CHAPTER III.

THE STELLAR REALM.

Even before men came to take any careful account of the Nature

immediately about them they began to conjecture and in a way to

inquire concerning the stars and the other heavenly bodies. It is

difficult for us to imagine how hard it was for students to gain any

adequate idea of what those lights in the sky really are. At first men

imagined the celestial bodies to be, as they seemed, small objects not

very far away. Among the Greeks the view grew up that the heavens were

formed of crystal spheres in which the lights were placed, much as

lanterns may be hung upon a ceiling. These spheres were conceived to

be one above the other; the planets were on the lower of them, and the

fixed stars on the higher, the several crystal roofs revolving about

the earth. So long as the earth was supposed to be a flat and

limitless expanse, forming the centre of the universe, it was

impossible for the students of the heavens to attain any more rational

view as to their plan.

The fact that the earth was globular in form was understood by the

Greek men of science. They may, indeed, have derived the opinion from

the Egyptian philosophers. The discovery rested upon the readily

observed fact that on a given day the shadow of objects of a certain

height was longer in high latitude than in low. Within the tropics,

when the sun was vertical, there would be no shadow, while as far

north as Athens it would be of considerable length. The conclusion

that the earth was a sphere appears to have been the first large

discovery made by our race. It was, indeed, one of the most important

intellectual acquisitions of man.

Understanding the globular form of the earth, the next and most

natural step was to learn that the earth was not the centre of the

planetary system, much less of the universe, but that that centre was

the sun, around which the earth and the other planets revolved. The

Greeks appear to have had some idea that this was the case, and their

spirit of inquiry would probably have led them to the whole truth but

for the overthrow of their thought by the Roman conquest and the

spread of Christianity. It was therefore not until after the revival

of learning that astronomers won their way to our modern understanding

concerning the relation of the planets to the sun. With Galileo this

opinion was affirmed. Although for a time the Church, resting its

opposition on the interpretation of certain passages of Scripture,

resisted this view, and even punished the men who held it, it

steadfastly made its way, and for more than two centuries has been the

foundation of all the great discoveries in the stellar realm. Yet long

after the fact that the sun was the centre of the solar system was

well established no one understood why the planets should move in

their ceaseless, orderly procession around the central mass. To Newton

we owe the studies on the law of gravitation which brought us to our

present large conception as to the origin of this order. Starting with

the view that bodies attracted each other in proportion to their

weight, and in diminishing proportion as they are removed from each

other, Newton proceeded by most laborious studies to criticise this

view, and in the end definitely proved it by finding that the motions

of the moon about the earth, as well as the paths of the planets,

exactly agreed with the supposition.

The last great path-breaking discovery which has helped us in our

understanding of the stars was made by Fraunhofer and other

physicists, who showed us that substances when in a heated, gaseous,

or vaporous state produced, in a way which it is not easy to explain

in a work such as this, certain dark lines in the spectrum, or streak

of divided light which we may make by means of a glass prism, or, as

in the rainbow, by drops of water. Carefully studying these very

numerous lines, those naturalists found that they could with singular

accuracy determine what substances there were in the flame which gave

the light. So accurate is this determination that it has been made to

serve in certain arts where there is no better means of ascertaining

the conditions of a flaming substance except by the lines which its

light exhibits under this kind of analysis. Thus, in the manufacture

of iron by what is called the Bessemer process, it has been found very

convenient to judge as to the state of the molten metal by such an

analysis of the flame which comes forth from it.

[Illustration: _Seal Rocks near San Francisco, California, showing

slight effect of waves where there is no beach._]

No sooner was the spectroscope invented than astronomers hastened by

its aid to explore the chemical constitution of the sun. These studies

have made it plain that the light of our solar centre comes forth from

an atmosphere composed of highly heated substances, all of which are

known among the materials forming the earth. Although for various

reasons we have not been able to recognise in the sun all the elements

which are found in our sphere, it is certain that in general the two

bodies are alike in composition. An extension of the same method of

inquiry to the fixed stars was gradually though with difficulty

attained, and we now know that many of the elements common to the sun

and earth exist in those distant spheres. Still further, this method

of inquiry has shown us, in a way which it is not worth while here to

describe, that among these remoter suns there are many aggregations of

matter which are not consolidated as are the spheres of our own solar

system, but remain in the gaseous state, receiving the name of nebulæ.

Along with the growth of observational astronomy which has taken place

since the discoveries of Galileo, there has been developed a view

concerning the physical history of the stellar world, known as the

nebular hypothesis, which, though not yet fully proved, is believed by

most astronomers and physicists to give us a tolerably correct notion

as to the way in which the heavenly spheres were formed from an

earlier condition of matter. This majestic conception was first

advanced, in modern times at least, by the German philosopher Immanuel

Kant. It was developed by the French astronomer Laplace, and is often

known by his name. The essence of this view rests upon the fact

previously noted that in the realm of the fixed stars there are many

faintly shining aggregations of matter which are evidently not solid

after the manner of the bodies in our solar system, but are in the

state where their substances are in the condition of dustlike

particles, as are the bits of carbon in flame or the elements which

compose the atmosphere. The view held by Laplace was to the effect

that not only our own solar system, but the centres of all the other

similar systems, the fixed stars, were originally in this gaseous

state, the material being disseminated throughout all parts of the

heavenly realm, or at least in that portion of the universe of which

we are permitted to know something. In this ancient state of matter we

have to suppose that the particles of it were more separated from each

other than are the atoms of the atmospheric gases in the most perfect

vacuum which we can produce with the air-pump. Still we have to

suppose that each of these particles attract the other in the

gravitative way, as in the present state of the universe they

inevitably do.

Under the influence of the gravitative attraction the materials of

this realm of vapour inevitably tended to fall in toward the centre.

If the process had been perfectly simple, the result would have been

the formation of one vast mass, including all the matter which was in

the original body. In some way, no one has yet been able to make a

reasonable suggestion of just how, there were developed in the

process of concentration a great many separate centres of aggregation,

each of which became the beginning of a solar system. The student may

form some idea of how readily local centres may be produced in

materials disseminated in the vaporous state by watching how fog or

the thin, even misty clouds of the sunrise often gather into the

separate shapes which make what we term a "mackerel" sky. It is

difficult to imagine what makes centres of attraction, but we readily

perceive by this instance how they might have occurred.

When the materials of each solar system were thus set apart from the

original mass of star dust or vapour, they began an independent

development which led step by step, in the case of our own solar

system at least, and presumably also in the case of the other suns,

the fixed stars, to the formation of planets and their moons or

satellites, all moving around the central sun. At this stage of the

explanation the nebular hypothesis is more difficult to conceive than

in the parts of it which have already been described, for we have now

to understand how the planets and satellites had their matter

separated from each other and from the solar centre, and why they came

to revolve around that central body. These problems are best

understood by noting some familiar instances connected with the

movement of fluids and gases toward a centre. First let us take the

case of a basin in which the water is allowed to flow out through a

hole in its centre. When we lift the stopper the fluid for a moment

falls straight down through the opening. Very quickly, however, all

the particles of the water start to move toward the centre, and almost

at once the mass begins to whirl round with such speed that, although

it is working toward the middle, it is by its movement pushed away

from the centre and forms a conical depression. As often as we try the

experiment, the effect is always the same. We thus see that there is

some principle which makes particles of fluid that tend toward a

centre fail directly to attain it, but win their way thereto in a

devious, spinning movement.

