of the quaint-looking houses stand), and so narrow in places

as not to allow of two vehicles passing each other. At right angles to

this street lanes ascend the hill-side to Hillhead, where the more

modern structures and villas have been built. At the north end stands

Fort Charlotte, erected by Cromwell, repaired in 1665 by Charles II. and

altered in 1781 by George III., after whose queen it was named. It is

now used as a depôt for the Naval Reserve, for whom a large drill hall

was added. The Anderson Institute, at the south end, was constructed as

a secondary school in 1862 by Arthur Anderson, a native, who also

presented the Widows' Asylum in the same quarter, an institution

intended by preference for widows of Shetland sailors. The town-hall,

built in 1881, contains several stained-glass windows, two of which were

the gift of citizens of Amsterdam and Hamburg, in gratitude for services

rendered by the islanders to fishermen and seamen of those ports.

Lerwick's main industries are connected with the fisheries, of which it

is an important centre. Docks, wharves, piers, curing stations and

warehouses have been provided or enlarged to cope with the growth of the

trade, and an esplanade has been constructed along the front. The town

is also the chief distributing agency for the islands, and carries on

some business in knitted woollen goods. One mile west of Lerwick is

Clickimin Loch, separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land. On an

islet in the lake stands a ruined "broch" or round tower.

LE SAGE, ALAIN RENÉ (1668-1747), French novelist and dramatist, was born

at Sarzeau in the peninsula of Rhuys, between the Morbihan and the sea,

on the 13th of December 1668. Rhuys was a legal district, and Claude le

Sage, the father of the novelist, held the united positions of advocate,

notary and registrar of its royal court. His wife's name was Jeanne

Brenugat. Both father and mother died when Le Sage was very young, and

his property was wasted or embezzled by his guardians. Little is known

of his youth except that he went to school with the Jesuits at Vannes

until he was eighteen. Conjecture has it that he continued his studies

at Paris, and it is certain that he was called to the bar at the capital

in 1692. In August 1694 he married the daughter of a joiner, Marie

Elizabeth Huyard. She was beautiful but had no fortune, and Le Sage had

little practice. About this time he met his old schoolfellow, the

dramatist Danchet, and is said to have been advised by him to betake

himself to literature. He began modestly as a translator, and published

in 1695 a French version of the _Epistles_ of Aristaenetus, which was

not successful. Shortly afterwards he found a valuable patron and

adviser in the abbé de Lyonne, who bestowed on him an annuity of 600

livres, and recommended him to exchange the classics for Spanish

literature, of which he was himself a student and collector.

Le Sage began by translating plays chiefly from Rojas and Lope de Vega.

_Le Traitre puni_ and _Le Point d'honneur_ from the former, _Don Félix

de Mendoce_ from the latter, were acted or published in the first two or

three years of the 18th century. In 1704 he translated the continuation

of _Don Quixote_ by Avellaneda, and soon afterwards adapted a play from

Calderon, _Don César Ursin_, which had a divided fate, being successful

at court and damned in the city. He was, however, nearly forty before he

obtained anything like decided success. But in 1707 his admirable farce

of _Crispin rival de son maître_ was acted with great applause, and _Le

Diable boiteux_ was published. This latter went through several editions

in the same year, and was frequently reprinted till 1725, when Le Sage

altered and improved it considerably, giving it its present form.

Notwithstanding the success of _Crispin_, the actors did not like Le

Sage, and refused a small piece of his called _Les Étrennes_ (1707). He

thereupon altered it into _Turcaret_, his theatrical masterpiece, and

one of the best comedies in French literature. This appeared in 1709.

Some years passed before he again attempted romance writing, and then

the first two parts of _Gil Blas de Santillane_ appeared in 1715.

Strange to say, it was not so popular as _Le Diable boiteux_. Le Sage

worked at it for a long time, and did not bring out the third part till

1724, nor the fourth till 1735. For this last he had been part paid to

the extent of a hundred pistoles some years before its appearance.

During these twenty years he was, however, continually busy.

