who was born in Paris on the 14th of April 1728, the son of a
silversmith. He was educated at the Collège Mazarin, and joined an
amateur company of players against which the Comédie Française obtained
an injunction. Voltaire supported him for a time and enabled him to act
in his private theatre and also before the duchess of Maine. Owing to
the hostility of the actors it was only after a struggle of seventeen
months that, by the command of Louis XV., he was received at the Comédie
Française. His success was immediate. Among his best parts were Herod in
_Mariamne_, Nero in _Britannicus_ and similar tragic rôles, in spite of
the fact that he was short and stout, with irregular and rather common
features. His name is connected with a number of important scenic
reforms. It was he who had the benches removed on which privileged
spectators formerly sat encumbering the stage, Count Lauragais paying
for him an excessive indemnity demanded. Lekain also protested against
the method of sing-song declamation prevalent, and endeavoured to
correct the costuming of the plays, although unable to obtain the
historic accuracy at which Talma aimed. He died in Paris on the 8th of
February 1778.
His eldest son published his _Mémoires_ (1801) with his correspondence
with Voltaire, Garrick and others. They were reprinted with a preface
by Talma in _Mémoires sur l'art dramatique_ (1825).
LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-1903), American author, son of a merchant,
was born at Philadelphia on the 15th of August 1824, and graduated at
Princeton in 1845. He afterwards studied at Heidelberg, Munich and
Paris. He was in Paris during the revolution of 1848, and took an active
part in it. He then returned to Philadelphia, and after being admitted
to the bar in 1851, devoted himself to contributing to periodicals,
editing various magazines and writing books. At the opening of the Civil
War he started at Boston the _Continental Magazine_, which advocated
emancipation. In 1868 he became known as the humorous author of _Hans
Breitmann's Party and Ballads_, which was followed by other volumes of
the same kind, collected in 1871 with the title of _Hans Breitmann's
Ballads_. These dialect poems, burlesquing the German American, at once
became popular. In 1869 he went to Europe, and till 1880 was occupied,
chiefly in London, with literary work; after returning to Philadelphia
for six years, he again made his home in Europe, generally at Florence,
where he died on the 20th of March 1903. Though his humorous verses were
most attractive to the public, Leland was a serious student of
folk-lore, particularly of the gipsies, his writings on the latter (_The
English Gypsies and their Language_, 1872; _The Gypsies_, 1882; _Gypsy
Sorcery and Fortune-telling_ ..., 1891, &c.) being recognized as
valuable contributions to the literature of the subject. He was
president of the first European folk-lore congress, held in Paris in
1889.
His other publications include _Poetry and Mystery of Dreams_ (1855),
_Meister Karl's Sketch-book_ (1855), _Pictures of Travel_ (1856),
_Sunshine in Thought_ (1862), _Heine's Book of Songs_ (1862), _The Music
Lesson of Confucius_ (1870), _Egyptian Sketch-book_ (1873), _Abraham
Lincoln_ (1879), _The Minor Arts_ (1880), _Algonquin Legends of New
England_ (1884), _Songs of the Sea and Lays of the Land_ (1895), _Hans
Breitmann in Tyrol_ (1895), _One Hundred Profitable Acts_ (1897),
_Unpublished Legends of Vergil_ (1899), _Kuloskap the Master, and other
Algonquin Poems_ (1903, with J. Dyneley Prince).
See his _Memoirs_ (2 vols., 1893), and E. R. Pennell, _C. G. Leland_
(1906).
LELAND (LEYLAND or LAYLONDE), JOHN (c. 1506-1552), English antiquary,
was born in London on the 13th of September, probably in 1506. He owed
his education at St Paul's school under William Lilly, and at Christ's
College, Cambridge, to the kindness of a patron, Thomas Myles. He
graduated at Cambridge in 1521, and subsequently studied at All Souls
College, Oxford, and in Paris under François Dubois (Sylvius). On his
return to England he took holy orders. He had been tutor to Lord Thomas
Howard, son of the 3rd duke of Norfolk, and to Francis Hastings,
afterwards earl of Huntingdon. Meanwhile his learning had recommended
him to Henry VIII., who presented him to the rectory of Peuplingues in
the marches of Calais in 1530. He was already librarian and chaplain to
the king, and in 1533 he received a novel commission under the great
seal as king's antiquary, with power to search for records, manuscripts
and relics of antiquity in all the cathedrals, colleges and religious
houses of England. Probably from 1534, and definitely from 1536 onwards
to 1542, he was engaged on an antiquarian tour through England and
Wales. He sought to preserve the MSS. scattered at the dissolution of
the monasteries, but his powers did not extend to the actual collection
of MSS. Some valuable additions, however, he did procure for the king's
library, chiefly from the abbey of St Augustine at Canterbury. He had
received a special dispensation permitting him to absent himself from
his rectory of Peuplingues in 1536, and on his return from his itinerary
he received the rectory of Haseley in Oxfordshire; his support of the
church policy of Henry and Cranmer being further rewarded by a canonry
and prebend of King's College (now Christ Church), Oxford, and a prebend
of Salisbury. In a _Strena Henrico_[1] (pr. 1546), addressed to Henry
VIII. in 1545, he proposed to execute from the materials which he had
collected in his journeys a topography of England, an account of the
adjacent islands, an account of the British nobility, and a great
history of the antiquities of the British Isles. He toiled over his
papers at his house in the parish of St Michael le Querne, Cheapside,
London, but he was not destined to complete these great undertakings,
for he was certified insane in March 1550, and died on the 18th of April
1552.
Leland was an exact observer, and a diligent student of local
chronicles. The bulk of his work remained in MS. at the time of his
death, and various copies were made, one by John Stowe in 1576. After
passing through various hands the greater part of Leland's MSS. were
deposited by William Burton, the historian of Leicestershire, in the
Bodleian at Oxford. They had in the meantime been freely used by other
antiquaries, notably by John Bale, William Camden and Sir William
Dugdale. The account of his journey in England and Wales in eight MS.
quarto volumes received its name _The Itinerary of John Leland_ from
Thomas Burton and was edited by Thomas Hearne (9 vols., Oxford,
1710-1712; other editions in 1745 and 1770). The scattered portions
dealing with Wales were re-edited by Miss L. Toulmin Smith in 1907.
His other most important work, the _Collectanea_, in four folio MS.
volumes, was also published by Hearne (6 vols., Oxford, 1715). His
_Commentarii de scriptoribus Britannicis_, which had been used and
distorted by his friend John Bale, was edited by Anthony Hall (2
vols., Oxford, 1709). Some of Leland's MSS., which formerly belonged
to Sir Robert Cotton, passed into the possession of the British
Museum. He was a Latin poet of some merit, his most famous piece being
the _Cygneo Cantio_ (1545) in honour of Henry VIII. Many of his minor
works are included in Hearne's editions of the _Itinerary_ and the
_Collectanea_.
For accounts of Leland see John Bale, _Catalogus_ (1557); Anthony à
Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_; W. Huddesford, _Lives of those eminent
Antiquaries John Leland, Thomas Hearne and Anthony à Wood_ (Oxford,
1772). A life of Leland, attributed to Edward Burton (c. 1750), from
the library of Sir Thomas Phillipps, printed in 1896 contains a
bibliography. See also the biography by Sidney Lee, in the _Dict. Nat.
Biog._
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Re-edited in 1549 by John Bale as _The laboryeuse Journey and
Serche of J. Leylande for Englandes Antiquitees geven of him for a
Neu Yeares Gifte, &c._, modern edition by W. A. Copinger (Manchester,
1895).
LELAND, JOHN (1691-1766), English Nonconformist divine, was born at
Wigan, Lancashire, and educated in Dublin, where he made such progress
that in 1716, without having attended any college or hall, he was
appointed first assistant and afterwards sole pastor of a congregation
of Presbyterians in New Row. This office he continued to fill until his
death on the 16th of January 1766. He received the degree of D.D. from
Aberdeen in 1739. His first publication was _A Defence of Christianity_
(1733), in reply to Matthew Tindal's _Christianity as old as the
Creation_; it was succeeded by his _Divine Authority of the Old and New
Testaments asserted_ (1738), in answer to _The Moral Philosopher_ of
Thomas Morgan; in 1741 he published two volumes, in the form of two
letters, being _Remarks on_ [H. Dodwell's] _Christianity not founded on
Argument_; and in 1753 _Reflexions on the late Lord Bolingbroke's
Letters on the Study and Use of History_. His _View of the Principal
Deistical Writers that have appeared in England_ was published in
1754-1756. This is the chief work of Leland--"most worthy, painstaking
and commonplace of divines," as Sir Leslie Stephen called him--and in
spite of many defects and inconsistencies is indispensable to every
student of the deistic movement of the 18th century.
His _Discourses on various Subjects_, with a _Life_ prefixed, was
published posthumously (4 vols., 1768-1789).
LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY, near Palo Alto, California, U.S.A., in
the beautiful Santa Clara valley, was founded in 1885 by Leland
Stanford[1] (1824-1893), and by his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford
(1825-1905), as a memorial to their only child, Leland Stanford, Jr.,
who died in 1884 in his seventeenth year. The doors were opened in 1891
to 559 students. The university campus consists of Stanford's former
Palo Alto farm, which comprises about 9000 acres. From the campus there
are charming views of San Francisco Bay, of the Coast Range,
particularly of Mount Hamilton some 30 m. E. with the Lick Observatory
on its summit, of mountain foothills, and of the magnificent redwood
forests toward Santa Cruz.
The buildings, designed originally by H. H. Richardson and completed by
his successors, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, are of soft buff sandstone
in a style adapted from the old California mission (Moorish-Romanesque)
architecture, being long and low with wide colonnades, open arches and
red tiled roofs. An outer surrounds an inner quadrangle of buildings.
The inner quadrangle, about a court which is 586 by 246 ft. and is
faced by a continuous open arcade and adorned with large circular beds
of tropical plants and flowers, consists of twelve one-storey buildings
and a beautiful memorial church. Of the fourteen buildings of the outer
quadrangle some are two storeys high. A magnificent memorial arch (100
ft. high), adorned with a frieze designed by John Evans, representing
the "Progress of Civilization in America," and forming the main gateway,
was destroyed by the earthquake of 1906. Outside the quadrangles are
other buildings--a museum of art and archaeology, based on collections
made by Leland Stanford, Jr., chemical laboratories, engineering
work-shops, dormitories, a mausoleum of the founders, &c. There is a
fine arboretum (300 acres) and a cactus garden. The charming views, the
grace and harmonious colours of the buildings, and the tropic vegetation
make a campus of wonderful beauty. The students in 1907-1908 numbered
1738, of whom 126 were graduates, 99 special students, and 500 women.[2]
The university library (with the library of the law department)
contained in 1908 about 107,000 volumes. A marine biological laboratory,
founded by Timothy Hopkins, is maintained at Pacific Grove on the Bay of
Monterey. The university has an endowment from its founders estimated at
$30,000,000, including three great estates with 85,000 acres of farm and
vineyard lands, and several smaller tracts; but the endowment was very
largely in interest-bearing securities, income from which was
temporarily cut off in the early years of the university's life by
litigation. The founders wished the university "to qualify students for
personal success and direct usefulness in life; to promote the public
welfare by exercising an influence in behalf of humanity and
civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty regulated by law, and
inculcating love and reverence for the great principles of government as
derived from the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness." There are no inflexible entrance requirements as
to particular studies except English composition to ensure a degree of
mental maturity, the minimum amount of preparation is fixed as that
which should be given by four years in a secondary school, leaving to
the applicants a wide choice of subjects (35 in 1906) ranging from
ancient history to woodworking and machine shop. In the curriculum,
liberty perhaps even greater than at Harvard is allowed as to
"electives." Work on some one major subject occupies about one-third of
the undergraduate course; the remaining two-thirds (or more) is purely
elective. The influence of sectarianism and politics is barred from the
university by its charter, and by its private origin and private
support. At the same time in its policy it is practically a state
university of the most liberal type. Instruction is entirely free. The
president of the university has the initiative in all appointments and
in all matters of general policy. Within the university faculty power
lies in an academic council, and, more particularly, in an advisory
board of nine professors, elected by the academic council, to which all
propositions of the president are submitted. The growth of the
university has been steady, and its conduct careful. David Starr
Jordan[3] was its first president.
See O. H. Elliot and O. V. Eaton, _Stanford University and
thereabouts_ (San Francisco, 1896), and the official publications of
the university.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Stanford was born in Watervliet, New York; studied law in Albany;
removed to California in 1852 and went into business at Michigan
Bluff, Placer county, whence he removed to Sacramento in 1856; was
made president in 1861 of the Central Pacific railroad company, which
built the first trans-continental railway line over the Sierra
Nevada; was governor of California in 1862-1863, and United States
senator in 1885-1893; and was owner of the great Vina farm (55,000
acres) in Tehama county, containing the largest vineyard in the world
(13,400 acres), the Gridley tract (22,000 acres) in Butte county, and
the Palo Alto breeding farm, which was the home of his famous
thoroughbred racers, Electioneer, Arion, Sunol, Palo Alto and
Advertiser.