Although the fact is not so readily made visible to the eye, the same

principle is illustrated in whirling storms, in which, as we shall

hereafter note with more detail, the air next the surface of the earth

is moving in toward a kind of chimney by which it escapes to the upper

regions of the atmosphere. A study of cyclones and tornadoes, or even

of the little air-whirls which in hot weather lift the dust of our

streets, shows that the particles of the atmosphere in rushing in

toward the centre of upward movement take on the same whirling motion

as do the molecules of water in the basin--in fact, the two actions

are perfectly comparable in all essential regards, except that the

fluid is moving downward, while the air flows upward. Briefly stated,

the reason for the movement of fluid and gas in the whirling way is as

follows: If every particle on its way to the centre moved on a

perfectly straight line toward the point of escape, the flow would be

directly converging, and the paths followed would resemble the spokes

of a wheel. But when by chance one of the particles sways ever so

little to one side of the direct way, a slight lateral motion would

necessarily be established. This movement would be due to the fact

that the particle which pursued the curved line would press against

the particles on the out-curved side of its path--or, in other words,

shove them a little in that direction--to the extent that they

departed from the direct line they would in turn communicate the

shoving to the next beyond. When two particles are thus shoving on one

side of their paths, the action which makes for revolution is doubled,

and, as we readily see, the whole mass may in this way become quickly

affected, the particles driven out of their path, moving in a curve

toward the centre. We also see that the action is accumulative: the

more curved the path of each particle, the more effectively it shoves;

and so, in the case of the basin, we see the whirling rapidly

developed before our eyes.

In falling in toward the centre the particles of star dust or vapour

would no more have been able one and all to pursue a perfectly

straight line than the particles of water in the basin. If a man

should spend his lifetime in filling and emptying such a vessel, it is

safe to say that he would never fail to observe the whirling movement.

As the particles of matter in the nebular mass which was to become a

solar system are inconceivably greater than those of water in the

basin, or those of air in the atmospheric whirl, the chance of the

whirling taking place in the heavenly bodies is so great that we may

assume that it would inevitably occur.

As the vapours in the olden day tended in toward the centre of our

solar system, and the mass revolved, there is reason to believe that

ringlike separations took place in it. Whirling in the manner

indicated, the mass of vapour or dust would flatten into a disk or a

body of circular shape, with much the greater diameter in the plane of

its whirling. As the process of concentration went on, this disk is

supposed to have divided into ringlike masses, some approach to which

we can discern in the existing nebulæ, which here and there among the

farther fixed stars appear to be undergoing such stages of development

toward solar systems. It is reasonably supposed that after these rings

had been developed they would break to pieces, the matter in them

gathering into a sphere, which in time was to become a planet. The

outermost of these rings led to the formation of the planet farthest

from the sun, and was probably the first to separate from the parent

mass. Then in succession rings were formed inwardly, each leading in

turn to the creation of another planet, the sun itself being the

remnant, by far the greater part of the whole mass of matter, which

did not separate in the manner described, but concentrated on its

centre. Each of these planetary aggregations of vapour tended to

develop, as it whirled upon its centre, rings of its own, which in

turn formed, by breaking and concentrating, the satellites or moons

which attend the earth, as they do all the planets which lie farther

away from the sun than our sphere.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Saturn, Jan. 26, 1889 (Antoniadi).]

As if to prove that the planets and moons of the solar system were

formed somewhat in the manner in which we have described it, one of

these spheres, Saturn, retains a ring, or rather a band which appears

to be divided obscurely into several rings which lie between its group

of satellites and the main sphere. How this ring has been preserved

when all the others have disappeared, and what is the exact

constitution of the mass, is not yet well ascertained. It seems clear,

however, that it can not be composed of solid matter. It is either in

the form of dust or of small spheres, which are free to move on each

other; otherwise, as computation shows, the strains due to the

attraction which Saturn itself and its moons exercise upon it would

serve to break it in pieces. Although this ring theory of the

formation of the planets and satellites is not completely proved, the

occurrence of such a structure as that which girdles Saturn affords

presumptive evidence that it is true. Taken in connection with what we

know of the nebulæ, the proof of Laplace's nebular hypothesis may

fairly be regarded as complete.

It should be said that some of the fixed stars are not isolated suns

like our own, but are composed of two great spheres revolving about

one another; hence they are termed double stars. The motions of these

bodies are very peculiar, and their conditions show us that it is not

well to suppose that the solar system in which we dwell is the only

type of order which prevails in the celestial families; there may,

indeed, be other variations as yet undetected. Still, these

differences throw no doubt on the essential truth of the theory as to

the process of development of the celestial systems. Though there is

much room for debate as to the details of the work there, the general

truth of the theory is accepted by nearly all the students of the

problem.

A peculiar advantage of the nebular hypothesis is that it serves to

account for the energy which appears as light and heat in the sun and

the fixed stars, as well as that which still abides in the mass of our

earth, and doubtless also in the other large planets. When the matter

of which these spheres were composed was disseminated through the

realms of space, it is supposed to have had no positive temperature,

and to have been dark, realizing the conception which appears in the

first chapter of Genesis, "without form, and void." With each stage of

the falling in toward the solar centres what is called the "energy of

position" of this original matter became converted into light and

heat. To understand how this took place, the reader should consider

certain simple yet noble generalizations of physics. We readily

recognise the fact that when a hammer falls often on an anvil it heats

itself and the metal on which it strikes. Those who have been able to

observe the descent of meteoric stones from the heavens have remarked

that when they came to the earth they were, on their surfaces at

least, exceedingly hot. Any one may observe shining meteors now and

then flashing in the sky. These are known commonly to be very small

bits of matter, probably not larger than grains of sand, which,

rushing into our atmosphere, are so heated by the friction which they

encounter that they burn to a gas or vapour before they attain the

earth. As we know that these particles come from the starry spaces,

where the temperature is somewhere near 500° below 0° Fahr., it is

evident that the light and heat are not brought with them into the

atmosphere; it can only be explained by the fact that when they enter

the air they are moving at an average speed of about twenty miles a

second, and that the energy which this motion represents is by the

resistance which the body encounters converted into heat. This fact

will help us to understand how, as the original star dust fell in

toward the centre of attraction, it was able to convert what we have

termed the energy of position into temperature. We see clearly that

every such particle of dust or larger bit of matter which falls upon

the earth brings about the development of heat, even though it does

not actually strike upon the solid mass of our sphere. The conception

of what took place in the consolidation of the originally disseminated

materials of the sun and planets can be somewhat helped by a simple

experiment. If we fit a piston closely into a cylinder, and then

suddenly drive it down with a heavy blow, the compressed air is so

heated that it may be made to communicate fire. If the piston should

be slowly moved, the same amount of heat would be generated, or, as we

may better say, liberated by the compression, though the effect would

not be so striking. A host of experiments show that when a given mass

of matter is brought to occupy a less space the effect is in

practically all cases to increase the temperature. The energy which

kept the particles apart is, when they are driven together, converted

into heat. These two classes of actions are somewhat different in

their nature; in the case of the meteors, or the equivalent star dust,

the coming together of the particles is due to gravitation. In the

experiment with the cylinder above described, the compression is due

to mechanical energy, a force of another nature.

There is reason for believing that all our planets, as well as the sun

itself, and also the myriad other orbs of space, have all passed

through the stages of a transition in which a continually

concentrating vapour, drawn together by gravitation, became

progressively hotter and more dense until it assumed the condition of

a fluid. This fluid gradually parted with its heat to the cold spaces

of the heavens, and became more and more concentrated and of a lower

temperature until in the end, as in the case of our earth and of other

planets, it ceased to glow on the outside, though it remained

intensely heated in the inner parts. It is easy to see that the rate

of this cooling would be in some proportion to the size of the sphere.