Notwithstanding the great merit and success of _Turcaret_ and _Crispin_,

the Théâtre Français did not welcome him, and in the year of the

publication of _Gil Blas_ he began to write for the Théâtre de la

Foire--the comic opera held in booths at festival time. This, though not

a very dignified occupation, was followed by many writers of distinction

at this date, and by none more assiduously than by Le Sage. According to

one computation he produced, either alone or with others, about a

hundred pieces, varying from strings of songs with no regular dialogues,

to comediettas only distinguished from regular plays by the introduction

of music. He was also industrious in prose fiction. Besides finishing

_Gil Blas_ he translated the _Orlando innamorato_ (1721), rearranged

_Guzman d'Alfarache_ (1732), published two more or less original novels,

_Le Bachelier de Salamanque_ and _Estévanille Gonzales_, and in 1733

produced the _Vie et aventures de M. de Beauchesne_, which is curiously

like certain works of Defoe. Besides all this, Le Sage was also the

author of _La Valise trouvée_, a collection of imaginary letters, and of

some minor pieces, of which _Une journée des parques_ is the most

remarkable. This laborious life he continued until 1740, when he was

more than seventy years of age. His eldest son had become an actor, and

Le Sage had disowned him, but the second was a canon at Boulogne in

comfortable circumstances. In the year just mentioned his father and

mother went to live with him. At Boulogne Le Sage spent the last seven

years of his life, dying on the 17th of November 1747. His last work,

_Mélange amusant de saillies d'esprit et de traits historiques les plus

frappants_, had appeared in 1743.

Not much is known of Le Sage's life and personality, and the foregoing

paragraph contains not only the most important but almost the only facts

available for it. The few anecdotes which we have of him represent him

as a man of very independent temper, declining to accept the

condescending patronage which in the earlier part of the century was

still the portion of men of letters. Thus it is said that, on being

remonstrated with, as he thought impolitely, for an unavoidable delay in

appearing at the duchess of Bouillon's house to read _Turcaret_, he at

once put the play in his pocket and retired, refusing absolutely to

return. It may, however, be said that as in time so in position he

occupies a place apart from most of the great writers of the 17th and

18th centuries respectively. He was not the object of royal patronage

like the first, nor the pet of _salons_ and coteries like the second.

Indeed, he seems all his life to have been purely domestic in his

habits, and purely literary in his interests.

The importance of Le Sage in French and in European literature is not

entirely the same, and he has the rare distinction of being more

important in the latter than in the former. His literary work may be

divided into three parts. The first contains his Théâtre de la Foire and

his few miscellaneous writings, the second his two remarkable plays

_Crispin_ and _Turcaret_, the third his prose fictions. In the first two

he swims within the general literary current in France; he can be and

must be compared with others of his own nation. But in the third he

emerges altogether from merely national comparison. It is not with

Frenchmen that he is to be measured. He formed no school in France; he

followed no French models. His work, admirable as it is from the mere

point of view of style and form, is a parenthesis in the general

development of the French novel. That product works its way from Madame

de la Fayette through Marivaux and Prévost, not through Le Sage. His

literary ancestors are Spaniards, his literary contemporaries and

successors are Englishmen. The position is almost unique; it is

certainly interesting and remarkable in the highest degree.