[2] The number of women attending the university as students in any
semester is limited by the founding grant to 500.
[3] President Jordan was born in 1851 at Gainesville, New York; was
educated at Cornell, where he taught botany for a time; became an
assistant to the United States fish commission in 1872; in 1885-1891
was president of the university of Indiana, where from 1879 he had
been professor of zoology; and in 1891 was elected president of
Leland Stanford Jr. University. An eminent ichthyologist, he wrote,
with Barton Warren Evermann (b. 1853), of the United States Bureau of
Fisheries, _Fishes of North and Middle America_ (4 vols., 1896-1900),
and _Food and Game Fishes of North America_ (1902); and prepared _A
Guide to the Study of Fishes_ (1905).
LELEGES, the name applied by Greek writers to an early people or peoples
of which traces were believed to remain in Greek lands.
1. _In Asia Minor._--In Homer the Leleges are allies of the Trojans, but
they do not occur in the formal catalogue in _Iliad_, bk. ii., and
their habitat is not specified. They are distinguished from the Carians,
with whom some later writers confused them; they have a king Altes, and
a town Pedasus which was sacked by Achilles. The name Pedasus occurs
(i.) near Cyzicus, (ii.) in the Troad on the Satnioeis river, (iii.) in
Caria, as well as (iv.) in Messenia. Alcaeus (7th-6th centuries B.C.)
calls Antandrus in the Troad Lelegian, but Herodotus (5th century)
substitutes Pelasgian (q.v.). Gargara in the Troad also counted as
Lelegian. Pherecydes (5th century) attributed to Leleges the coast land
of Caria from Ephesus to Phocaea, with the islands of Samos and Chios,
placing the "true Carians" farther south from Ephesus to Miletus. If
this statement be from Pherecydes of Leros (c. 480) it has great weight.
In the 4th century, however, Philippus of Theangela in south Caria
describes Leleges still surviving as serfs of the true Carians, and
Strabo, in the 1st century B.C., attributes to the Leleges a well-marked
group of deserted forts, tombs and dwellings which ranged (and can still
be traced) from the neighbourhood of Theangela and Halicarnassus as far
north as Miletus, the southern limit of the "true Carians" of
Pherecydes. Plutarch also implies the historic existence of Lelegian
serfs at Tralles in the interior.
2. _In Greece and the Aegean._--A single passage in the Hesiodic
catalogue (fr. 136 Kinkel) places Leleges "in Deucalion's time," i.e. as
a primitive people, in Locris in central Greece. Not until the 4th
century B.C. does any other writer place them anywhere west of the
Aegean. But the confusion of the Leleges with the Carians (immigrant
conquerors akin to Lydians and Mysians, and probably to Phrygians) which
first appears in a Cretan legend (quoted by Herodotus, but repudiated,
as he says, by the Carians themselves) and is repeated by Callisthenes,
Apollodorus and other later writers, led easily to the suggestion of
Callisthenes, that Leleges joined the Carians in their (half legendary)
raids on the coasts of Greece. Meanwhile other writers from the 4th
century onwards claimed to discover them in Boeotia, west Acarnania
(Leucas), and later again in Thessaly, Euboea, Megara, Lacedaemon and
Messenia. In Messenia they were reputed immigrant founders of Pylos, and
were connected with the seafaring Taphians and Teleboans of Homer, and
distinguished from the Pelasgians; in Lacedaemon and in Leucas they were
believed to be aboriginal. These European Leleges must be interpreted in
connexion with the recurrence of place names like Pedasus, Physcus,
Larymna and Abae, (a) in Caria, and (b) in the "Lelegian" parts of
Greece; perhaps this is the result of some early migration; perhaps it
is also the cause of these Lelegian theories.
Modern speculations (mainly corollaries of Indo-Germanic theory) add
little of value to the Greek accounts quoted above. H. Kiepert ("Über
den Volksstamm der Leleges," in _Monatsber. Berl. Akad._, 1861, p.
114) makes the Leleges an aboriginal people akin to Albanians and
Illyrians; K. W. Deimling, _Die Leleger_ (Leipzig, 1862), starts them
in south-west Asia Minor, and brings them thence to Greece
(practically the Greek view); G. F. Unger, "Hellas in Thessalien," in
_Philologus_, Suppl. ii. (1863), makes them Phoenician, and derives
their name from [Greek: lalazein] (cf. the names [Greek: barbaros],
_Wälsche_). E. Curtius (_History of Greece_, i.) distinguished a
"Lelegian" phase of nascent Aegean culture. Most later writers follow
Deimling. For Strabo's "Lelegian" monuments, cf. Paton and Myres,
_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xvi. 188-270. (J. L. M.)
LELEWEL, JOACHIM (1786-1861), Polish historian, geographer and
numismatist, was born at Warsaw on the 22nd of March 1786. His family
came from Prussia in the early part of the 18th century; his grandfather
was appointed physician to the reigning king of Poland, and his father
caused himself to be naturalized as a Polish citizen. The original form
of the name appears to have been Lölhöffel. Joachim was educated at the
university of Vilna, and became in 1807 a teacher in a school at
Krzemieniec in Volhynia, in 1814 teacher of history at Vilna, and in
1818 professor and librarian at the university of Warsaw. He returned to
Vilna in 1821. His lectures enjoyed great popularity, and enthusiasm
felt for him by the students is shown in the beautiful lines addressed
to him by Mickiewicz. But this very circumstance made him obnoxious to
the Russian government, and at Vilna Novosiltsev was then all-powerful.
Lelewel was removed from his professorship in 1824, and returned to
Warsaw, where he was elected a deputy to the diet in 1829. He joined the
revolutionary movement with more enthusiasm than energy, and though the
emperor Nicholas I. distinguished him as one of the most dangerous
rebels, did not appear to advantage as a man of action. On the
suppression of the rebellion he made his way in disguise to Germany, and
subsequently reached Paris in 1831. The government of Louis Philippe
ordered him to quit French territory in 1833 at the request of the
Russian ambassador. The cause of this expulsion is said to have been his
activity in writing revolutionary proclamations. He went to Brussels,
where for nearly thirty years he earned a scanty livelihood by his
writings. He died on the 29th of May 1861 in Paris, whither he had
removed a few days previously.
Lelewel, a man of austere character, simple tastes and the loftiest
conception of honour, was a lover of learning for its own sake. His
literary activity was enormous, extending from his _Edda Skandinawska_
(1807) to his _Géographie des Arabes_ (2 vols., Paris, 1851). One of his
most important publications was _La Géographie du moyen âge_ (5 vols.,
Brussels, 1852-1857), with an atlas (1849) of plates entirely engraved
by himself, for he rightly attached such importance to the accuracy of
his maps that he would not allow them to be executed by any one else.
His works on Polish history are based on minute and critical study of
the documents; they were collected under the title _Polska, dzieje i
rzeczy jej rozpatrzywane_ (_Poland, her History and Affairs surveyed_),
in 20 vols. (Posen, 1853-1876). He intended to write a complete history
of Poland on an extensive scale, but never accomplished the task. His
method is shown in the little history of Poland, first published at
Warsaw in Polish in 1823, under the title _Dzieje Polski_, and
afterwards almost rewritten in the _Histoire de Pologne_ (2 vols.,
Paris, 1844). Other works on Polish history which may be especially
mentioned are _La Pologne au moyen âge_ (3 vols., Posen, 1846-1851), an
edition of the _Chronicle of Matthew Cholewa_[1] (1811) and _Ancient
Memorials of Polish Legislation_ (_Ksiegi ustaw polskich i
mazowieckich_). He also wrote on the trade of Carthage, on Pytheas of
Marseilles, the geographer, and two important works on numismatics (_La
Numismatique du moyen âge_, Paris, 2 vols., 1835; _Études
numismatiques_, Brussels, 1840). While employed in the university
library of Warsaw he studied bibliography, and the fruits of his labours
may be seen in his _Bibliograficznych Ksiag dwoje_ (_A Couple of Books
on Bibliography_) (2 vols., Vilna, 1823-1826). The characteristics of
Lelewel as an historian are great research and power to draw inferences
from his facts; his style is too often careless, and his narrative is
not picturesque, but his expressions are frequently terse and incisive.
He left valuable materials for a just comprehension of his career in
the autobiography (_Adventures while Prosecuting Researches and
Inquiries on Polish Matters_) printed in his _Polska_.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] I.e. the three first books of the _Historia Polonica_ of
Vincentius (Kadlbek), bishop of Cracow (d. 1223), wrongly ascribed by
Lelewel to Matthaeus Cholewa, bishop of Cracow. See Potthast,
_Bibliotheca hist, med. aev., s.v._ "Vincentius."
LELONG, JACQUES (1665-1721), French bibliographer, was born at Paris on
the 19th of April 1665. He was a priest of the Oratory, and was
librarian to the establishment of the Order in Paris, where he spent his
life in seclusion. He died at Paris on the 13th of August 1721. He first
published a _Bibliotheca sacra_ (1709), an index of all the editions of
the Bible, then a _Bibliothèque historique de la France_ (1719), a
volume of considerable size, containing 17,487 items to which Lelong
sometimes appends useful notes. His work is far from complete. He vainly
hoped that his friend and successor Father Desmolets, would continue it;
but it was resumed by Charles-Marie Fevret de Fontette, a councillor of
the parlement of Dijon, who spent fifteen years of his life and a great
deal of money in rewriting the _Bibliothèque historique_. The first two
volumes (1768 and 1769) contained as many as 29,143 items. Fevret de
Fontette died on the 16th of February 1772, leaving the third volume
almost finished. It appeared in 1772, thanks to Barbaud de La Bruyère,
who later brought out the 4th and 5th volumes (1775 and 1778). In this
new edition the _Bibliothèque historique_ is a work of reference of the
highest order; it is still of great value.
LELY, SIR PETER (1617-1680) English painter, was born at Soest,
Westphalia, in 1617. His father, a military captain and a native of
Holland, was originally called van der Vaes; the nickname of Le Lys or
Lely, by which he was generally known, was adopted by his son as a
surname. After studying for two years under Peter de Grebber, an artist
of some note at Haarlem, Lely, induced by the patronage of Charles I.
for the fine arts, removed to England in 1641. There he at first painted
historical subjects and landscape; he soon became so eminent in his
profession as to be employed by Charles to paint his portrait shortly
after the death of Vandyck. He afterwards portrayed Cromwell. At the
Restoration his genius and agreeable manners won the favour of Charles
II., who made him his state-painter, and afterwards knighted him. He
formed a famous collection, the best of his time, containing drawings,
prints and paintings by the best masters; it sold by auction for no less
than £26,000. His great example, however, was Vandyck, whom, in some of
his most successful pieces, he almost rivals. Lely's paintings are
carefully finished, warm and clear in colouring, and animated in design.
The graceful posture of the heads, the delicate rounding of the hands,
and the broad folds of the draperies are admired in many of his
portraits. The eyes of the ladies are drowsy with languid sentiment, and
allegory of a commonplace sort is too freely introduced. His most famous
work is a collection of portraits of the ladies of the court of Charles
II., known as "the Beauties," formerly at Windsor Castle, and now
preserved at Hampton Court Palace. Of his few historical pictures, the
best is "Susannah and the Elders," at Burleigh House. His "Jupiter and
Europa," in the duke of Devonshire's collection, is also worthy of note.
Lely was nearly as famous for crayon work as for oil-painting. Towards
the close of his life he often retired to an estate which he had bought
at Kew. He died of apoplexy in the Piazza, Covent Garden, London, and
was buried in Covent Garden church, where a monument was afterwards
erected to his memory. Pepys characterized Lely as "a mighty proud man
and full of state." The painter married an English lady of family, and
left a son and daughter, who died young. His only disciples were J.
Greenhill and J. Buckshorn; he did not, however, allow them to obtain an
insight into his special modes of work. (W. M. R.)