Thus the earth, which is relatively small, has become relatively cold,

while the sun itself, because of its vastly greater mass, still

retains an exceedingly high temperature. The reason for this can

readily be conceived by making a comparison of the rate of cooling

which occurs in many of our ordinary experiences. Thus a vial of hot

water will quickly come down to the temperature of the air, while a

large jug filled with the fluid at the same temperature will retain

its heat many times as long. The reason for this rests upon the simple

principle that the contents of a sphere increase with its enlargement

more rapidly than the surface through which the cooling takes place.

The modern studies on the physical history of the sun and other

celestial bodies show that their original store of heat is constantly

flowing away into the empty realms of space. The rate at which this

form of energy goes away from the sun is vast beyond the powers of the

imagination to conceive; thus, in the case of our earth, which viewed

from the sun would appear no more than a small star, the amount of

heat which falls upon it from the great centre is enough each day to

melt, if it all could be put to such work, about eight thousand cubic

miles of ice. Yet the earth receives only 1/2,170,000,000 part of the

solar radiation. The greater part of this solar heat--in fact, we may

say nearly all of it--slips by the few and relatively small planets

and disappears in the great void.

The destiny of all the celestial spheres seems in time to be that

they shall become cooled down to a temperature far below anything

which is now experienced on this earth. Even the sun, though its heat

will doubtless endure for millions of years to come, must in time, so

far as we can see, become dark and cold. So far as we know, we can

perceive no certain method by which the life of the slowly decaying

suns can be restored. It has, however, been suggested that in many

cases a planetary system which has attained the lifeless and lightless

stage may by collision with some other association of spheres be by

the blow restored to its previous state of vapour, the joint mass of

the colliding systems once again to resume the process of

concentration through which it had gone before. Now and then stars

have been seen to flash suddenly into great brilliancy in a way which

suggests that possibly their heat had been refreshed by a collision

with some great mass which had fallen into them from the celestial

spaces. There is room for much speculation in this field, but no

certainty appears to be attainable.

The ancients believed that light and heat were emanations which were

given off from the bodies that yielded them substantially as odours

are given forth by many substances. Since the days of Newton inquiry

has forced us to the conviction that these effects of temperature are

produced by vibrations having the general character of waves, which

are sent through the spaces with great celerity. When a ray of light

departs from the sun or other luminous body, it does not convey any

part of the mass; it transmits only motion. A conception of the action

can perhaps best be formed by suspending a number of balls of ivory,

stone, or other hard substance each by a cord, the series so arranged

that they touch each other. Then striking a blow against one end of

the line, we observe that the ball at the farther end of the line is

set in motion, swinging a little away from the place it occupied

before. The movement of the intermediate balls may be so slight as to

escape attention. We thus perceive that energy can be transmitted

from one to another of these little spheres. Close observation shows

us that under the impulse which the blow gives each separate body is

made to sway within itself much in the manner of a bell when it is

rung, and that the movement is transmitted to the object with which it

is in contact. In passing from the sun to the earth, the light and

heat traverse a space which we know to be substantially destitute of

any such materials as make up the mass of the earth or the sun. Judged

by the standards which we can apply, this space must be essentially

empty. Yet because motions go through it, we have to believe that it

is occupied by something which has certain of the properties of

matter. It has, indeed, one of the most important properties of all

substances, in that it can vibrate. This practically unknown thing is

called ether.

The first important observational work done by the ancients led them

to perceive that there was a very characteristic difference between

the planets and the fixed stars. They noted the fact that the planets

wandered in a ceaseless way across the heavens, while the fixed stars

showed little trace of changing position in relation to one another.

For a long time it was believed that these, as well as the remoter

fixed stars, revolved about the earth. This error, though great, is

perfectly comprehensible, for the evident appearance of the movement

is substantially what would be brought about if they really coursed

around our sphere. It was only when the true nature of the earth and

its relations to the sun were understood that men could correct this

first view. It was not, indeed, until relatively modern times that the

solar system came to be perceived as something independent and widely

detached from the fixed stars system; that the spaces which separate

the members of our own solar family, inconceivably great as they are,

are but trifling as compared with the intervals which part us from the

nearer fixed stars. At this stage of our knowledge men came to the

noble suggestion that each of the fixed stars was itself a sun, each

of the myriad probably attended by planetary bodies such as exist

about our own luminary.

It will be well for the student to take an imaginary journey from the

sun forth into space, along the plane in which extends that vast

aggregation of stars which we term the Milky Way. Let him suppose that

his journey could be made with something like the speed of light, or,

say, at the rate of about two hundred thousand miles a second. It is

fit that the imagination, which is free to go through all things,

should essay such excursions. On the fancied outgoing, the observer

would pass the interval between the sun and the earth in about eight

minutes. It would require some hours before he attained to the outer

limit of the solar system. On his direct way he would pass the orbits

of the several planets. Some would have their courses on one side or

the other of his path; we should say above or below, but for the fact

that we leave these terms behind in the celestial realm. On the margin

of the solar system the sun would appear shrunken to the state where

it was hardly greater than the more brilliant of the other fixed

stars. The onward path would then lead through a void which it would

require years to traverse. Gradually the sun which happened to lie

most directly in his path would grow larger; with nearer approach, it

would disclose its planets. Supposing that the way led through this

solar system, there would doubtless be revealed planets and satellites

in their order somewhat resembling those of our own solar family, yet

there would doubtless be many surprises in the view. Arriving near the

first sun to be visited, though the heavens would have changed their

shape, all the existing constellations having altered with the change

in the point of view, there would still be one familiar element in

that the new-found planets would be near by, and the nearest fixed

stars far away in the firmament.

With the speed of light a stellar voyage could be taken along the path

of the Milky Way, which would endure for thousands of years. Through

all the course the journeyer would perceive the same vast girdle of

stars, faint because they were far away, which gives the dim light of

our galaxy. At no point is it probable that he would find the separate

suns much more aggregated or greatly farther apart than they are in

that part of the Milky Way which our sun now occupies. Looking forth

on either side of the "galactic plane," there would be the same

scattering of stars which we now behold when we gaze at right angles

to the way we are supposing the spirit to traverse.

As the form of the Milky Way is irregular, the mass, indeed, having

certain curious divisions and branches, it well might be that the

supposed path would occasionally pass on one or the other side of the

vast star layer. In such positions the eye would look forth into an

empty firmament, except that there might be in the far away, tens of

thousands of years perhaps at the rate that light travels away from

the observer, other galaxies or Milky Ways essentially like that which

he was traversing. At some point the journeyer would attain the margin

of our star stratum, whence again he would look forth into the

unpeopled heavens, though even there he might discern other remote

star groups separated from his own by great void intervals.

* * * * *

The revelations of the telescope show us certain features in the

constitution and movements of the fixed stars which now demand our

attention. In the first place, it is plain that not all of these

bodies are in the same physical condition. Though the greater part of

these distant luminous masses are evidently in the state of

aggregation displayed by our own sun, many of them retain more or less

of that vaporous, it may be dustlike, character which we suppose to

have been the ancient state of all the matter in the universe. Some of

these masses appear as faint, almost indistinguishable clouds, which

even to the greatest telescope and the best-trained vision show no

distinct features of structure. In other cases the nebulous

appearance is hardly more than a mist about a tolerably distinct

central star. Yet again, and most beautifully in the great nebula of

the constellation of Orion, the cloudy mass, though hardly visible to

the naked eye, shows a division into many separate parts, the whole

appearing as if in process of concentration about many distinct

centres.

The nebulas are reasonably believed by many astronomers to be examples

of the ancient condition of the physical universe, masses of matter

which for some reason as yet unknown have not progressed in their

consolidation to the point where they have taken on the

characteristics of suns and their attendant planets.