Of Le Sage's miscellaneous work, including his numerous farce-operettas,

there is not much to be said except that they are the very best kind of

literary hack-work. The pure and original style of the author, his

abundant wit, his cool, humoristic attitude towards human life, which

wanted only greater earnestness and a wider conception of that life to

turn it into true humour, are discernible throughout. But this portion

of his work is practically forgotten, and its examination is incumbent

only on the critic. _Crispin_ and _Turcaret_ show a stronger and more

deeply marked genius, which, but for the ill-will of the actors, might

have gone far in this direction. But Le Sage's peculiar unwillingness to

attempt anything absolutely new discovered itself here. Even when he had

devoted himself to the Foire theatre, it seems that he was unwilling to

attempt, when occasion called for it, the absolute innovation of a piece

with only one actor, a crux which Alexis Piron, a lesser but a bolder

genius, accepted and carried through. _Crispin_ and _Turcaret_ are

unquestionably Molièresque, though they are perhaps more original in

their following of Molière than any other plays that can be named. For

this also was part of Le Sage's idiosyncrasy that, while he was

apparently unable or unwilling to strike out an entirely novel line for

himself, he had no sooner entered upon the beaten path than he left it

to follow his own devices. _Crispin rival de son maître_ is a farce in

one act and many scenes, after the earlier manner of motion. Its plot

is somewhat extravagant, inasmuch as it lies in the effort of a knavish

valet, not as usual to further his master's interests, but to supplant

that master in love and gain. But the charm of the piece consists first

in the lively bustling action of the short scenes which take each other

up so promptly and smartly that the spectator has not time to cavil at

the improbability of the action, and secondly in the abundant wit of the

dialogue. _Turcaret_ is a far more important piece of work and ranks

high among comedies dealing with the actual society of their time. The

only thing which prevents it from holding the very highest place is a

certain want of unity in the plot. This want, however, is compensated in

_Turcaret_ by the most masterly profusion of character-drawing in the

separate parts. Turcaret, the ruthless, dishonest and dissolute

financier, his vulgar wife as dissolute as himself, the harebrained

marquis, the knavish chevalier, the baroness (a coquette with the finer

edge taken off her fine-ladyhood, yet by no means unlovable), are each

and all finished portraits of the best comic type, while almost as much

may be said of the minor characters. The style and dialogue are also

worthy of the highest praise; the wit never degenerates into mere

"wit-combats."

It is, however, as a novelist that the world has agreed to remember Le

Sage. A great deal of unnecessary labour has been spent on the

discussion of his claims to originality. What has been already said will

give a sufficient clue through this thorny ground. In mere form Le Sage

is not original. He does little more than adopt that of the Spanish

picaroon romance of the 16th and 17th century. Often, too, he prefers

merely to rearrange and adapt existing work, and still oftener to give

himself a kind of start by adopting the work of a preceding writer as a

basis. But it may be laid down as a positive truth that he never, in any

work that pretends to originality at all, is guilty of anything that can

fairly be called plagiarism. Indeed we may go further, and say that he

is very fond of asserting or suggesting his indebtedness when he is

really dealing with his own funds. Thus the _Diable boiteux_ borrows the

title, and for a chapter or two the plan and almost the words, of the

_Diablo Cojuelo_ of Luis Velez de Guevara. But after a few pages Le Sage

leaves his predecessor alone. Even the plan of the Spanish original is

entirely discarded, and the incidents, the episodes, the style, are as

independent as if such a book as the _Diablo Cojuelo_ had never existed.

The case of _Gil Blas_ is still more remarkable. It was at first alleged

that Le Sage had borrowed it from the _Marcos de Obregon_ of Vincent

Espinel, a curiously rash assertion, inasmuch as that work exists and is

easily accessible, and as the slightest consultation of it proves that,

though it furnished Le Sage with separate incidents and hints for more

than one of his books, _Gil Blas_ as a whole is not in the least

indebted to it. Afterwards Father Isla asserted that _Gil Blas_ was a

mere translation from an actual Spanish book--an assertion at once

incapable of proof and disproof, inasmuch as there is no trace whatever

of any such book. A third hypothesis is that there was some manuscript

original which Le Sage may have worked up in his usual way, in the same

way, for instance, as he professes himself to have worked up the

_Bachelor of Salamanca_. This also is in the nature of it incapable of

refutation, though the argument from the _Bachelor_ is strong against

it, for there could be no reason why Le Sage should be more reticent of

his obligations in the one case than in the other. Except, however, for

historical reasons, the controversy is one which may be safely

neglected, nor is there very much importance in the more impartial

indication of sources--chiefly works on the history of Olivares--which

has sometimes been attempted. That Le Sage knew Spanish literature well

is of course obvious; but there is as little doubt (with the limitations

already laid down) of his real originality as of that of any great

writer in the world. _Gil Blas_ then remains his property, and it is

admittedly the capital example of its own style. For Le Sage has not

only the characteristic, which Homer and Shakespeare have, of absolute

truth to human nature as distinguished from truth to this or that

national character, but he has what has been called the quality of

detachment, which they also have. He never takes sides with his

characters as Fielding (whose master, with Cervantes, he certainly was)