LE MAÇON (or LE MASSON), ROBERT (c. 1365-1443), chancellor of France,
was born at Château du Loir, Sarthe. He was ennobled in March 1401, and
became six years later a councillor of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king
of Sicily. A partisan of the house of Orleans, he was appointed
chancellor to Isabella of Bavaria on the 29th of January 1414, on the
20th of July commissary of the mint, and in June 1416 chancellor to the
count of Ponthieu, afterwards Charles VII. On the 16th of August he
bought the barony of Trèves in Anjou, and henceforward bore the title of
seigneur of Trèves. When Paris was surprised by the Burgundians on the
night of the 29th of May 1418 he assisted Tanguy Duchâtel in saving the
dauphin. His devotion to the cause of the latter having brought down on
him the wrath of John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, he was excluded
from the political amnesty known as the peace of Saint Maur des Fossés,
though he retained his seat on the king's council. He was by the
dauphin's side when John the Fearless was murdered at the bridge of
Montereau on the 10th of September 1419. He resigned the seals at the
beginning of 1422; but he continued to exercise great influence, and in
1426 he effected a reconciliation between the king and the duke of
Brittany. Having been captured by Jean de Langeac, seneschal of
Auvergne, in August of the same year, he was shut up for three months in
the château of Usson. When set at liberty he returned to court, where he
staunchly supported Joan of Arc against all the cabals that menaced her.
It was he who signed the patent of nobility for the Arc family in
December 1429. In 1430 he was once more entrusted with an embassy to
Brittany. Having retired from political life in 1436, he died on the
28th of January 1443, and was interred at Trèves, where his epitaph may
still be seen.
See C. Bourcier, "Robert le Masson," in the _Revue historique de
l'Anjou_ (1873); and the _Nouvelle biographie générale_, vol. xxx.
(J. V.*)
LE MAIRE DE BELGES, JEAN (1473-c. 1525), French poet and
historiographer, was born at Bavai in Hainault. He was a nephew of Jean
Molinet, and spent some time with him at Valenciennes, where the elder
writer held a kind of academy of poetry. Le Maire in his first poems
calls himself a disciple of Molinet. In certain aspects he does belong
to the school of the _grands rhétoriqueurs_, but his great merit as a
poet is that he emancipated himself from the affectations and
puerilities of his masters. This independence of the Flemish school he
owed in part perhaps to his studies at the university of Paris and to
the study of the Italian poets at Lyons, a centre of the French
renascence. In 1503 he was attached to the court of Margaret of Austria,
duchess of Savoy, afterwards regent of the Netherlands. For this
princess he undertook more than one mission to Rome; he became her
librarian and a canon of Valenciennes. To her were addressed his most
original poems, _Epistres de l'amand verd_, the _amant vert_ being a
green parrot belonging to his patroness. Le Maire gradually became more
French in his sympathies, eventually entering the service of Anne of
Brittany. His prose _Illustrations des Gaules et singularitez de Troye_
(1510-1512), largely adapted from Benoît de Sainte More, connects the
Burgundian royal house with Hector. Le Maire probably died before 1525.
Étienne Pasquier, Ronsard and Du Bellay all acknowledged their
indebtedness to him. In his love for antiquity, his sense of rhythm, and
even the peculiarities of his vocabulary he anticipated the _Pléiade_.
His works were edited in 1882-1885 by J. Stecher, who wrote the
article on him in the _Biographie nationale de Belgique_.
LEMAÎTRE, FRANÇOIS ÉLIE JULES (1853- ), French critic and dramatist,
was born at Vennecy (Loiret) on the 27th of April 1853. He became a
professor at the university of Grenoble, but he had already become known
by his literary criticisms, and in 1884 he resigned his position to
devote himself entirely to literature. He succeeded J. J. Weiss as
dramatic critic of the _Journal des Débats_, and subsequently filled the
same office on the _Revue des Deux Mondes_. His literary studies were
collected under the title of _Les Contemporains_ (7 series, 1886-1899),
and his dramatic _feuilletons as Impressions de théâtre_ (10 series,
1888-1898). His sketches of modern authors are interesting for the
insight displayed in them, the unexpectedness of the judgments and the
gaiety and originality of their expression. He published two volumes of
poetry: _Les Médaillons_ (1880) and _Petites orientales_ (1883); also
some volumes of _contes_, among them _En marge des vieux livres_ (1905).
His plays are: _Révoltée_ (1889), _Le député Leveau_, and _Le Mariage
blanc_ (1891), _Les Rois_ (1893), _Le Pardon_ and _L'Age difficile_
(1895), _La Massière_ (1905) and _Bertrade_ (1906). He was admitted to
the French Academy on the 16th of January 1896. His political views were
defined in _La Campagne nationaliste_ (1902), lectures delivered in the
provinces by him and by G. Cavaignac. He conducted a nationalist
campaign in the _Écho de Paris_, and was for some time president of the
Ligue de la Patrie Française, but resigned in 1904, and again devoted
himself to literature.
LE MANS, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of
Sarthe, 77 m. S.W. of Chartres on the railway from Paris to Brest. Pop.
(1906) town, 54,907, commune, 65,467. It is situated just above the
confluence of the Sarthe and the Huisne, on an elevation rising from the
left bank of the Sarthe. Several bridges connect the old town and the
new quarters which have sprung up round it with the more extensive
quarter of Pré on the right bank. Modern thoroughfares are gradually
superseding the winding and narrow streets of old houses; a tunnel
connects the Place des Jacobins with the river side. The cathedral,
built in the highest part of the town, was originally founded by St
Julian, to whom it is dedicated. The nave dates from the 11th and 12th
centuries. In the 13th century the choir was enlarged in the grandest
and boldest style of that period. The transepts, which are higher than
the nave, were rebuilt in the 15th century, and the bell-tower of the
south transept, the lower part of which is Romanesque, was rebuilt in
the 15th and 16th centuries. Some of the stained glass in the nave,
dating from the first half of the 12th century, is the oldest in France;
the west window, representing the legend of St Julian, is especially
interesting. The south lateral portal (12th century) is richly
decorated, and its statuettes exhibit many costumes of the period. The
austere simplicity of the older part of the building is in striking
contrast with the lavish richness of the ornamentation in the choir,
where the stained glass is especially fine. The rose-window (15th
century) of the north transept, representing the Last Judgment, contains
many historical figures. The cathedral also has curious tapestries and
some remarkable tombs, including that of Berengaria, queen of Richard
Coeur de Lion. Close to the western wall is a megalithic monument nearly
15 ft. in height. The church of La Couture, which belonged to an old
abbey founded in the 7th century by St Bertrand, has a porch of the 13th
century with fine statuary; the rest of the building is older. The
church of Notre-Dame du Pré, on the right bank of the Sarthe, is
Romanesque in style. The hôtel de ville was built in 1756 on the site of
the former castle of the counts of Maine; the prefecture (1760) occupies
the site of the monastery of La Couture, and contains the library, the
communal archives, and natural history and art collections; there is
also an archaeological museum. Among the old houses may be mentioned the
Hôtel du Grabatoire of the Renaissance, once a hospital for the canons
and the so-called house of Queen Berengaria (16th century), meeting
place of the historical and archaeological society of Maine. A monument
to General Chanzy commemorates the battle of Le Mans (1871). Le Mans is
the seat of a bishopric dating from the 3rd century, of a prefect, and
of a court of assizes, and headquarters of the IV. army corps. It has
also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of
trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of
France, an exchange, a lycée for boys, training colleges, a higher
ecclesiastical seminary and a school of music. The town has a great
variety of industries, carried on chiefly in the southern suburb of
Pontlieue. The more important are the state manufacture of tobacco, the
preparation of preserved vegetables, fish, &c., tanning, hemp-spinning,
bell-founding, flour-milling, the founding of copper and other metals,
and the manufacture of railway wagons, machinery and engineering
material, agricultural implements, rope, cloth and stained glass. The
fattening of poultry is an important local industry, and there is trade
in cattle, wine, cloth, farm-produce, &c. The town is an important
railway centre.
As the capital of the Aulerci Cenomanni, Le Mans was called Suindinum or
Vindinum. The Romans built walls round it in the 3rd century, and traces
of them are still to be seen close to the left bank of the river near
the cathedral. In the same century the town was evangelized by St
Julian, who became its first bishop. Ruled at first by his
successors--notably St Aldric--Le Mans passed in the middle ages to the
counts of Maine (q.v.), whose capital and residence it became. About the
middle of the 11th century the citizens secured a communal charter, but
in 1063 the town was seized by William the Conqueror, who deprived them
of their liberties, which were recovered when the countship of Maine had
passed to the Plantagenet kings of England. Le Mans was taken by Philip
Augustus in 1189, recaptured by John, subsequently confiscated and later
ceded to Queen Berengaria, who did much for its prosperity. It was
several times besieged in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1793 it was
seized by the Vendeans, who were expelled by the Republican generals
Marceau and Westermann after a stubborn battle in the streets. In 1799
it was again occupied by the Chouans.
The battle of Le Mans (10th-12th January 1871) was the culminating point
of General Chanzy's fighting retreat into western France after the
winter campaign in Beauce and Perche (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The
numerous, but ill-trained and ill-equipped, levies of the French were
followed up by Prince Frederick Charles with the German II. Army, now
very much weakened but consisting of soldiers who had in six months'
active warfare acquired the self-confidence of veterans. The Germans
advanced with three army corps in first line and one in reserve. On the
9th of January the centre corps (III.) drove an advanced division of the
French from Ardenay (13 m. E. of Le Mans). On the 10th of January
Chanzy's main defensive position was approached. Its right wing was east
of the Sarthe and 3-5 m. from Le Mans, its centre on the heights of
Anvours with the river Huisne behind it, and its left scattered along
the western bank of the same river as far as Montfort (12 m. E.N.E. of
Le Mans) and thence northward for some miles. On the 10th there was a
severe struggle for the villages along the front of the French centre.
On the 11th Chanzy attempted a counter-offensive from many points, but
owing to the misbehaviour of certain of his rawest levies, the Germans
were able to drive him back, and as their cavalry now began to appear
beyond his extreme left flank, he retreated in the night of the 11th on
Laval, the Germans occupying Le Mans after a brief rearguard fight on
the 12th.
LE MARCHANT, JOHN GASPARD (1766-1812), English major-general, was the
son of an officer of dragoons, John Le Marchant, a member of an old
Guernsey family. After a somewhat wild youth, Le Marchant, who entered
the army in 1781, attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1797. Two
years before this he had designed a new cavalry sword; and in 1801 his
scheme for establishing at High Wycombe and Great Marlow schools for the
military instruction of officers was sanctioned by Parliament, and a
grant of £30,000 was voted for the "royal military college," the two
original departments being afterwards combined and removed to Sandhurst.
Le Marchant was the first lieutenant-governor, and during the nine years
that he held this appointment he trained many officers who served with
distinction under Wellington in the Peninsula. Le Marchant himself was
given the command of a cavalry brigade in 1810, and greatly
distinguished himself in several actions, being killed at the battle of
Salamanca on the 22nd of July 1812, after the charge of his brigade had
had an important share in the English victory. He wrote several
treatises on cavalry tactics and other military subjects, but few of
them were published. By his wife, Mary, daughter of John Carey of
Guernsey, Le Marchant had four sons and six daughters.
His second son, SIR DENIS LE MARCHANT, Bart. (1795-1874), was educated
at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in
1823. In 1830 he became secretary to Lord Chancellor Brougham, and in
the Reform Bill debates made himself exceedingly useful to the
ministers. Having been secretary to the board of trade from 1836 to
1841, he was created a baronet in 1841. He entered the House of Commons
in 1846, and was under secretary for the home department in the
government of Lord John Russell. He was chief clerk of the House of
Commons from 1850 to 1871. He published a _Life_ of his father in 1841,
and began a _Life_ of Lord Althorpe which was completed after his death
by his son; he also edited Horace Walpole's _Memoirs of the Reign of
George III._ (1845). Sir Denis Le Marchant died in London on the 30th of
October 1874.
The third son of General Le Marchant, SIR JOHN GASPARD LE MARCHANT
(1803-1874), entered the English army, and saw service in Spain in the
Carlist War of 1835-37. He was afterwards lieutenant-governor of
Newfoundland (1847-1852) and of Nova Scotia (1852-1857); governor of
Malta (1859-1864); commander-in-chief at Madras (1865-1868). He was made
K.C.B. in 1865, and died on the 6th of February 1874.
See Sir Denis Le Marchant, _Memoirs of General Le Marchant_ (1841);
Sir William Napier, _History of the War in the Peninsula_ (6 vols.,
1828-1840).
LEMBERG (Pol. _Lwów_, Lat. _Leopolis_), the capital of the crownland of
Galicia, Austria, 468 m. N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 159,618, of
whom over 80% were Poles, 10% Germans, and 8% Ruthenians; nearly 30% of
the population were Jews. According to population Lemberg is the fourth
city in the Austrian empire, coming after Vienna, Prague and Trieste.
Lemberg is situated on the small river Peltew, an affluent of the Bug,
in a valley in the Sarmatian plateau, and is surrounded by hills. It is
composed of the inner town and of four suburbs. The inner town was
formerly fortified, but the fortifications were transformed into
pleasure grounds in 1811. Lemberg is the residence of Roman Catholic,
Greek Catholic and Armenian archbishops, and contains three cathedrals.