Many of the fixed stars, the incomplete list of which now amounts to

several hundred, are curiously variable in the amount of light which

they send out to the earth. Sometimes these variations are apparently

irregular, but in the greater number of cases they have fixed periods,

the star waxing and waning at intervals varying from a few months to a

few years. Although some of the sudden flashings forth of stars from

apparent small size to near the greatest brilliancy may be due to

catastrophes such as might be brought about by the sudden falling in

of masses of matter upon the luminous spheres, it is more likely that

the changes which we observe are due to the fact that two suns

revolving around a common centre are in different stages of

extinction. It may well be that one of these orbs, presumably the

smaller, has so far lost temperature that it has ceased to glow. If in

its revolution it regularly comes between the earth and its luminous

companion, the effect would be to give about such a change in the

amount of light as we observe.

The supposition that a bright sun and a relatively dark sun might

revolve around a common centre of gravity may at first sight seem

improbable. The fact is, however, that imperfect as our observations

on the stars really are, we know many instances in which this kind of

revolution of one star about another takes place. In some cases these

stars are of the same brilliancy, but in others one of the lights is

much brighter than the other. From this condition to the state where

one of the stars is so nearly dark as to be invisible, the transition

is but slight. In a word, the evidence goes to show that while we see

only the luminous orbs of space, the dark bodies which people the

heavens are perhaps as numerous as those which send us light, and

therefore appear as stars.

Besides the greater spheres of space, there is a vast host of lesser

bodies, the meteorites and comets, which appear to be in part members

of our solar system, and perhaps of other similar systems, and in part

wanderers in the vast realm which intervenes between the solar

systems. Of these we will first consider the meteors, of which we know

by far the most; though even of them, as we shall see, our knowledge

is limited.

From time to time on any starry night, and particularly in certain

periods of the year, we may behold, at the distance of fifty or more

miles above the surface of the earth, what are commonly called

"shooting stars." The most of these flashing meteors are evidently

very small, probably not larger than tiny sand grains, possibly no

greater than the fragments which would be termed dust. They enter the

air at a speed of about thirty miles a second. They are so small that

they burn to vapour in the very great heat arising from their friction

on the air, and do not attain the surface of the earth. These are so

numerous that, on the average, some hundreds of thousands probably

strike the earth's atmosphere each day. From time to time larger

bodies fall--bodies which are of sufficient bulk not to be burned up

in the air, but which descend to the ground. These may be from the

smallest size which may be observed to masses of many hundred pounds

in weight. These are far less numerous than the dust meteorites; it is

probable, however, that several hundred fragments each year attain the

earth's surface. They come from various directions of space, and

there is as yet no means of determining whether they were formed in

some manner within our planetary system or whether they wander to us

from remoter realms. We know that they are in part composed of

metallic iron commingled with nickel and carbon (sometimes as very

small diamonds) in a way rarely if ever found on the surface of our

sphere, and having a structure substantially unknown in its deposits.

In part they are composed of materials which somewhat resemble certain

lavas. It is possible that these fragments of iron and stone which

constitute the meteorites have been thrown into the planetary spaces

by the volcanic eruption of our own and other planets. If hurled forth

with a sufficient energy, the fragments would escape from the control

of the attraction of the sphere whence they came, and would become

independent wanderers in space, moving around the sun in varied orbits

until they were again drawn in by some of the greater planets.

As they come to us these meteorites often break up in the atmosphere,

the bits being scattered sometimes over a wide area of country. Thus,

in the case of the Cocke County meteorite of Tennessee, one of the

iron species, the fragments, perhaps thousands in number, which came

from the explosion of the body were scattered over an area of some

thousand square miles. When they reach the surface in their natural

form, these meteors always have a curious wasted and indented

appearance, which makes it seem likely that they have been subject to

frequent collisions in their journeys after they were formed by some

violent rending action.

In some apparent kinship with the meteorites may be classed the

comets. The peculiarity of these bodies is that they appear in most

cases to be more or less completely vaporous. Rushing down from the

depths of the heavens, these bodies commonly appear as faintly

shining, cloudlike masses. As they move in toward the sun long trails

of vapour stream back from the somewhat consolidated head. Swinging

around that centre, they journey again into the outer realm. As they

retreat, their tail-like streamers appear to gather again upon their

centres, and when they fade from view they are again consolidated. In

some cases it has been suspected that a part at least of the cometary

mass was solid. The evidence goes to show, however, that the matter is

in a dustlike or vaporous condition, and that the weight of these

bodies is relatively very small.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The Great Comet of 1811, one of the many

varied forms of these bodies.]

Owing to their strange appearance, comets were to the ancients omens

of calamity. Sometimes they were conceived as flaming swords; their

forms, indeed, lend themselves to this imagining. They were thought to

presage war, famine, and the death of kings. Again, in more modern

times, when they were not regarded as portents of calamity, it was

feared that these wanderers moving vagariously through our solar

system might by chance come in contact with the earth with disastrous

results. Such collisions are not impossible, for the reason that the

planets would tend to draw these errant bodies toward them if they

came near their spheres; yet the chance of such collisions happening

to the earth is so small that they may be disregarded.

MOTIONS OF THE SPHERES.

Although little is known of the motions which occur among the

celestial bodies beyond the sphere of our solar family, that which has

been ascertained is of great importance, and serves to make it likely

that all the suns in space are upon swift journeys which in their

speed equal, if they do not exceed, the rate of motion among the

planetary spheres, which may, in general, be reckoned at about twenty

miles a second. Our whole solar system is journeying away from certain

stars, and in the direction of others which are situated in the

opposite part of the heavens. The proof of this fact is found in the

observations which show that on one side of us the stars are

apparently coming closer together, while on the other side they are

going farther apart. The phenomenon, in a word, is one of perspective,

and may be made real to the understanding by noting what takes place

when we travel down a street along which there are lights. We readily

note that these lights appear to close in behind us, and widen their

intervals in the direction in which we journey. By such evidence

astronomers have become convinced that our sphere, along with the sun

which controls it, is each second a score of miles away from the point

where it was before.

There is yet other and most curious evidence which serves to show that

certain of the stars are journeying toward our part of the heavens at

great speed, while others are moving away from us by their own proper

motion. These indications are derived from the study of the lines in

the light which the spectrum reveals to us when critically examined.

The position of these cross lines is, as we know, affected by the

motion of the body whence the light comes, and by close analysis of

the facts it has been pretty well determined that the distortion in

their positions is due to very swift motions of the several stars. It

is not yet certain whether these movements of our sun and of other

solar bodies are in straight lines or in great circles.

It should be noted that, although the evidence from the spectroscope

serves to show that the matter in the stars is akin to that of our own

earth, there is reason to believe that those great spheres differ much

from each other in magnitude.

We have now set forth some of the important facts exhibited by the

stellar universe. The body of details concerning that realm is vast,

and the conclusions drawn from it important; only a part, however, of

the matter with which it deals is of a nature to be apprehended by the

student who does not approach it in a somewhat professional way. We

shall therefore now turn to a description of the portion of the starry

world which is found in the limits of our solar system. There the

influences of the several spheres upon our planet are matters of vital

importance; they in a way affect, if they do not control, all the

operations which go on upon the surface of the earth.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

We have seen that the matter in the visible universe everywhere tends

to gather into vast associations which appear to us as stars, and that

these orbs are engaged in ceaseless motion in journeys through space.

In only one of these aggregations--that which makes our own solar

system--are the bodies sufficiently near to our eyes for us, even with

the resources of our telescopes and other instruments, to divine

something of the details which they exhibit. In studying what we may

concerning the family of the sun, the planets, and their satellites,

we may reasonably be assured that we are tracing a history which with

many differences is in general repeated in the development of each

star in the firmament. Therefore the inquiry is one of vast range and

import.