sometimes does. Asmodeus and Don Cleofas, Gil Blas and the Archbishop

and Doctor Sangrado, are produced by him with exactly the same

impartiality of attitude. Except that he brought into novel writing this

highest quality of artistic truth, it perhaps cannot be said that he did

much to advance prose fiction in itself. He invented, as has been said,

no new _genre_; he did not, as Marivaux and Prévost did, help on the

novel as distinguished from the romance. In form his books are

undistinguishable, not merely from the Spanish romances which are, as

has been said, their direct originals, but from the medieval _romans

d'aventures_ and the Greek prose romances. But in individual excellence

they have few rivals. Nor should it be forgotten, as it sometimes is,

that Le Sage was a great master of French style, the greatest

unquestionably between the classics of the 17th century and the classics

of the 18th. He is perhaps the last great writer before the decadence

(for since the time of Paul Louis Courier it has not been denied that

the _philosophe_ period is in point of style a period of decadence). His

style is perfectly easy at the same time that it is often admirably

epigrammatic. It has plenty of colour, plenty of flexibility, and may be

said to be exceptionally well fitted for general literary work.

The dates of the original editions of Le Sage's most important works

have already been given. He published during his life a collection of

his regular dramatic works, and also one of his pieces for the Foire,

but the latter is far from exhaustive; nor is there any edition which

can be called so, though the _Oeuvres choisies_ of 1782 and 1818 are

useful, and there are so-called _Oeuvres complètes_ of 1821 and 1840.

Besides critical articles by the chief literary critics and

historians, the work of Eugène Lintilhac, in the Grands _écrivains

français_ (1893), should be consulted. The _Diable boiteux_ and _Gil

Blas_ have been reprinted and translated numberless times. Both will

be found conveniently printed, together with _Estévanille Gonzales_

and _Guzman d'Alfarache_, the best of the minor novels, in four

volumes of Garnier's _Bibliothèque amusante_ (Paris, 1865). _Turcaret_

and _Crispin_ are to be found in all collected editions of the French

drama. There is a useful edition of them, with ample specimens of Le

Sage's work for the Foire, in two volumes (Paris, 1821). (G. Sa.)

LES ANDELYS, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in

the department of Eure about 30 m. S.E. of Rouen by rail. Pop. (1906)

3955. Les Andelys is formed by the union of Le Grand Andely and Le Petit

Andely, the latter situated on the right bank of the Seine, the former

about half a mile from the river. Grand Andely, founded, according to

tradition, in the 6th century, has a church (13th, 14th and 15th

centuries) parts of which are of fine late Gothic and Renaissance

architecture. The works of art in the interior include beautiful stained

glass of the latter period. Other interesting buildings are the hôtel du

Grand Cerf dating from the first half of the 16th century, and the

chapel of Sainte-Clotilde, close by a spring which, owing to its

supposed healing powers, is the object of a pilgrimage. Grand Andely has

a statue of Nicolas Poussin, a native of the place. Petit Andely sprang

up at the foot of the eminence on which stands the château Gaillard, now

in ruins, but formerly one of the strongest fortresses in France (see

FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT and CASTLE). It was built by Richard Coeur

de Lion at the end of the 12th century to protect the Norman frontier,

was captured by the French in 1204 and passed finally into their

possession in 1449. The church of St Sauveur at Petit Andely also dates

from the end of the 12th century. Les Andelys is the seat of a

sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance, has a preparatory

infantry school; it carries on silk milling, and the manufacture of

leather, organs and sugar. It has trade in cattle, grain, flour, &c.

LES BAUX, a village of south-eastern France, in the department of

Bouches-du-Rhône, 11 m. N.E. of Arles by road. Pop. (1906) 111. Les

Baux, which in the middle ages was a flourishing town, is now almost

deserted. Apart from a few inhabited dwellings, it consists of an

assemblage of ruined towers, fallen walls and other débris, which cover

the slope of a hill crowned by the remains of a huge château, once the

seat of a celebrated "court of love." The ramparts, a medieval church,

the château, parts of which date to the 11th century, and many of the

dwellings are, in great part, hollowed out of the white friable

limestone on which they stand. Here and there may be found houses

preserving carved façades of Renaissance workmanship. Les Baux has given

its name to the reddish rock (bauxite) which is plentiful in the

neighbourhood and from which aluminium is obtained. In the middle ages

Les Baux was the seat of a powerful family which owned the Terre

Baussenques, extensive domains in Provence and Dauphiné. The influence

of the seigneurs de Baux in Provence declined before the power of the

house of Anjou, to which they abandoned many of their possessions. In

1632 the château and the ramparts were dismantled.