The Roman Catholic cathedral was finished by Casimir IV. in 1480 in
Gothic style; near it is a chapel (1609) remarkable for its architecture
and sculpture. The Greek cathedral, built in 1740-1779 in the Basilica
style, is situated on a height which dominates the town. The Armenian
cathedral was built in 1437 in the Armenian-Byzantine style. The
Dominican church, built in 1749 after the model of St Peter's at Rome,
contains a monument by Thorvaldsen to the Countess Dunin-Borkowska; the
Greek St Nicholas church was built in 1292; and the Roman Catholic St
Mary church was built in 1363 by the first German settlers. The town
hall (1828-1837) with a tower 250 ft. high is situated in the middle of
a square. Also notable are the hall of the estates (1877-1881), the
industrial museum, the theatre, the palace of the Roman Catholic
archbishop and several educational establishments. There are many
beautiful private buildings, broad and well-paved streets, numerous
squares and public gardens. At the head of the educational institutions
stands the university, founded in 1784 by Joseph II., transformed into a
lycée in 1803, and restored and reorganized in 1817. Since 1871 the
language of instruction has been Polish, and in 1901 the university had
110 lecturers, and was attended by 2060 students. There are also a
polytechnic, gymnasia--for Poles, Ruthenians and Germans
respectively--seminaries for priests, training colleges for teachers,
and other special and technical schools. In Lemberg is the National
Institute founded by Count Ossolinski, which contains a library of books
and manuscripts relating chiefly to the history and literature of
Poland, valuable antiquarian and scientific collections, and a printing
establishment; also the Dzieduszycki museum with collections of natural
history and ethnography relating chiefly to Galicia. Industrially and
commercially Lemberg is the most important city in Galicia, its
industries including the manufacture of machinery and iron wares,
matches, stearin candles and naphtha, arrack and liqueurs, chocolate,
chicory, leather and plaster of Paris, as well as brewing, corn-milling
and brick and tile making. It has important commerce in linen, flax,
hemp, wool and seeds, and a considerable transit trade. Of the
well-wooded hills which surround Lemberg, the most important is the
Franz-Josef-Berg to the N.E., with an altitude of 1310 ft. Several
beautiful parks have been laid out on this hill.
Leopolis was founded about 1259 by the Ruthenian prince Leo Danilowicz,
who moved here his residence from Halicz in 1270. From Casimir the
Great, who captured it in 1340, it received the Magdeburg rights, and
for almost two hundred years the public records were kept in German. In
1412 it became the see of a Roman Catholic archbishopric, and from 1432
until 1772 it was the capital of the Polish province of Reussen (_Terra
Russia_). During the whole period of Polish supremacy it was a most
important city, and after the fall of Constantinople it greatly
developed its trade with the East. In 1648 and 1655 it was besieged by
the Cossacks, and in 1672 by the Turks. Charles XII. of Sweden captured
it in 1704. In 1848 it was bombarded.
LEMERCIER, LOUIS JEAN NÉPOMUCÉNE (1771-1840), French poet and dramatist,
was born in Paris on the 21st of April 1771. His father had been
intendant successively to the duc de Penthièvre, the comte de Toulouse
and the unfortunate princesse de Lamballe, who was the boy's godmother.
Lemercier showed great precocity; before he was sixteen his tragedy of
_Méléagre_ was produced at the _Théâtre Français_. _Clarissa Harlowe_
(1792) provoked the criticism that the author was not _assez roué pour
peindre les roueries_. _Le Tartufe révolutionnaire_, a parody full of
the most audacious political allusions, was suppressed after the fifth
representation. In 1795 appeared Lemercier's masterpiece _Agamemnon_,
called by Charles Labitte the last great antique tragedy in French
literature. It was a great success, but was violently attacked later by
Geoffroy, who stigmatized it as a bad caricature of Crébillon. _Quatre
métamorphoses_ (1799) was written to prove that the most indecent
subjects might be treated without offence. The _Pinto_ (1800) was the
result of a wager that no further dramatic innovations were possible
after the comedies of Beaumarchais. It is a historical comedy on the
subject of the Portuguese revolution of 1640. This play was construed as
casting reflections on the first consul, who had hitherto been a firm
friend of Lemercier. His extreme freedom of speech finally offended
Napoleon, and the quarrel proved disastrous to Lemercier's fortune for
the time. None of his subsequent work fulfilled the expectations raised
by _Agamemnon_, with the exception perhaps of _Frédégonde et Brunéhaut_
(1821). In 1810 he was elected to the Academy, where he consistently
opposed the romanticists, refusing to give his vote to Victor Hugo. In
spite of this, he has some pretensions to be considered the earliest of
the romantic school. His _Christophe Colomb_ (1809), advertised on the
playbill as a _comédie shakespirienne_ (sic), represented the interior
of a ship, and showed no respect for the unities. Its numerous
innovations provoked such violent disturbances in the audience that one
person was killed and future representations had to be guarded by the
police. Lemercier wrote four long and ambitious epic poems: _Homère_,
_Alexandre_ (1801), _L'Atlantiade, ou la théogonie newtonienne_ (1812)
and _Moïse_ (1823), as well as an extraordinary _Panhypocrisiade_
(1819-1832), a distinctly romantic production in twenty cantos, which
has the sub-title _Spectacle infernal du XVI^e siècle_. In it
16th-century history, with Charles V. and Francis I. as principal
personages, is played out on an imaginary stage by demons in the
intervals of their sufferings. Lemercier died on the 7th of June 1840 in
Paris.
LEMERY, NICOLAS (1645-1715), French chemist, was born at Rouen on the
17th of November 1645. After learning pharmacy in his native town he
became a pupil of C. Glaser's in Paris, and then went to Montpellier,
where he began to lecture on chemistry. He next established a pharmacy
in Paris, still continuing his lectures, but in 1683, being a Calvinist,
he was obliged to retire to England. In the following year he returned
to France, and turning Catholic in 1686 was able to reopen his shop and
resume his lectures. He died in Paris on the 19th of June 1715. Lemery
did not concern himself much with theoretical speculations, but holding
chemistry to be a demonstrative science, confined himself to the
straightforward exposition of facts and experiments. In consequence, his
lecture-room was thronged with people of all sorts, anxious to hear a
man who shunned the barren obscurities of the alchemists, and did not
regard the quest of the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life as
the sole end of his science. Of his _Cours de chymie_ (1675) he lived to
see 13 editions, and for a century it maintained its reputation as a
standard work. His other publications included _Pharmacopée universelle_
(1697), _Traité universel des drogues simples_ (1698), _Traité de
l'antimoine_ (1707), together with a number of papers contributed to the
French Academy, one of which offered a chemical and physical explanation
of underground fires, earthquakes, lightning and thunder. He discovered
that heat is evolved when iron filings and sulphur are rubbed together
to a paste with water, and the artificial _volcan de Lemery_ was
produced by burying underground a considerable quantity of this mixture,
which he regarded as a potent agent in the causation of volcanic action.
His son LOUIS (1677-1743) was appointed physician at the Hôtel Dieu in
1710, and became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in 1731.
He was the author of a _Traité des aliments_ (1702), and of a
_Dissertation sur la nature des os_ (1704), as well as of a number of
papers on chemical topics.
LEMERY, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
on the Gulf of Balayan and the Pansipit river, opposite Taal (with which
it is connected by a bridge), and about 50 m. S. of Manila. Pop. of the
municipality (1903) 11,150. It has a fine church and convent. Lemery is
situated on a plain in a rich agricultural district, which produces
rice, Indian corn, sugar and cotton, and in which horses and cattle are
bred. It is also a port for coasting vessels, and has an important trade
with various parts of the archipelago. The language is Tagalog.
LEMGO, a town of Germany, in the principality of Lippe, in a broad and
fertile plain, 9 m. N. from Detmold and on the railway Hameln-Lage. Pop.
(1900) 8840. Its somewhat gloomy aspect, enhanced by the tortuous narrow
lanes flanked by gabled houses of the 15th century, has gained for it
among countryfolk the sobriquet of the "Witches' nest" (_Hexen-Nest_).
It is replete with interest for the antiquarian. It has four Evangelical
churches, two with curiously leaning, lead-covered spires; an old
town-hall; a gymnasium; and several philanthropic and religious
institutions. Among the latter is the Jungfrauenstift, of which a
princess of the reigning house of Lippe-Detmold has always been lady
superior since 1306. The chief industry of Lemgo is the manufacture of
meerschaum pipes, which has attained here a high pitch of excellence;
other industries are weaving, brewing and the manufacture of leather and
cigars. The town was a member of the Hanseatic league.
LEMIERRE, ANTOINE MARIN (1733-1793), French dramatist and poet, was born
in Paris on the 12th of January 1733. His parents were poor, but
Lemierre found a patron in the collector-general of taxes, Dupin, whose
secretary he became. Lemierre gained his first success on the stage with
_Hypermnestre_ (1758); _Térée_ (1761) and _Idoménée_ (1764) failed on
account of the subjects. _Artaxerce_, modelled on Metastasio, and
_Guillaume Tell_ were produced in 1766; other successful tragedies were
_La Veuve de Malabar_ (1770) and _Barnavelt_ (1784). Lemierre revived
_Guillaume Tell_ in 1786 with enormous success. After the Revolution he
professed great remorse for the production of a play inculcating
revolutionary principles, and there is no doubt that the horror of the
excesses he witnessed hastened his death, which took place on the 4th of
July 1793. He had been admitted to the Academy in 1781. Lemierre
published _La Peinture_ (1769), based on a Latin poem by the abbé de
Marsy, and a poem in six cantos, _Les Fastes, ou les usages de l'année_
(1779), an unsatisfactory imitation of Ovid's _Fasti_.
His _Oeuvres_ (1810) contain a notice of Lemierre by R. Perrin and his
_Oeuvres choisies_ (1811) one by F. Fayolle.
LEMIRE, JULES AUGUSTE (1853- ), French priest and social reformer, was
born at Vieux-Berquin (Nord) on the 23rd of April 1853. He was educated
at the college of St Francis of Assisi, Hazebrouck, where he
subsequently taught philosophy and rhetoric. In 1897 he was elected
deputy for Hazebrouck and was returned unopposed at the elections of
1898, 1902 and 1906. He organized a society called _La Ligue du coin de
terre et du foyer_, the object of which was to secure, at the expense of
the state, a piece of land for every French family desirous of
possessing one. The abbé Lemire sat in the chamber of deputies as a
conservative republican and Christian Socialist. He protested in 1893
against the action of the Dupuy cabinet in closing the Bourse du
Travail, characterizing it as the expression of "a policy of disdain of
the workers." In December 1893 he was seriously injured by the bomb
thrown by the anarchist Vaillant from the gallery of the chamber.
LEMMING, the native name of a small Scandinavian rodent mammal _Lemmus
norvegicus_ (or _L. lemmus_), belonging to the mouse tribe, or
_Muridae_, and nearly related, especially in the structure of its
cheek-teeth, to the voles. Specimens vary considerably in size and
colour, but the usual length is about 5 in., and the soft fur
yellowish-brown, marked with spots of dark brown and black. It has a
short, rounded head, obtuse muzzle, small bead-like eyes, and short
rounded ears, nearly concealed by the fur. The tail is very short. The
feet are small, each with five claws, those of the fore feet strongest,
and fitted for scratching and digging. The usual habitat of lemmings is
the high lands or fells of the great central mountain chain of Norway
and Sweden, from the southern branches of the Langfjeldene in
Christiansand _stift_ to the North Cape and the Varangerfjord. South of
the Arctic circle they are, under ordinary circumstances, confined to
the plateaus covered with dwarf birch and juniper above the
conifer-region, though in Tromsö _amt_ and in Finmarken they occur in
all suitable localities down to the level of the sea. The nest, under a
tussock of grass or a stone, is constructed of short dry straws, and
usually lined with hair. The number of young in each nest is generally
five, sometimes only three occasionally seven or eight, and at least two
broods are produced annually. Their food is entirely vegetable,
especially grass roots and stalks, shoots of dwarf birch, reindeer
lichens and mosses, in search of which they form, in winter, long
galleries through the turf or under the snow. They are restless,
courageous and pugnacious little animals. When suddenly disturbed,
instead of trying to escape they sit upright, with their back against a
stone, hissing and showing fight in a determined manner.
[Illustration: The Norwegian Lemming (_Lemmus Norvegicus_).]
The circumstance which has given popular interest to the lemming is that
certain districts of the cultivated lands of Norway and Sweden, where in
ordinary circumstances they are unknown, are, at uncertain intervals
varying from five to twenty or more years, overrun by an army of these
little creatures, which steadily and slowly advance, always in the same
direction, and regardless of all obstacles, swimming streams and even
lakes of several miles in breadth, and committing considerable
devastation on their line of march by the quantity of food they consume.