Following, as we may reasonably do, the nebular hypothesis--a view

which, though not wholly proved, is eminently probable--we may regard

our solar system as having begun when the matter of which it is

composed, then in a finely divided, cloudy state, was separated from

the similar material which went to make the neighbouring fixed stars.

The period when our solar system began its individual life was remote

beyond the possibility of conception. Naturalists are pretty well

agreed that living beings began to exist upon the earth at least a

hundred million years ago; but the beginnings of our solar system must

be placed at a date very many times as remote from the present day.[1]

[Footnote 1: Some astronomers, particularly the distinguished Professor

Newcomb, hold that the sun can not have been supplying heat as at

present for more than about ten million years, and that all geological

time must be thus limited. The geologist believes that this reckoning is

far too short.]

According to the nebular theory, the original vapour of the solar

system began to fall in toward its centre and to whirl about that

point at a time long before the mass had shrunk to the present limits

of the solar system as defined by the path of the outermost planets.

At successive stages of the concentration, rings after the manner of

those of Saturn separated from the disklike mass, each breaking up and

consolidating into a body of nebulous matter which followed in the

same path, generally forming rings which became by the same process

the moons or satellites of the sphere. In this way the sun produced

eight planets which are known, and possibly others of small size on

the outer verge of the system which have eluded discovery. According

to this view, the planetary masses were born in succession, the

farthest away being the oldest. It is, however, held by an able

authority that the mass of the solar system would first form a rather

flat disk, the several rings forming and breaking into planets at

about the same time. The conditions in Saturn, where the inner ring

remains parted, favours the view just stated.

Before making a brief statement of the several planets, the asteroids,

and the satellites, it will be well to consider in a general way the

motions of these bodies about their centres and about the sun. The

most characteristic and invariable of these movements is that by which

each of the planetary spheres, as well as the satellites, describes an

orbit around the gravitative centre which has the most influence upon

it--the sun. To conceive the nature of this movement, it will be well

to imagine a single planet revolving around the sun, each of these

bodies being perfect spheres, and the two the only members of the

solar system. In this condition the attraction of the two bodies would

cause them to circle around a common centre of gravity, which, if the

planet were not larger or the sun smaller than is the case in our

solar system, would lie within the mass of the sun. In proportion as

the two bodies might approach each other in size, the centre of

gravity would come the nearer to the middle point in a line connecting

the two spheres. In this condition of a sun with a single planet,

whatever were the relative size of sun and planet, the orbits which

they traverse would be circular. In this state of affairs it should be

noted that each of the two bodies would have its plane of rotation

permanently in the same position. Even if the spheres were more or

less flattened about the poles of their axes, as is the case with all

the planets which we have been able carefully to measure, as well as

with the sun, provided the axes of rotation were precisely parallel to

each other, the mutual attraction of the masses would cause no

disturbance of the spheres. The same would be the case if the polar

axis of one sphere stood precisely at right angles to that of the

other. If, however, the spheres were somewhat flattened at the poles,

and the axes inclined to each other, then the pull of one mass on the

other would cause the polar axes to keep up a constant movement which

is called nutation, or nodding.

The reason why this nodding movement of the polar axes would occur

when these lines were inclined to each other is not difficult to see

if we remember that the attraction of masses upon each other is

inversely as the square of the distance; each sphere, pulling on the

equatorial bulging of the other, pulls most effectively on the part of

it which is nearest, and tends to draw it down toward its centre. The

result is that the axes of the attracted spheres are given a wobbling

movement, such as we may note in the spinning top, though in the toy

the cause of the motion is not that which we are considering.

If, now, in that excellent field for the experiment we are essaying,

the mind's eye, we add a second planet outside of the single sphere

which we have so far supposed to journey about the sun, or rather

about the common centre of gravity, we perceive at once that we have

introduced an element which leads to a complication of much

importance. The new sphere would, of course, pull upon the others in

the measure of its gravitative value--i.e., its weight. The centre of

gravity of the system would now be determined not by two distinct

bodies, but by three. If we conceive the second planet to journey

around the sun at such a rate that a straight line always connected

the centres of the three orbs, then the only effect on their

gravitative centre would be to draw the first-mentioned planet a

little farther away from the centre of the sun; but in our own solar

system, and probably in all others, this supposition is inadmissible,

because the planets have longer journeys to go and also move slower,

the farther they are from the sun. Thus Mercury completes the circle

of its year in eighty-eight of our days, while the outermost planet

requires sixty thousand days (more than one hundred and sixty-four

years) for the same task. The result is not only that the centre of

gravity of the system is somewhat displaced--itself a matter of no

great account--but also that the orbit of the original planet ceases

to be circled and becomes elliptical, and this for the evident reason

that the sphere will be drawn somewhat away from the sun when the

second planet happens to lie in the part of its orbit immediately

outside of its position, in which case the pull is away from the solar

centre; while, on the other hand, when the new planet was on the other

side of the sun, its pull would serve to intensify the attraction

which drew the first sphere toward the centre of gravity. As the

pulling action of the three bodies upon each other, as well as upon

their equatorial protuberances, would vary with every change in their

relative position, however slight, the variations in the form of their

orbits, even if the spheres were but three in number, would be very

important. The consequences of these perturbations will appear in the

sequel.

In our solar system, though there are but eight great planets, the

group of asteroids, and perhaps a score of satellites, the variety of

orbital and axial movement which is developed taxes the computing

genius of the ablest astronomer. The path which our earth follows

around the sun, though it may in general and for convenience be

described as a variable ellipse, is, in fact, a line of such

complication that if we should essay a diagram of it on the scale of

this page it would not be possible to represent any considerable part

of its deviations. These, in fact, would elude depiction, even if the

draughtsman had a sheet for his drawing as large as the orbit itself,

for every particle of matter in space, even if it be lodged beyond the

limits of the farthest stars revealed to us by the telescope,

exercises a certain attraction, which, however small, is effective on

the mass of the earth. Science has to render its conclusions in

general terms, and we can safely take them as such; but in this, as in

other instances, it is well to qualify our acceptance of the

statements by the memory that all things are infinitely more

complicated than we can possibly conceive or represent them to be.

We have next to consider the rotations of the planetary spheres upon

their axes, together with the similar movement, or lack of it, in the

case of their satellites. This rotation, according to the nebular

hypothesis, may be explained by the movements which would set up in

the share of matter which was at first a ring of the solar nebula, and

which afterward gathered into the planetary aggregation. The way of it

may be briefly set forth as follows: Such a ring doubtless had a

diameter of some million miles; we readily perceive that the particles

of matter in the outer part of the belt would have a swifter movement

around the sun than those on the inside. When by some disturbance, as

possibly by the passage of a great meteoric body of a considerable

gravitative power, this ring was broken in two, the particles

composing it on either side would, because of their mutual attraction,

tend to draw away from the breach, widening that gap until the matter

of the broken ring was aggregated into a sphere of the star dust or

vapour. When the nebulous matter originally in the ring became

aggregated into a spherical form, it would, on account of the

different rates at which the particles were moving when they came

together, be the surer to fall in toward the centre, not in straight

lines, but in curves--in other words, the mass would necessarily take

on a movement of rotation essentially like that which we have

described in setting forth the nebular hypothesis.

In the stages of concentration the planetary nebulæ might well repeat

those through which the greater solar mass proceeded. If the volume of

the material were great, subordinate rings would be formed, which when

they broke and concentrated would constitute secondary planets or

satellites, such as our moon. For some reason as yet unknown the outer

planets--in fact, all those in the solar system except the two inner,

Venus and Mercury and the asteroids--formed such attendants. All these

satellite-forming rings have broken and concentrated except the inner

of Saturn, which remains as an intellectual treasure of the solar

system to show the history of its development.