In their turn they are pursued and harassed by crowds of beasts and
birds of prey, as bears, wolves, foxes, dogs, wild cats, stoats,
weasels, eagles, hawks and owls, and never spared by man; even domestic
animals, as cattle, goats and reindeer, join in the destruction,
stamping them to the ground with their feet, and even eating their
bodies. Numbers also die from diseases produced apparently from
overcrowding. None returns, and the onward march of the survivors never
ceases until they reach the sea, into which they plunge, and swimming
onwards in the same direction perish in the waves. These sudden
appearances of vast bodies of lemmings, and their singular habit of
persistently pursuing the same onward course of migration, have given
rise to various speculations, from the ancient belief of the Norwegian
peasants, shared by Olaus Magnus, that they fall down from the clouds,
to the hypothesis that they are acting in obedience to an instinct
inherited from ancient times, and still seeking the congenial home in
the submerged Atlantis, to which their ancestors of the Miocene period
were wont to resort when driven from their ordinary dwelling-places by
crowding or scarcity of food. The principal facts regarding these
migrations seem to be as follows. When any combination of circumstances
has occasioned an increase of the numbers of the lemmings in their
ordinary dwelling-places, impelled by the restless or migratory instinct
possessed in a less developed degree by so many of their congeners, a
movement takes place at the edge of the elevated plateau, and a
migration towards the lower-lying land begins. The whole body moves
forward slowly, always advancing in the same general direction in which
they originally started, but following more or less the course of the
great valleys. They only travel by night; and, staying in congenial
places for considerable periods, with unaccustomed abundance of
provender, notwithstanding the destructive influences to which they are
exposed, they multiply excessively during their journey, having families
more numerous and frequent than in their usual homes. The progress may
last from one to three years, according to the route taken, and the
distance to be traversed until the sea-coast is reached, which in a
country so surrounded by water as the Scandinavian peninsula must be the
ultimate goal of such a journey. This may be either the Atlantic or the
Gulf of Bothnia, according as the migration has commenced from the west
or the east side of the central elevated plateau. Those that finally
perish in the sea, committing what appears to be a voluntary suicide,
are only acting under the same blind impulse which has led them
previously to cross shallower pieces of water with safety. In Eastern
Europe, Northern Asia and North America the group is represented by the
allied _L. obensis_, and in Alaska, by _L. nigripes_; while the
circumpolar banded lemming, _Dicrostonyx torquatus_, which turns white
in winter, represents a second genus taking its name from the double
claws on one of the toes of the forefeet.
For habits of lemmings, see R. Collett, _Myodes lemmus, its habits and
migrations in Norway_ (Christiania Videnskabs-Selskabs Forhandlinger,
1895). (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
LEMNISCATE (from Gr. [Greek: lêmniskos], ribbon), a quartic curve
invented by Jacques Bernoulli (_Acta Eruditorum_, 1694) and afterwards
investigated by Giulio Carlo Fagnano, who gave its principal properties
and applied it to effect the division of a quadrant into 2.2^m, 3.2^m
and 5.2^m equal parts. Following Archimedes, Fagnano desired the curve
to be engraved on his tombstone. The complete analytical treatment was
first given by Leonhard Euler. The lemniscate of Bernoulli may be
defined as the locus of a point which moves so that the product of its
distances from two fixed points is constant and is equal to the square
of half the distance between these points. It is therefore a particular
form of Cassini's oval (see OVAL). Its cartesian equation, when the line
joining the two fixed points is the axis of x and the middle point of
this line is the origin, is (x² + y²)² = 2a²(x² - y²) and the polar
equation is r² = 2a² cos 2[theta]. The curve (fig. 1) consists of two
loops symmetrically placed about the coordinate axes. The pedal equation
is r³ = a²p, which shows that it is the first positive pedal of a
rectangular hyperbola with regard to the centre. It is also the inverse
of the same curve for the same point. It is the envelope of circles
described on the central radii of an ellipse as diameters. The area of
the complete curve is 2a², and the length of any arc may be expressed in
the form [int](1 - x^4)^(-½)dx, an elliptic integral sometimes termed
the _lemniscatic integral_.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
The name lemniscate is sometimes given to any crunodal quartic curve
having only one real finite branch which is symmetric about the axis.
Such curves are given by the equation x² - y² = ax^4 + bx²y² + cy^4.
If a be greater than b the curve resembles fig. 2 and is sometimes
termed the _fishtail-lemniscate_; if a be less than b, the curve
resembles fig. 3. The same name is also given to the first positive
pedal of any central conic. When the conic is a rectangular hyperbola,
the curve is the lemniscate of Bernoulli previously described. The
_elliptic lemniscate_ has for its equation (x² + y²)² = a²x² + b²y² or
r² = a² cos²[theta] + b² sin²[theta] (a > b). The centre is a
conjugate point (or acnode) and the curve resembles fig. 4. The
_hyperbolic lemniscate_ has for its equation (x² + y²)² = a²x² - b²y²
or r² = a² cos²[theta] - b² sin²[theta]. In this case the centre is a
crunode and the curve resembles fig. 5. These curves are instances of
unicursal bicircular quartics.
LEMNOS (mod. _Limnos_), an island in the northern part of the Aegean
Sea. The Italian form of the name, Stalimene, i.e. [Greek: es tên
Lêmnon], is not used in the island itself, but is commonly employed in
geographical works. The island, which belongs to Turkey, is of
considerable size: Pliny says that the coast-line measured 112½ Roman
miles, and the area has been estimated at 150 sq. m. Great part is
mountainous, but some very fertile valleys exist, to cultivate which
2000 yoke of oxen are employed. The hill-sides afford pasture for 20,000
sheep. No forests exist on the island; all wood is brought from the
coast of Rumelia or from Thasos. A few mulberry and fruit trees grow,
but no olives. The population is estimated by some as high as 27,000, of
whom 2000 are Turks and the rest Greeks, but other authorities doubt
whether it reaches more than half this number. The chief towns are
Kastro on the western coast, with a population of 4000 Greeks and 800
Turks, and Mudros on the southern coast. Kastro possesses an excellent
harbour, and is the seat of all the trade carried on with the island.
Greek, English and Dutch consuls or consular agents were formerly
stationed there; but the whole trade is now in Greek hands. The
archbishops of Lemnos and Ai Strati, a small neighbouring island with
2000 inhabitants, resides in Kastro. In ancient times the island was
sacred to Hephaestus, who as the legend tells fell on Lemnos when his
father Zeus hurled him headlong out of Olympus. This tale, as well as
the name Aethaleia, sometimes applied to it, points to its volcanic
character. It is said that fire occasionally blazed forth from
Mosychlos, one of its mountains; and Pausanias (viii. 33) relates that a
small island called Chryse, off the Lemnian coast, was swallowed up by
the sea. All volcanic action is now extinct.
The most famous product of Lemnos is the medicinal earth, which is
still used by the natives. At one time it was popular over western
Europe under the name _terra sigillata_. This name, like the Gr.
[Greek: Lêmnia sphragis], is derived from the stamp impressed on each
piece of the earth; in ancient times the stamp was the head of
Artemis. The Turks now believe that a vase of this earth destroys the
effect of any poison drunk from it--a belief which the ancients
attached rather to the earth from Cape Kolias in Attica. Galen went to
see the digging up of this earth (see Kuhn, _Medic. Gr. Opera_, xii.
172 sq.); on one day in each year a priestess performed the due
ceremonies, and a waggon-load of earth was dug out. At the present
time the day selected is the 6th of August, the feast of Christ the
Saviour. Both the Turkish _hodja_ and the Greek priest are present to
perform the necessary ceremonies; the whole process takes place before
daybreak. The earth is sold by apothecaries in stamped cubical blocks.
The hill from which the earth is dug is a dry mound, void of
vegetation, beside the village of Kotschinos, and about two hours from
the site of Hephaestia. The earth was considered in ancient times a
cure for old festering wounds, and for the bite of poisonous snakes.
The name Lemnos is said by Hecataeus (ap. Steph. Byz.) to have been a
title of Cybele among the Thracians, and the earliest inhabitants are
said to have been a Thracian tribe, called by the Greeks Sinties, i.e.
"the robbers." According to a famous legend the women were all deserted
by their husbands, and in revenge murdered every man on the island. From
this barbarous act, the expression Lemnian deeds, [Greek: Lêmnia erga],
became proverbial. The Argonauts landing soon after found only women in
the island, ruled over by Hypsipyle, daughter of the old king Thoas.
From the Argonauts and the Lemnian women were descended the race called
Minyae, whose king Euneus, son of Jason and Hypsipyle, sent wine and
provisions to the Greeks at Troy. The Minyae were expelled by a
Pelasgian tribe who came from Attica. The historical element underlying
these traditions is probably that the original Thracian people were
gradually brought into communication with the Greeks as navigation began
to unite the scattered islands of the Aegean (see JASON); the Thracian
inhabitants were barbarians in comparison with the Greek mariners. The
worship of Cybele was characteristic of Thrace, whither it spread from
Asia Minor at a very early period, and it deserves notice that Hypsipyle
and Myrina (the name of one of the chief towns) are Amazon names, which
are always connected with Asiatic Cybele-worship. Coming down to a
better authenticated period, we find that Lemnos was conquered by
Otanes, one of the generals of Darius Hystaspis; but was soon
reconquered by Miltiades, the tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese.
Miltiades afterwards returned to Athens, and Lemnos continued an
Athenian possession till the Macedonian empire absorbed it. On the
vicissitudes of its history in the 3rd century B.C. see Köhler in
_Mittheil. Inst. Athen._ i. 261. The Romans declared it free in 197
B.C., but gave it over in 166 to Athens, which retained nominal
possession of it till the whole of Greece was made a Roman province. A
colony of Attic cleruchs was established by Pericles, and many
inscriptions on the island relate to Athenians. After the division of
the empire, Lemnos passed under the Byzantine emperors; it shared in the
vicissitudes of the eastern provinces, being alternately in the power of
Greeks, Italians and Turks, till finally the Turkish sultans became
supreme in the Aegean. In 1476 the Venetians successfully defended
Kotschinos against a Turkish siege; but in 1657 Kastro was captured by
the Turks from the Venetians after a siege of sixty-three days. Kastro
was again besieged by the Russians in 1770.
Homer speaks as if there were one town in the island called Lemnos, but
in historical times there was no such place. There were two towns,
Myrina, now Kastro, and Hephaestia. The latter was the chief town; its
coins are found in considerable number, the types being sometimes the
Athenian goddess and her owl, sometimes native religious symbols, the
caps of the Dioscuri, Apollo, &c. Few coins of Myrina are known. They
belong to the period of Attic occupation, and bear Athenian types. A few
coins are also known which bear the name, not of either city, but of the
whole island. Conze was the first to discover the site of Hephaestia, at
a deserted place named Palaeokastro on the east coast. It had once a
splendid harbour, which is now filled up. Its situation on the east
explains why Miltiades attacked it first when he came from the
Chersonese. It surrendered at once, whereas Myrina, with its very strong
citadel built on a perpendicular rock, sustained a siege. It is said
that the shadow of Mount Athos fell at sunset on a bronze cow in the
agora of Myrina. Pliny says that Athos was 87 m. to the north-west; but
the real distance is about 40 English miles. One legend localized in
Lemnos still requires notice. Philoctetes was left there by the Greeks
on their way to Troy; and there he suffered ten years' agony from his
wounded foot, until Ulysses and Neoptolemus induced him to accompany
them to Troy. He is said by Sophocles to have lived beside Mount
Hermaeus, which Aeschylus (_Agam._ 262) makes one of the beacon points
to flash the news of Troy's downfall home to Argos.
See Rhode, _Res Lemnicae_; Conze, _Reise auf den Inseln des
Thrakischen Meeres_ (from which the above-mentioned facts about the
present state of the island are taken); also Hunt in Walpole's
_Travels_; Belon du Mans, _Observations de plusieurs singularitez_,
&c.; Finlay, _Greece under the Romans_; von Hammer, _Gesch. des Osman.
Reiches; Gött. Gel. Anz._ (1837). The chief references in ancicnt
writers are _Iliad_ i. 593, v. 138, xiv. 229, &c.; Herod. iv. 145;
Str. pp. 124, 330; Plin. iv. 23, xxxvi. 13.
LEMOINNE, JOHN ÉMILE (1815-1892), French journalist, was born of French
parents, in London, on the 17th of October 1815. He was educated first
at an English school and then in France. In 1840 he began writing for
the _Journal des débats_, on English and other foreign questions, and
under the empire he held up to admiration the free institutions of
England by contrast with imperial methods. After 1871 he supported
Thiers, but his sympathies rather tended towards a liberalized monarchy,
until the comte de Chambord's policy made such a development an
impossibility, and he then ranged himself with the moderate Republicans.
In 1875 Lemoinne was elected to the French Academy, and in 1880 he was
nominated a life senator. Distinguished though he was for a real
knowledge of England among the French journalists who wrote on foreign
affairs, his tone towards English policy greatly changed in later days,
and though he never shared the extreme French bitterness against England
as regards Egypt, he maintained a critical attitude which served to
stimulate French Anglophobia. He was a frequent contributor to the
_Revue des deux mondes_, and published several books, the best known of
which is his _Études critiques et biographiques_ (1862). He died in
Paris on the 14th of December 1892.
LEMON, MARK (1809-1870), editor of _Punch_, was born in London on the
30th of November 1809. He had a natural talent for journalism and the
stage, and, at twenty-six, retired from less congenial business to
devote himself to the writing of plays. More than sixty of his
melodramas, operettas and comedies were produced in London. At the same
time he contributed to a variety of magazines and newspapers, and
founded and edited the _Field_. In 1841 Lemon and Henry Mayhew conceived
the idea of a humorous weekly paper to be called _Punch_, and when the
first number was issued, in July 1841, were joint-editors and, with the
printer and engraver, equal owners. The paper was for some time
unsuccessful, Lemon keeping it alive out of the profits of his plays. On
the sale of _Punch_ Lemon became sole editor for the new proprietors,
and it remained under his control until his death, achieving remarkable
popularity and influence. Lemon was an actor of ability, a pleasing
lecturer and a successful impersonator of Shakespearian characters. He
also wrote a host of novelettes and lyrics, over a hundred songs, a few
three-volume novels, several Christmas fairy tales and a volume of
jests. He died at Crawley, Sussex, on the 23rd of May 1870.
LEMON, the fruit of _Citrus Limonum_, which is regarded by some
botanists as a variety of _Citrus medica_. The wild stock of the lemon
tree is said to be a native of the valleys of Kumaon and Sikkim in the
North-West provinces of India, ascending to a height of 4000 ft., and
occurring under several forms. Sir George Watt (_Dictionary of Economic
Products of India_, ii. 352) regards the wild plants as wild forms of
the lime or citron and considers it highly probable that the wild form
of the lemon has not yet been discovered.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Lemon--_Citrus Limonum_.
1, Flowering shoot.
2, Flower with two petals and two bundles of stamens removed; slightly
enlarged.
3, Fruit.
4, Same cut across.
5, Seed.
6, Same cut lengthwise.]
The lemon seems to have been unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans,
and to have been introduced by the Arabs into Spain between the 12th and
13th centuries. In 1494 the fruit was cultivated in the Azores, and
largely shipped to England, but since 1838 the exportation has ceased.
As a cultivated plant the lemon is now met with throughout the
Mediterranean region, in Spain and Portugal, in California and Florida,
and in almost all tropical and subtropical countries. Like the apple and
pear, it varies exceedingly under cultivation. Risso and Poiteau
enumerate forty-seven varieties of this fruit, although they maintain as
distinct the sweet lime, _C. Limetta_, with eight varieties, and the
sweet lemon, _C. Lumia_, with twelve varieties, which differ only in the
fruit possessing an insipid instead of an acid juice.
The lemon is more delicate than the orange, although, according to
Humboldt, both require an annual mean temperature of 62° Fahr. Unlike
the orange, which presents a fine close head of deep green foliage, it
forms a straggling bush, or small tree, 10 to 12 ft. high, with paler,
more scattered leaves, and short angular branches with sharp spines in
the axils. The flowers, which possess a sweet odour quite distinct
from that of the orange, are in part hermaphrodite and in part
unisexual, the outside of the corolla having a purplish hue. The
fruit, which is usually crowned with a nipple, consists of an outer
rind or peel, the surface of which is more or less rough from the
convex oil receptacles imbedded in it, and of a white inner rind,
which is spongy and nearly tasteless, the whole of the interior of the
fruit being filled with soft parenchymatous tissue, divided into about
ten to twelve compartments, each generally containing two or three
seeds. The white inner rind varies much in thickness in different
kinds, but is never so thick as in the citron. As lemons are much more
profitable to grow than oranges, on account of their keeping
properties, and from their being less liable to injury during voyages,
the cultivation of the lemon is preferred in Italy wherever it will
succeed. In damp valleys it is liable like the orange (q.v.) to be
attacked by a fungus sooty mould, the stem, leaves, and fruit becoming
covered with a blackish dust. This is coincident with or subsequent to
the attacks of a small oval brown insect, _Chermes hesperidum_. Trees
not properly exposed to sunlight and air suffer most severely from
these pests. Syringing with resin-wash or milk of lime when the young
insects are hatched, and before they have fixed themselves to the
plant, is a preventive. Since 1875 this fungoid disease has made great
ravages in Sicily among the lemon and citron trees, especially around
Catania and Messina. Heritte attributes the prevalence of the disease
to the fact that the growers have induced an unnatural degree of
fertility in the trees, permitting them to bear enormous crops year
after year. This loss of vitality is in some measure met by grafting
healthy scions of the lemon on the bitter orange, but trees so grafted
do not bear fruit until they are eight or ten years old.
The lemon tree is exceedingly fruitful, a large one in Spain or Sicily
ripening as many as three thousand fruits in favourable seasons. In the
south of Europe lemons are collected more or less during every month of
the year, but in Sicily the chief harvest takes place from the end of
October to the end of December, those gathered during the last two
months of the year being considered the best for keeping purposes. The
fruit is gathered while still green. After collection the finest
specimens are picked out and packed in cases, each containing about four
hundred and twenty fruits, and also in boxes, three of which are equal
to two cases, each lemon being separately packed in paper. The
remainder, consisting of ill-shaped or unsound fruits, are reserved for
the manufacture of essential oil and juice. The whole of the sound
lemons are usually packed in boxes, but those which are not exported
immediately are carefully picked over and the unsound ones removed
before shipment. The exportation is continued as required until April
and May. The large lemons with a rougher rind, which appear in the
London market in July and August, are grown at Sorrento near Naples, and
are allowed to remain on the trees until ripe.
Candied lemon peel is usually made in England from a larger variety of
the lemon cultivated in Sicily on higher ground than the common kind,
from which it is distinguished by its thicker rind and larger size. This
kind, known as the Spadaforese lemon, is also allowed to remain on the
trees until ripe, and when gathered the fruit is cut in half
longitudinally and pickled in brine, before being exported in casks.
Before candying the lemons are soaked in fresh water to remove the salt.
Citrons are also exported from Sicily in the same way, but these are
about six times as expensive as lemons, and a comparatively small
quantity is shipped. Besides those exported from Messina and Palermo,
lemons are also imported into England to a less extent from the Riviera
of Genoa, and from Malaga in Spain, the latter being the most esteemed.
Of the numerous varieties the wax lemon, the imperial lemon and the
Gaeta lemon are considered to be the best. Lemons are also extensively
grown in California and Florida.
Lemons of ordinary size contain about 2 oz. of juice, of specific
gravity 1.039-1.046, yielding on an average 32.5 to 42.53 grains of
citric acid per oz. The amount of this acid, according to Stoddart,
varies in different seasons, decreasing in lemons kept from February
to July, at first slowly and afterwards rapidly, until at the end of
that period it is all split up into glucose and carbonic acid--the
specific gravity of the juice being in February 1.046, in May 1.041
and in July 1.027, while the fruit is hardly altered in appearance. It
has been stated that lemons may be kept for some months with scarcely
perceptible deterioration by varnishing them with an alcoholic
solution of shellac--the coating thus formed being easily removed when
the fruit is required for household use by gently kneading it in the
hands. Besides citric acid, lemon juice contains 3 to 4% of gum and
sugar, albuminoid matters, malic acid and 2.28% of inorganic salts.
Cossa has determined that the ash of dried lemon juice contains 54% of
potash, besides 15% of phosphoric acid. In the white portion of the
peel (in common with other fruits of the genus) a bitter principle
called _hesperidin_ has been found. It is very slightly soluble in
boiling water, but is soluble in dilute alcohol and in alkaline
solutions, which it soon turns of a yellow or reddish colour. It is
also darkened by tincture of perchloride of iron. Another substance
named _lemonin_, crystallizing in lustrous plates, was discovered in
1879 by Palerno and Aglialoro in the seeds, in which it is present in
very small quantity, 15,000 grains of seed yielding only 80 grains of
it. It differs from hesperidin in dissolving in potash without
alteration. It melts at 275° F.
The simplest method of preserving lemon juice in small quantities for
medicinal or domestic use is to keep it covered with a layer of olive
or almond oil in a closed vessel furnished with a glass tap, by which
the clear liquid may be drawn off as required. Lemon juice is largely
used on shipboard as a preventive of scurvy. By the Merchant Shipping
Act 1867 every British ship going to other countries where lemon or
lime juice cannot be obtained was required to take sufficient to give
1 oz. to every member of the crew daily. Of this juice it requires
about 13,000 lemons to yield l pipe (108 gallons). Sicilian juice in
November yields about 9 oz. of crude citric acid per gallon, but only
6 oz. if the fruit is collected in April. The crude juice was formerly
exported to England, and was often adulterated with sea-water, but is
now almost entirely replaced by lime juice. A concentrated lemon juice
for the manufacture of citric acid is prepared in considerable
quantities, chiefly at Messina and Palermo, by boiling down the crude
juice in copper vessels over an open fire until its specific gravity
is about 1.239, seven to ten pipes of raw making only one of
concentrated lemon juice. "Lemon juice" for use on shipboard is
prepared also from the fruits of limes and Bergamot oranges. It is
said to be sometimes adulterated with sulphuric acid on arrival in
England.
The lemon used in medicine is described in the British pharmacopoeia
as being the fruit of _Citrus medica_, var. Limonum. The preparations
of lemon peel are of small importance. From the fresh peel is obtained
the _oleum limonis_ (dose ½-3 minims), which has the characters of its
class. It contains a terpene known as citrene or limonene, which also
occurs in orange peel: and citral, the aldehyde of geraniol, which is
the chief constituent of oil of roses. Of much importance is the
_succus limonis_ or lemon juice, 1 oz. of which contains about 40
grains of free citric acid, besides the citrate of potassium (.25%)
and malic acid, free and combined. Ten per cent. of alcohol must be
added to lemon juice if it is to be kept. From it are prepared the
_syrupus limonis_ (dose ½-2 drachms), which consists of sugar, lemon
juice and an alcoholic extract of lemon peel, and also citric acid
itself. Lemon juice is practically impure citric acid (q.v.).
_Essence or Essential Oil of Lemon._--The essential oil contained in
the rind of the lemon occurs in commerce as a distinct article. It is
manufactured chiefly in Sicily, at Reggio in Calabria, and at Mentone
and Nice in France. The small and irregularly shaped fruits are
employed while still green, in which state the yield of oil is greater
than when they are quite ripe. In Sicily and Calabria the oil is
extracted in November and December as follows. A workman cuts three
longitudinal slices off each lemon, leaving a three-cornered central
core having a small portion of rind at the apex and base. These pieces
are then divided transversely and cast on one side, and the strips of
peel are thrown in another place. Next day the pieces of peel are
deprived of their oil by pressing four or five times successively the
outer surface of the peel (zest or flavedo) bent into a convex shape,
against a flat sponge held in the palm of the left hand and wrapped
round the forefinger. The oil vesicles in the rind, which are ruptured
more easily in the fresh fruit than in the state in which lemons are
imported, yield up their oil to the sponge, which when saturated is
squeezed into an earthen vessel furnished with a spout and capable of
holding about three pints. After a time the oil separates from the
watery liquid which accompanies it, and is then decanted. By this
process four hundred fruits yield 9 to 14 oz. of essence. The prisms
of pulp are afterwards expressed to obtain lemon juice, and then
distilled to obtain the small quantity of volatile oil they contain.
At Mentone and Nice a different process is adopted. The lemons are
placed in an _écuelle à piquer_, a shallow basin of pewter about 8½
in. in diameter, having i a lip for pouring on one side and a closed
tube at the bottom about 5 in. long and 1 in. in diameter. A number of
stout brass pins stand up about half an inch from the bottom of the
vessel. The workman rubs a lemon over these pins, which rupture the
oil vesicles, and the oil collects in the tube, which when it becomes
full is emptied into another vessel that it may separate from the
aqueous liquid mixed with it. When filtered it is known as _Essence de
citron au zeste_, or, in the English market, as perfumers' essence of
lemon, inferior qualities being distinguished as druggists' essence of
lemon. An additional product is obtained by immersing the scarified
lemons in warm water and separating the oil which floats off. _Essence
de citron distillée_ is obtained by rubbing the surface of fresh
lemons (or of those which have been submitted to the action of the
_écuelle à piquer_) on a coarse grater of tinned iron, and distilling
the grated peel. The oil so obtained is colourless, and of inferior
fragrance, and is sold at a lower price, while that obtained by the
cold processes has a yellow colour and powerful odour.