To the student who is not seeking the fulness of knowledge which

astronomy has to offer, but desires only to acquaint himself with the

more critical and important of the heavenly phenomena which help to

explain the earth, these features of planetary movement should prove

especially interesting for the reason that they shape the history of

the spheres. As we shall hereafter see, the machinery of the earth's

surface, all the life which it bears, its winds and rains--everything,

indeed, save the actions which go on in the depths of the sphere--is

determined by the heat and light which come from the sun. The

conditions under which this vivifying tide is received have their

origin in the planetary motion. If our earth's path around the centre

of the system was a perfect circle, and if its polar axis lay at right

angles to the plane of its journey, the share of light and heat which

would fall upon any one point on the sphere would be perfectly

uniform. There would be no variations in the length of day or night;

no changes in the seasons; the winds everywhere would blow with

exceeding steadiness--in fact, the present atmospheric confusion would

be reduced to something like order. From age to age, except so far as

the sun itself might vary in the amount of energy which it radiated,

or lands rose up into the air or sunk down toward the sea level, the

climate of each region would be perfectly stable. In the existing

conditions the influences bring about unending variety. First of all,

the inclined position of the polar axis causes the sun apparently to

move across the heavens, so that it comes in an overhead position once

or twice in the year in quite half the area of the lands and seas.

This apparent swaying to and fro of the sun, due to the inclination of

the axis of rotation, also affects the width of the climatal belts on

either side of the equator, so that all parts of the earth receive a

considerable share of the sun's influence. If the axis of the earth's

rotation were at right angles to the plane of its orbit, there would

be a narrow belt of high temperature about the equator, north and

south of which the heat would grade off until at about the parallels

of fifty degrees we should find a cold so considerable and uniform

that life would probably fade away; and from those parallels to the

poles the conditions would be those of permanent frost, and of days

which would darken into the enduring night or twilight in the realm

of the far north and south. Thus the wide habitability of the earth is

an effect arising from the inclination of its polar axis.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Inclination of Planetary Orbits (from

Chambers).]

As the most valuable impression which the student can receive from his

study of Nature is that sense of the order which has made possible all

life, including his own, it will be well for him to imagine, as he may

readily do, what would be the effect arising from changes in relations

of earth and sun. Bringing the earth's axis in imagination into a

position at right angles to the plane of the orbit, he will see that

the effect would be to intensify the equatorial heat, and to rob the

high latitudes of the share which they now have. On moving the axis

gradually to positions where it approaches the plane of the orbit, he

will note that each stage of the change widens the tropic belt.

Bringing the polar axis down to the plane of the orbit, one hemisphere

would receive unbroken sunshine, the other remaining in perpetual

darkness and cold. In this condition, in place of an equatorial line

we should have an equatorial point at the pole nearest the sun; thence

the temperatures would grade away to the present equator, beyond which

half the earth would be in more refrigerating condition than are the

poles at the present day. In considering the movements of our planet,

we shall see that no great changes in the position of the polar axis

can have taken place. On this account the suggested alterations of the

axis should not be taken as other than imaginary changes.

It is easy to see that with a circular orbit and with an inclined axis

winter and summer would normally come always at the same point in the

orbit, and that these seasons would be of perfectly even length. But,

as we have before noted, the earth's path around the sun is in its

form greatly affected by the attractions which are exercised by the

neighbouring planets, principally by those great spheres which lie in

the realm without its orbit, Jupiter and Saturn. When these attracting

bodies, as is the case from time to time, though at long intervals,

are brought together somewhere near to that part of the solar system

in which the earth is moving around the sun, they draw our planet

toward them, and so make its path very elliptical. When, however, they

are so distributed that their pulling actions neutralize each other,

the orbit returns more nearly to a circular form. The range in its

eccentricity which can be brought about by these alterations is very

great. When the path is most nearly circular, the difference in the

major and minor axis may amount to as little as about five hundred

thousand miles, or about one one hundred and eighty-sixth of its

average diameter. When the variation is greatest the difference in

these measurements may be as much as near thirteen million miles, or

about one seventh of the mean width of the orbit.

The first and most evident effect arising from these changes of the

orbit comes from the difference in the amount of heat which the earth

may receive according as it is nearer or farther from the sun. As in

the case of other fires, the nearer a body is to it the larger the

share of light and heat which it will receive. In an orbit made

elliptical by the planetary attraction the sun necessarily occupies

one of the foci of the ellipse. The result is, of course, that the

side of the earth which is toward the sun, while it is thus brought

the nearer to the luminary, receives more energy in the form of light

and heat than come to any part which is exposed when the spheres are

farther away from each other in the other part of the orbit.

Computations clearly show that the total amount of heat and the

attendant light which the earth receives in a year is not affected by

these changes in the form of its path. While it is true that it

receives heat more rapidly in the half of the ellipse which is nearest

the source of the inundation, it obtains less while it is farther

away, and these two variations just balance each other.

Although the alterations in the eccentricity of its orbit do not vary

the annual supply of heat which the earth receives, they are capable

of changing the character of the seasons, and this in the way which we

will now endeavour to set forth, though we must do it at the cost of

considerable attention on the part of the reader, for the facts are

somewhat complicated. In the first place, we must note that the

ellipticity of the earth's orbit is not developed on fixed lines, but

is endlessly varied, as we can readily imagine it would be for the

reason that its form depends upon the wandering of the outer planetary

spheres which pull the earth about. The longer axis of the ellipse is

itself in constant motion in the direction in which the earth travels.

This movement is slow, and at an irregular rate. It is easy to see

that the effect of this action, which is called the revolution of the

apsides, or, as the word means, the movement of the poles of the

ellipse, is to bring the earth, when a given hemisphere is turned

toward the sun, sometimes in the part of the orbit which is nearest

the source of light and heat, and sometimes farther away. It may thus

well come about that at one time the summer season of a hemisphere

arrives when it is nearest the sun, so that the season, though hot,

will be very short, while at another time the same season will arrive

when the earth is farthest from the sun, and receives much less heat,

which would tend to make a long and relatively cool summer. The reason

for the difference in length of the seasons is to be found in the

relative swiftness of the earth's revolution when it is nearest the

sun, and the slowness when it is farther away.

There is a further complication arising from that curious phenomenon

called the precession of the equinoxes, which has to be taken into

account before we can sufficiently comprehend the effect of the

varying eccentricity of the orbit on the earth's seasons. To

understand this feature of precession we should first note that it

means that each year the change from the winter to the summer--or, as

we phrase it, the passage of the equinoctial line--occurs a little

sooner than the year before. The cause of this is to be found in the

attraction which the heavenly bodies, practically altogether the moon,

exercises on the equatorial protuberance of the earth. We know that

the diameter of our sphere at the equator is, on the average,

something more than twenty-six miles greater than it is through the

poles. We know, furthermore, that the position of the moon in relation

to the earth is such that it causes the attraction on one half of this

protuberance to be greater than it is upon the other. We readily

perceive that this action will cause the polar axis to make a certain

revolution, or, what comes to the same thing, that the plane of the

equator will constantly be altering its position. Now, as the

equinoctial points in the orbit depend for their position upon the

attitude of the equatorial plane, we can conceive that the effect is a

change in position of the place in that orbit where summer and winter

begin. The actual result is to bring the seasonal points backward,

step by step, through the orbit in a regular measure until in

twenty-two thousand five hundred years they return to the place where

they were before. This cycle of change was of old called the Annus

Magnus, or great year.