Essence of lemon is chiefly brought from Messina and Palermo packed in
copper bottles holding 25 to 50 kilogrammes or more, and sometimes in
tinned bottles of smaller size. It is said to be rarely found in a
state of purity in commerce, almost all that comes into the market
being diluted with the cheaper distilled oil. This fact may be
considered as proved by the price at which the essence of lemon is
sold in England, this being less than it costs the manufacturer to
make it. When long kept the essence deposits a white greasy
stearoptene, apparently identical with the bergaptene obtained from
the essential oil of the Bergamot orange. The chief constituent of oil
of lemon is the terpene, C10H16, boiling at 348°.8 Fahr., which, like
oil of turpentine, readily yields crystals of terpin, C10H163OH2, but
differs in yielding the crystalline compound, C10H16 + 2Cl, oil of
turpentine forming one having the formula C10H16 + HCl. Oil of lemons
also contains, according to Tilden, another hydrocarbon, C10H16,
boiling at 3.20° Fahr., a small amount of _cymene_, and a compound
acetic ether, C2H3O·C10H17O. The natural essence of lemon not being
wholly soluble in rectified spirit of wine, an essence for culinary
purposes is sometimes prepared by digesting 6 oz of lemon peel in one
pint of pure alcohol of 95%, and, when the rind has become brittle,
which takes place in about two and a half hours, powdering it and
percolating the alcohol through it. This article is known as "lemon
flavour."
The name lemon is also applied to some other fruits. The Java lemon is
the fruit of _Citrus javanica_, the pear lemon of a variety of _C.
Limetta_, and the pearl lemon of _C. margarita_. The fruit of a
passion-flower, _Passiflora laurifolia_, is sometimes known as the
water-lemon, and that of a Berberidaceous plant, _Podophyllum peltatum_,
as the wild lemon. In France and Germany the lemon is known as the
citron, and hence much confusion arises concerning the fruits referred
to in different works. The essential oil known as oil of cedrat is
usually a factitious article instead of being prepared, as its name
implies, from the citron (Fr. _cédratier_). An essential oil is also
prepared from _C. Lumia_, at Squillace in Calabria, and has an odour
like that of Bergamot but less powerful.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lime--_Citrus medica_, var. _acida_.
1, Flowering shoot.
2, Fruit.
3, Same cut transversely.
4, Seed.
5, Seed cut lengthwise.
6, Seed cut transversely.
7, Superficial view of portion of rind showing oil glands.]
The sour lime is _Citrus acida_, generally regarded as a var. (_acida_)
of _C. medica_. It is a native of India, ascending to about 4000 ft. in
the mountains, and occurring as a small, much-branched thorny bush. The
small flowers are white or tinged with pink on the outside; the fruit is
small and generally round, with a thin, light green or lemon-yellow
bitter rind, and a very sour, somewhat bitter juicy pulp. It is
extensively cultivated throughout the West Indies, especially in
Dominica, Montserrat and Jamaica, the approximate annual value of the
exports from these islands being respectively £45,000, £6000 and £6000.
The plants are grown from seed in nurseries and planted out about 200 to
the acre. They begin to bear from about the third year, but full crops
are not produced until the trees are six or seven years old. The ripe
yellow fruit is gathered as it falls. The fruit is bruised by hand in a
funnel-shaped vessel known as an _écuelle_, with a hollow stem; by
rolling the fruit on a number of points on the side of the funnel the
oil cells in the rind are broken and the oil collects in the hollow
stem--this is the essential oil or essence of limes. The fruits are then
taken to the mill, sorted, washed and passed through rollers and exposed
to two squeezings. Two-thirds of the juice is expressed by the first
squeezing, is strained at once, done up in puncheons and exported as raw
juice. The product of the second squeezing, together with the juice
extracted by a subsequent squeezing in a press, is strained and
evaporated down to make concentrated juice; ten gallons of the raw juice
yield one gallon of the concentrated juice. The raw juice is used for
preparations of lime juice cordial, the concentrated for manufactures of
citric acid.
On some estates citrate of lime is now manufactured in place of
concentrated acid. Distilled oil of limes is prepared by distilling
the juice, but its value is low in comparison with the expressed oil
obtained by hand as described above. Green limes and pickled limes
preserved in brine are largely exported to the United States, and more
recently green limes have been exported to the United Kingdom.
Limalade or preserved limes is an excellent substitute for marmalade.
A spineless form of the lime appeared as a sport in Dominica in 1892,
and is now grown there and elsewhere on a commercial scale. A form
with seedless fruits has also recently been obtained in Dominica and
Trinidad independently. The young leaves of the lime are used for
perfuming the water in finger-glasses, a few being placed in the water
and bruised before use.
LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE (1844- ), Belgian poet, was born at
Ixelles, Brussels, on the 24th of March 1844. He studied law, and then
took a clerkship in a government office, which he resigned after three
years. Lemonnier inherited Flemish blood from both parents, and with it
the animal force and pictorial energy of the Flemish temperament. He
published a _Salon de Bruxelles_ in 1863, and again in 1866. His early
friendships were chiefly with artists; and he wrote art criticisms with
recognized discernment. Taking a house in the hills near Namur, he
devoted himself to sport, and developed the intimate sympathy with
nature which informs his best work. _Nos Flamands_ (1869) and _Croquis
d'automne_ (1870) date from this time. _Paris-Berlin_ (1870), a pamphlet
pleading the cause of France, and full of the author's horror of war,
had a great success. His capacity as a novelist, in the fresh, humorous
description of peasant life, was revealed in _Un Coin de village_
(1879). In _Un Mâle_ (1881) he achieved a different kind of success. It
deals with the amours of a poacher and a farmer's daughter, with the
forest as a background. Cachaprès, the poacher, seems the very
embodiment of the wild life around him. The rejection of _Un Mâle_ by
the judges for the quinquennial prize of literature in 1883 made
Lemonnier the centre of a school, inaugurated at a banquet given in his
honour on the 27th of May 1883. _Le Mort_ (1882), which describes the
remorse of two peasants for a murder they have committed, is a
masterpiece in its vivid representation of terror. It was remodelled as
a tragedy in five acts (Paris, 1899) by its author. _Ceux de la glèbe_
(1889), dedicated to the "children of the soil," was written in 1885. He
turned aside from local subjects for some time to produce a series of
psychological novels, books of art criticism, &c., of considerable
value, but assimilating more closely to French contemporary literature.
The most striking of his later novels are: _L'Hystérique_ (1885);
_Happe-chair_ (1886), often compared with Zola's _Germinal_; _Le
Possédé_ (1890); _La Fin des bourgeois_ (1892); _L'Arche, journal d'une
maman_ (1894), a quiet book, quite different from his usual work; _La
Faute de Mme Charvet_ (1895); _L'Homme en amour_ (1897); and, with a
return to Flemish subjects, _Le Vent dans les moulins_ (1901); _Petit
Homme de Dieu_ (1902), and _Comme va le ruisseau_ (1903). In 1888
Lemonnier was prosecuted in Paris for offending against public morals by
a story in _Gil Blas_, and was condemned to a fine. In a later
prosecution at Brussels he was defended by Edmond Picard, and acquitted;
and he was arraigned for a third time, at Bruges, for his _Homme en
amour_, but again acquitted. He represents his own case in _Les Deux
consciences_ (1902), _L'Île vierge_ (1897) was the first of a trilogy to
be called _La Légende de la vie_, which was to trace, under the fortunes
of the hero, the pilgrimage of man through sorrow and sacrifice to the
conception of the divinity within him. In _Adam et Ève_ (1899), and _Au
Coeur frais de la forêt_ (1900), he preached the return to nature as the
salvation not only of the individual but of the community. Among his
other more important works are _G. Courbet, et ses oeuvres_ (1878);
_L'Histoire des Beaux-Arts en Belgique_ 1830-1887 (1887); _En Allemagne_
(1888), dealing especially with the Pinakothek at Munich; _La Belgique_
(1888), an elaborate descriptive work with many illustrations; _La Vie
belge_ (1905); and _Alfred Stevens et son oeuvre_ (1906).
Lemonnier spent much time in Paris, and was one of the early
contributors to the _Mercure de France_. He began to write at a time
when Belgian letters lacked style; and with much toil, and some initial
extravagances, he created a medium for the expression of his ideas. He
explained something of the process in a preface contributed to Gustave
Abel's _Labeur de la prose_ (1902). His prose is magnificent and
sonorous, but abounds in neologisms and strange metaphors.
See the _Revue de Belgique_ (15th February 1903), which contains the
syllabus of a series of lectures on Lemonnier by Edmond Picard, a
bibliography of his works, and appreciations by various writers.
LEMONNIER, PIERRE CHARLES (1715-1799), French astronomer, was born on
the 23rd of November 1715 in Paris, where his father was professor of
philosophy at the collège d'Harcourt. His first recorded observation was
made before he was sixteen, and the presentation of an elaborate lunar
map procured for him admission to the Academy, on the 21st of April
1736, at the early age of twenty. He was chosen in the same year to
accompany P. L. Maupertuis and Alexis Clairault on their geodetical
expedition to Lapland. In 1738, shortly after his return, he explained,
in a memoir read before the Academy, the advantages of J. Flamsteed's
mode of determining right ascensions. His persistent recommendation, in
fact, of English methods and instruments contributed effectively to the
reform of French practical astronomy, and constituted the most eminent
of his services to science. He corresponded with J. Bradley, was the
first to represent the effects of nutation in the solar tables, and
introduced, in 1741, the use of the transit-instrument at the Paris
observatory. He visited England in 1748, and, in company with the earl
of Morton and James Short the optician, continued his journey to
Scotland, where he observed the annular eclipse of July 25. The
liberality of Louis XV., in whose favour he stood high, furnished him
with the means of procuring the best instruments, many of them by
English makers. Amongst the fruits of his industry may be mentioned a
laborious investigation of the disturbances of Jupiter by Saturn, the
results of which were employed and confirmed by L. Euler in his prize
essay of 1748; a series of lunar observations extending over fifty
years; some interesting researches in terrestrial magnetism and
atmospheric electricity, in the latter of which he detected a regular
diurnal period; and the determination of the places of a great number of
stars, including twelve separate observations of Uranus, between 1765
and its discovery as a planet. In his lectures at the collège de France
he first publicly expounded the analytical theory of gravitation, and
his timely patronage secured the services of J. J. Lalande for
astronomy. His temper was irritable, and his hasty utterances exposed
him to retorts which he did not readily forgive. Against Lalande, owing
to some trifling pique, he closed his doors "during an entire revolution
of the moon's nodes." His career was arrested by paralysis late in 1791,
and a repetition of the stroke terminated his life. He died at Héril
near Bayeux on the 31st of May 1799. By his marriage with Mademoiselle
de Cussy he left three daughters, one of whom became the wife of J. L.
Lagrange. He was admitted in 1739 to the Royal Society, and was one of
the one hundred and forty-four original members of the Institute.
He wrote _Histoire céleste_ (1741); _Théorie des comètes_ (1743), a
translation, with additions of Hailey's _Synopsis; Institutions
astronomiques_ (1746), an improved translation of J. Keill's
text-book; _Nouveau zodiaque_ (1755); _Observations de la lune, du
soleil, et des étoiles fixes_ (1751-1775); _Lois du magnétisme_
(1776-1778), &c.
See J. J. Lalande, _Bibl. astr._, p. 819 (also in the _Journal des
savants_ for 1801); F. X. von Zach, _Allgemeine geog. Ephemeriden_
iii. 625; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, iii.; J. B. J.
Delambre. _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e. siècle_, p. 179; J. Mädler,
_Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, ii. 6; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
Astronomie_, p. 480.
LEMOYNE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1704-1778), French sculptor, was the pupil of
his father, Jean Louis Lemoyne, and of Robert le Lorrain. He was a great
figure in his day, around whose modest and kindly personality there
waged opposing storms of denunciation and applause. Although his
disregard of the classic tradition and of the essentials of dignified
sculpture, as well as his lack of firmness and of intellectual grasp of
the larger principles of his art, lay him open to stringent criticism,
de Clarac's charge that he had delivered a mortal blow at sculpture is
altogether exaggerated. Lemoyne's more important works have for the most
part been destroyed or have disappeared. The equestrian statue of "Louis
XV." for the military school, and the composition of "Mignard's
daughter, Mme Feuquières, kneeling before her father's bust" (which bust
was from the hand of Coysevox) were subjected to the violence by which
Bouchardon's equestrian monument of Louis XIV. (q.v.) was destroyed. The
panels only have been preserved. In his busts evidence of his riotous
and florid imagination to a great extent disappears, and we have a
remarkable series of important portraits, of which those of women are
perhaps the best. Among Lemoyne's leading achievements in this class are
"Fontenelle" (at Versailles), "Voltaire," "Latour" (all of 1748), "Duc
de la Valière" (Versailles), "Comte de St Florentin," and "Crébillon"
(Dijon Museum); "Mlle Chiron" and "Mlle Dangeville," both produced in
1761 and both at the Théâtre Français in Paris, and "Mme de Pompadour,"
the work of the same year. Of the Pompadour he also executed a statue in
the costume of a nymph, very delicate and playful in its air of grace.
Lemoyne was perhaps most successful in his training of pupils, one of
the leaders of whom was Falconnet.
LEMPRIÈRE, JOHN (c. 1765-1824), English classical scholar, was born in
Jersey, and educated at Winchester and Pembroke College, Oxford. He is
chiefly known for his _Bibliotheca Classica_ or _Classical Dictionary_
(1788), which, edited by various later scholars, long remained a
readable if not very trustworthy reference book in mythology and
classical history. In 1792, after holding other scholastic posts, he was
appointed to the head-mastership of Abingdon grammar school, and later
became the vicar of that parish. While occupying this living, he
published a _Universal Biography of Eminent Persons in all Ages and
Countries_ (1808). In 1809 he succeeded to the head-mastership of Exeter
free grammar school. On retiring from this, in consequence of a
disagreement with the trustees, he was given the living of Meeth in
Devonshire, which, together with that of Newton Petrock, he held till
his death in London on the 1st of February 1824.
LEMUR (from Lat. _lemures_, "ghosts"), the name applied by Linnaeus to
certain peculiar Malagasy representatives of the order PRIMATES (q.v.)
which do not come under the designation of either monkeys or apes, and,
with allied animals from the same island and tropical Asia and Africa,
constitute the suborder _Prosimiae_, or _Lemuroidea_, the
characteristics of which are given in the article just mentioned. The
typical lemurs include species like _Lemur mongoz_ and _L. catta_, but
the English name "lemur" is often taken to include all the members of
the suborder, although the aberrant forms are often conveniently termed
"lemuroids." All the Malagasy lemurs, which agree in the structure of
the internal ear, are now included in the family _Lemuridae_, confined
to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, which comprises the great majority
of the group. The other families are the _Nycticebidae_, common to
tropical Asia and Africa, and the _Tarsiidae_, restricted to the Malay
countries. In the more typical _Lemuridae_ there are two pairs of upper
incisor teeth, separated by a gap in the middle line; the premolars may
be either two or three, but the molars, as in the lower jaw, are always
three on each side. In the lower jaw the incisors and canines are
directed straight forwards, and are of small size and nearly similar
form; the function of the canine being discharged by the first premolar,
which is larger than the other teeth of the same series. With the
exception of the second toe of the hind-foot, the digits have
well-formed, flattened nails as in the majority of monkeys. In the
members of the typical genus _Lemur_, as well as in the allied
_Hapalemur_ and _Lepidolemur_, none of the toes or fingers are connected
by webs, and all have the hind-limbs of moderate length, and the tail
long. The maximum number of teeth is 36, there being typically two pairs
of incisors and three of premolars in each jaw. In habits some of the
species are nocturnal and others diurnal; but all subsist on a mixed
diet, which includes birds, reptiles, eggs, insects and fruits. Most are
arboreal, but the ring-tailed lemur (_L. catta_) often dwells among
rocks. The species of the genus _Lemur_ are diurnal, and may be
recognized by the length of the muzzle, and the large tufted ears. In
some cases, as in the black lemur (_L. macaco_) the two sexes are
differently coloured; but in others, especially the ruffed lemur (_L.
varius_), there is much individual variation in this respect, scarcely
any two being alike. The gentle lemurs (_Hapalemur_) have a rounder
head, with smaller ears and a shorter muzzle, and also a bare patch
covered with spines on the fore-arm. The sportive lemurs (_Lepidolemur_)
are smaller than the typical species of _Lemur_, and the adults
generally lose their upper incisors. The head is short and conical, the
ears large, round and mostly bare, and the tail shorter than the body.
Like the gentle lemurs they are nocturnal. (See AVAHI, AYE-AYE, GALAGO,
INDRI, LORIS, POTTO, SIFAKA and TARSIER.) (R. L.*)
LENA, a river of Siberia, rising in the Baikal Mountains, on the W. side
of Lake Baikal, in 54° 10´ N. and 107° 55´ E. Wheeling round by the S.,
it describes a semicircle, then flows N.N.E. and N.E., being joined by
the Kirenga and the Vitim, both from the right; from 113° E. it flows
E.N.E as far as Yakutsk (62° N., 127° 40´ E.), where it enters the
lowlands, after being joined by the Olekma, also from the right. From
Yakutsk it goes N. until joined by its right-hand affluent the Aldan,
which deflects it to the north-west; then, after receiving its most
important left-hand tributary, the Vilyui, it makes its way nearly due
N. to the Nordenskjöld Sea, a division of the Arctic, disemboguing S.W.
of the New Siberian Islands by a delta 10,800 sq. m. in area, and
traversed by seven principal branches, the most important being Bylov,
farthest east. The total length of the river is estimated at 2860 m. The
delta arms sometimes remain blocked with ice the whole year round. At
Yakutsk navigation is generally practicable from the middle of May to
the end of October, and at Kirensk, at the confluence of the Lena and
the Kirenga, from the beginning of May to about the same time. Between
these two towns there is during the season regular steamboat
communication. The area of the river basin is calculated at 895,500 sq.
m. Gold is washed out of the sands of the Vitim and the Olekma, and
tusks of the mammoth are dug out of the delta.
See G. W. Melville, _In the Lena Delta_ (1885).
LE NAIN, the name of three brothers, LOUIS, ANTOINE and MATHIEU, who
occupy a peculiar position in the history of French art. Although they
figure amongst the original members of the French Academy, their works
show no trace of the influences which prevailed when that body was
founded. Their sober execution and choice of colour recall
characteristics of the Spanish school, and when the world of Paris was
busy with mythological allegories, and the "heroic deeds" of the king,
the three Le Nain devoted themselves chiefly to subjects of humble life
such as "Boys Playing Cards," "The Forge," or "The Peasants' Meal."
These three paintings are now in the Louvre; various others may be found
in local collections, and some fine drawings may be seen in the British
Museum; but the Le Nain signature is rare, and is never accompanied by
initials which might enable us to distinguish the work of the brothers.
Their lives are lost in obscurity; all that can be affirmed is that they
were born at Laon in Picardy towards the close of the 16th century.
About 1629 they went to Paris; in 1648 the three brothers were received
into the Academy, and in the same year both Antoine and Louis died.
Mathieu lived on till August 1677; he bore the title of chevalier, and
painted many portraits. Mary of Medici and Mazarin were amongst his
sitters, but these works seem to have disappeared.
See Champfleury, _Essai sur la vie et l'oeuvre des Le Nain_ (1850),
and _Catalogue des tableaux des Le Nain_ (1861).
LENAU, NIKOLAUS, the pseudonym of NIKOLAUS FRANZ NIEMBSCH VON STREHLENAU
(1802-1850), Austrian poet, who was born at Csatád near Temesvar in
Hungary, on the 15th of August 1802. His father, a government official,
died at Budapest in 1807, leaving his children to the care of an
affectionate, but jealous and somewhat hysterical, mother, who in 1811
married again. In 1819 the boy went to the university of Vienna; he
subsequently studied Hungarian law at Pressburg and then spent the best
part of four years in qualifying himself in medicine. But he was unable
to settle down to any profession. He had early begun to write verses;
and the disposition to sentimental melancholy acquired from his mother,
stimulated by love disappointments and by the prevailing fashion of the
romantic school of poetry, settled into gloom after his mother's death
in 1829. Soon afterwards a legacy from his grandmother enabled him to
devote himself wholly to poetry. His first published poems appeared in
1827, in J. G. Seidl's _Aurora_. In 1831 he went to Stuttgart, where he
published a volume of _Gedichte_ (1832) dedicated to the Swabian poet
Gustav Schwab. Here he also made the acquaintance of Uhland, Justinus
Kerner, Karl Mayer[1] and others; but his restless spirit longed for
change, and he determined to seek for peace and freedom in America. In
October 1832 he landed at Baltimore and settled on a homestead in Ohio.
But the reality of life in "the primeval forest" fell lamentably short
of the ideal he had pictured; he disliked the Americans with their
eternal "English lisping of dollars" (_englisches Talergelispel_); and
in 1833 he returned to Germany, where the appreciation of his first
volume of poems revived his spirits. From now on he lived partly in
Stuttgart and partly in Vienna. In 1836 appeared his _Faust_, in which
he laid bare his own soul to the world; in 1837, _Savonarola_, an epic
in which freedom from political and intellectual tyranny is insisted
upon as essential to Christianity. In 1838 appeared his _Neuere
Gedichte_, which prove that _Savonarola_ had been but the result of a
passing exaltation. Of these new poems, some of the finest were inspired
by his hopeless passion for Sophie von Löwenthal, the wife of a friend,
whose acquaintance he had made in 1833 and who "understood him as no
other." In 1842 appeared _Die Albigenser_, and in 1844 he began writing
his _Don Juan_, a fragment of which was published after his death. Soon
afterwards his never well-balanced mind began to show signs of
aberration, and in October 1844 he was placed under restraint. He died
in the asylum at Oberdöbling near Vienna on the 22nd of August 1850.
Lenau's fame rests mainly upon his shorter poems; even his epics are
essentially lyric in quality. He is the greatest modern lyric poet of
Austria, and the typical representative in German literature of that
pessimistic _Weltschmerz_ which, beginning with Byron, reached its
culmination in the poetry of Leopardi.
Lenau's _Sämtliche Werke_ were published in 4 vols. by A. Grün (1855);
but there are several more modern editions, as those by M. Koch in
Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. 154-155 (1888), and by
E. Castle (2 vols., 1900). See A. Schurz, _Lenaus Leben, grösstenteils
aus des Dichters eigenen Briefen_ (1855); L. A. Frankl, _Zu Lenaus
Biographie_ (1854, 2nd ed., 1885); A. Marchand, _Les Poètes lyriques
de l'Autriche_ (1881); L. A. Frankl, _Lenaus Tagebuch und Briefe an
Sophie Löwenthal_ (1891); A. Schlossar, _Lenaus Briefe an die Familie
Reinbeck_ (1896); L. Roustan, _Lenau et son temps_ (1898); E. Castle,
_Lenau und die Familie Löwenthal_ (1906).
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Karl Friedrich Hartmann Mayer (1786-1870), poet, and biographer
of Uhland, was by profession a lawyer and government official in
Württemberg.
LENBACH, FRANZ VON (1836-1904), German painter, was born at
Schrobenhausen, in Bavaria, on the 13th of December 1836. His father was
a mason, and the boy was intended to follow his father's trade or be a
builder. With this view he was sent to school at Landsberg, and then to
the polytechnic at Augsburg. But after seeing Hofner, the animal
painter, executing some studies, he made various attempts at painting,
which his father's orders interrupted. However, when he had seen the
galleries of Augsburg and Munich, he finally obtained his father's
permission to become an artist, and worked for a short time in the
studio of Gräfle, the painter; after this he devoted much time to
copying. Thus he was already accomplished in technique when he became
the pupil of Piloty, with whom he set out for Italy in 1858. A few
interesting works remain as the outcome of this first journey--"A
Peasant seeking Shelter from Bad Weather" (1855), "The Goatherd" (1860,
in the Schack Gallery, Munich), and "The Arch of Titus" (in the Palfy
collection, Budapest). On returning to Munich, he was at once called to
Weimar to take the appointment of professor at the Academy. But he did
not hold it long, having made the acquaintance of Count Schack, who
commissioned a great number of copies for his collection. Lenbach
returned to Italy the same year, and there copied many famous pictures.
He set out in 1867 for Spain, where he copied not only the famous
pictures by Velasquez in the Prado, but also some landscapes in the
museums of Granada and the Alhambra (1868). In the previous year he had
exhibited at the great exhibition at Paris several portraits, one of
which took a third-class medal. Thereafter he exhibited frequently both
at Munich and at Vienna, and in 1900 at the Paris exhibition was awarded
a Grand Prix for painting. Lenbach, who died in 1904, painted many of
the most remarkable personages of his time.
See Berlepsch, "Lenbach," _Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte_ (1891);
Bégouen, _Les Portraits de Lenbach à l'exposition de Munich_ (1899);
K. Knackfuss, _Lenbach_, and _Franz von Lenbach Bildnisse_ (1900).