If the earth's orbit were an ellipse, the major axis of which remained

in the same position, we could readily reckon all the effects which

arise from the variations of the great year. But this ellipse is ever

changing in form, and in the measure of its departure from a circle

the effects on the seasons distributed over a great period of time are

exceedingly irregular. Now and then, at intervals of hundreds of

thousands or millions of years, the orbit becomes very elliptical;

then again for long periods it may in form approach a circle. When in

the state of extreme ellipticity, the precession of the equinoxes will

cause the hemispheres in turn each to have their winter and summer

alternately near and far from the sun. It is easily seen that when the

summer season comes to a hemisphere in the part of the orbit which is

then nearest the sun the period will be very hot. When the summer

came farthest from the sun that part of the year would have the

temperature mitigated by its removal to a greater distance from the

source of heat. A corresponding effect would be produced in the winter

season. As long as the orbit remained eccentric the tendency would be

to give alternately intense seasons to each hemisphere through periods

of about twelve thousand years, the other hemisphere having at the

same time a relatively slight variation in the summer and winter.

At first sight it may seem to the reader that these studies we have

just been making in matters concerning the shape of the orbit and the

attendant circumstances which regulate the seasons were of no very

great consequence; but, in the opinion of some students of climate, we

are to look to these processes for an explanation of certain climatal

changes on the earth, including the Glacial periods, accidents which

have had the utmost importance in the history of man, as well as of

all the other life of the planet.

It is now time to give some account as to what is known concerning the

general conditions of the solar bodies--the planets and satellites of

our own celestial group. For our purpose we need attend only to the

general physical state of these orbs so far as it is known to us by

the studies of astronomers. The nearest planet to the sun is Mercury.

This little sphere, less than half the diameter of our earth, is so

close to the sun that even when most favourably placed for observation

it is visible for but a few minutes before sunrise and after sunset.

Although it may without much difficulty be found by the ordinary eye,

very few people have ever seen it. To the telescope when it is in the

_full moon_ state it appears as a brilliant disk; it is held by most

astronomers that the surface which we see is made up altogether of

clouds, but this, as most else that has been stated concerning this

planet, is doubtful. The sphere is so near to the sun that if it were

possessed of water it would inevitably bear an atmosphere full of

vapour. Under any conceivable conditions of a planet placed as

Mercury is, provided it had an atmosphere to retain the heat, its

temperature would necessarily be very high. Life as we know it could

not well exist upon such a sphere.

Next beyond Mercury is Venus, a sphere only a little less in diameter

than the earth. Of this sphere we know more than we do of Mercury, for

the reason that it is farther from the sun and so appears in the

darkened sky. Most astronomers hold that the surface of this planet

apparently is almost completely and continually hidden from us by what

appears to be a dense cloud envelope, through which from time to time

certain spots appear of a dark colour. These, it is claimed, retain

their place in a permanent way; it is, indeed, by observing them that

the rotation period of the planet has, according to some observers,

been determined. It therefore seems likely that these spots are the

summits of mountains, which, like many of our own earth, rise above

the cloud level.

Recent observations on Venus made by Mr. Percival Lowell appear to

show that the previous determinations of the rotation of that planet,

as well as regards its cloud wrap, are in error. According to these

observations, the sphere moves about the sun, always keeping the same

side turned toward the solar centre, just as the moon does in its

motion around the earth. Moreover, Mr. Lowell has failed to discover

any traces of clouds upon the surface of the planet. As yet these

results have not been verified by the work of other astronomers;

resting, however, as they do on studies made with an excellent

telescope and in the very translucent and steady air of the Flagstaff

Station, they are more likely to be correct than those obtained by

other students. If it be true that Venus does not turn upon its axis,

such is likely to be the case also with the planet Mercury.

Next in the series of the planets is our own earth. As the details of

this planet are to occupy us during nearly all the remainder of this

work, we shall for the present pass it by.

Beyond the earth we pass first to the planet Mars, a sphere which has

already revealed to us much concerning its peculiarities of form and

physical state, and which is likely in the future to give more

information than we shall obtain from any other of our companions in

space, except perhaps the moon. Mars is not only nearer to us than any

other planet, but it is so placed that it receives the light of the

sun under favourable conditions for our vision. Moreover, its sky

appears to be generally almost cloudless, so that when in its orbital

course the sphere is nearest our earth it is under favourable

conditions for telescopic observation. At such times there is revealed

to the astronomer a surface which is covered with an amazing number of

shadings and markings which as yet have been incompletely interpreted.

The faint nature of these indications has led to very contradictory

statements as to their form; no two maps which have been drawn agree

except in their generalities. There is reason to believe that Mars has

an atmosphere; this is shown by the fact that in the appropriate

season the region about either pole is covered by a white coating,

presumably snow. This covering extends rather less far toward the

planet's equator than does the snow sheet on our continents. Taking

into account the colour of the coating, and the fact that it

disappears when the summer season comes to the hemisphere in which it

was formed, we are, in fact, forced to believe that the deposit is

frozen water, though it has been suggested that it may be frozen

carbonic acid. Taken in connection with what we have shortly to note

concerning the apparent seas of this sphere, the presumption is

overwhelmingly to the effect that Mars has seasons not unlike our own.

The existence of snow on any sphere may safely be taken as evidence

that there is an atmosphere. In the case of Mars, this supposition is

borne out by the appearance of its surface. The ruddy light which it

sends back to us, and the appearance on the margin of the sphere,

which is somewhat dim, appears to indicate that its atmosphere is

dense. In fact, the existence of an atmosphere much denser than that

of our own earth appears to be demanded by the fact that the

temperatures are such as to permit the coming and going of snow. It is

well known that the temperature of any point on the earth, other

things being equal, is proportionate to the depth of atmosphere above

its surface. If Mars had no more air over its surface than has an

equal area of the earth, it would remain at a temperature so low that

such seasonal changes as we have observed could not take place. The

planet receives one third less heat than an equal area of the earth,

and its likeness to our own temperature, if such exists, is doubtless

brought about by the greater density of its atmosphere, that serves to

retain the heat which comes upon its surface. The manner in which this

is effected will be set forth in the study of the earth's atmosphere.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Mars, August 27, 1892 (Guiot), the white patch

is the supposed Polar Snow Cap.]

As is shown by the maps of Mars, the surface is occupied by shadings

which seem to indicate the existence of water and lands. Those

portions of the area which are taken to be land are very much divided

by what appear to be narrow seas. The general geographic conditions

differ much from those of our own sphere in that the parts of the

planet about the water level are not grouped in great continents, and

there are no large oceans. The only likeness to the conditions of our

earth which we can perceive is in a general pointing of the somewhat

triangular masses of what appears to be land toward one pole. As a

whole, the conditions of the Martial lands and seas as regards their

form, at least, is more like that of Europe than that of any other

part of the earth's surface. Europe in the early Tertiary times had a

configuration even more like that of Mars than it exhibits at present,

for in that period the land was very much more divided than it now is.

If the lands of Mars are framed as are those of our own earth, there

should be ridges of mountains constituting what we may term the

backbones of the continent. As yet such have not been discerned, which

may be due to the fact that they have not been carefully looked for.

The only peculiar physical features which have as yet been discerned

on the lands of Mars are certain long, straight, rather narrow

crevicelike openings, which have received the name of "canals." These

features are very indistinct, and are just on the limit of visibility.

As yet they have been carefully observed by but few students, so that

their features are not yet well recorded; as far as we know them,

these fissures have no likeness in the existing conditions of our

earth. It is difficult to understand how they are formed or preserved

on a surface which is evidently subjected to rainfalls.

It will require much more efficient telescopes than we now have before

it will be possible to begin any satisfactory study on the geography

of this marvellous planet. We can not hope as yet to obtain any

indications as to the details of its structure; we can not see closely

enough to determine whether rivers exist, or whether there is a

coating which we may interpret as vegetation, changing its hues in the

different seasons of the year. An advance in our instruments of

research during the coming century, if made with the same speed as

during the last, will perhaps enable us to interpret the nature of

this neighbour, and thereby to extend the conception of planetary

histories which we derive from our own earth.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Comparative Sizes of the Planets (Chambers).]

Beyond Mars we find one of the most singular features of our solar

system in a group of small planetary bodies, the number of which now

known amounts to some two hundred, and the total may be far greater.

These bodies are evidently all small; it is doubtful if the largest is

three hundred and the smaller more than twenty miles in diameter. So

far as it has been determined by the effect of their aggregate mass in

attracting the other spheres, they would, if put together, make a

sphere far less in diameter than our earth, perhaps not more than five

hundred miles through. The forms of these asteroids is as yet unknown;

we therefore can not determine whether their shapes are spheroidal, as

are those of the other planets, or whether they are angular bits like

the meteorites. We are thus not in a position to conjecture whether

their independence began when the nebulous matter of the ring to which

they belonged was in process of consolidation, or whether, after the

aggregation of the sphere was accomplished, and the matter solidified,

the mass was broken into bits in some way which we can not yet

conceive. It has been conjectured that such a solid sphere might have

been driven asunder by a collision with some wandering celestial body;

but all we can conceive of such actions leads us to suppose that a

blow of this nature would tend to melt or convert materials subjected

to it into the state of vapour, rather than to drive them asunder in

the manner of an explosion.

The four planets which lie beyond the asteroids give us relatively

little information concerning their physical condition, though they

afford a wide field for the philosophic imagination. From this point

of view the reader is advised to consult the writings of the late R.A.

Proctor, who has brought to the task of interpreting the planetary

conditions the skill of a well-trained astronomer and a remarkable

constructive imagination.

The planet Jupiter, by far the largest of the children of the sun,

appears to be still in a state where its internal heat has not so far

escaped that the surface has cooled down in the manner of our earth.

What appear to be good observations show that the equatorial part of

its area, at least, still glows from its own heat. The sphere is

cloud-wrapped, but it is doubtful whether the envelope be of watery

vapour; it is, indeed, quite possible that besides such vapour it may

contain some part of the many substances which occupy the atmosphere

of the sun. If the Jovian sphere were no larger than the earth, it

would, on account of its greater age, long ago have parted with its

heat; but on account of its great size it has been able,

notwithstanding its antiquity, to retain a measure of temperature

which has long since passed away from our earth.

In the case of Saturn, the cloud bands are somewhat less visible than

on Jupiter, but there is reason to suppose in this, as in the

last-named planet, that we do not behold the more solid surface of the

sphere, but see only a cloud wrap, which is probably due rather to the

heat of the sphere itself than to that which comes to it from the sun.

At the distance of Saturn from the centre of the solar system a given

area of surface receives less than one ninetieth of the sun's heat as

compared with the earth; therefore we can not conceive that any

density of the atmosphere whatever would suffice to hold in enough

temperature to produce ordinary clouds. Moreover, from time to time

bright spots appear on the surface of the planet, which must be due to

some form of eruptions from its interior.

Beyond Saturn the two planets Uranus and Neptune, which occupy the

outer part of the solar system, are so remote that even our best

telescopes discern little more than their presence, and the fact that

they have attendant moons.

From the point of view of astronomical science, the outermost planet

Neptune, of peculiar interest for the reason that it was, as we may

say, discovered by computation. Astronomers had for many years

remarked the fact that the next inner planetary sphere exhibited

peculiarities in its orbit which could only be accounted for on the

supposition that it was subjected to the attraction of another

wandering body which had escaped observation. By skilful computation

the place in the heavens in which this disturbing element lay was so

accurately determined that when the telescope was turned to the given

field a brief study revealed the planet. Nothing else in the history

of the science of astronomy, unless it be the computation of eclipses,

so clearly and popularly shows the accuracy of the methods by which

the work of that science may be done.

As we shall see hereafter, in the chapters which are devoted to

terrestrial phenomena, the physical condition of the sun determines

the course of all the more important events which take place on the

surface of the earth. It is therefore fit that in this preliminary

study of the celestial bodies, which is especially designed to make

the earth more interpretable to us, we should give a somewhat special

attention to what is known under the title of "Solar Physics."

The reader has already been told that the sun is one of many million

similar bodies which exist in space, and, furthermore, that these

aggregations of matter have been developed from an original nebulous

condition. The facts indicate that the natural history of the sun, as

well as that of its attendant spheres, exhibits three momentous

stages: First, that of vapour; second, that of igneous fluidity;

third, that in which the sphere is so far congealed that it becomes

dark. Neither of these states is sharply separated from the other; a

mass may be partly nebulous and partly fluid; even when it has been

converted into fluid, or possibly into the solid state, it may still

retain on the exterior some share of its original vaporous condition.

In our sun the concentration has long since passed beyond the limits

of the nebulous state; the last of the successively developed rings

has broken, and has formed itself into the smallest of the planets,

which by its distance from the sun seems to indicate that the process

of division by rings long ago attained in our solar system its end,

the remainder of its nebulous material concentrating on its centre

without sign of any remaining tendency to produce these planet-making

circles.

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN.

Before the use of the telescope in astronomical work, which was begun

by the illustrious Galileo in 1608, astronomers were unable to

approach the problem of the structure of the sun. They could discern

no more than can be seen by any one who looks at the great sphere

through a bit of smoked glass, as we know this reveals a disklike body

of very uniform appearance. The only variation in this simple aspect

occurs at the time of a total eclipse, when for a minute or two the

moon hides the whole body of the sun. On such occasions even the

unaided eye can see that there is about the sphere a broad, rather

bright field, of an aspect like a very thin cloud or fog, which rises

in streamer like projections at points to a quarter of a million miles

or more above the surface of the sphere. The appearance of this

shining field, which is called the corona, reminds one of the aurora

which glows in the region about either pole of the earth.

One of the first results of the invention of the telescope was the

revelation of the curious dark objects on the sun's disk, known by the

name of spots from the time of their discovery, or, at least, from the

time when it was clearly perceived that they were not planets, but

really on the solar body. The interest in the constitution of the

sphere has increased during the last fifty years. This interest has

rapidly grown until at the present time a vast body of learning has

been gathered for the solution of the many problems concerning the

centre of our system. As yet there is great divergence in the views of

astronomers as to the interpretation of their observations, but

certain points of great general interest have been tolerably well

determined. These may be briefly set forth by an account of what would

meet the eye if an observer were able to pass from the surface of the

earth to the central part of the sun.

[Illustration: _Lava stream, in Hawaiian Islands, flowing into the

sea. Note the "ropy" character of the half-frozen rock on the sides of

the nearest rivulet of the lava._]

In passing from the earth to a point about a quarter of a million

miles from the sun's surface--a distance about that of the moon from

our sphere--the observer would traverse the uniformly empty spaces of

the heavens, where, but for the rare chance of a passing meteorite or

comet, there would be nothing that we term matter. Arriving at a point

some two or three hundred thousand miles from the body of the sun, he

would enter the realm of the corona; here he would find scattered

particles of matter, the bits so far apart that there would perhaps be

not more than one or two in the cubic mile; yet, as they would glow

intensely in the central light, they would be sufficient to give the

illumination which is visible in an eclipse. These particles are most

likely driven up from the sun by some electrical action, and are

constantly in motion, much as are the streamers of the aurora.

Below the corona and sharply separated from it the observer finds

another body of very dense vapour, which is termed the chromosphere,

and which has been regarded as the atmosphere of the sun. This layer

is probably several thousand miles thick. From the manner in which it

moves, in the way the air of our own planet does in great storms, it

is not easy to believe that it is a fluid, yet its sharply defined

upper surface leads us to suppose that it can not well be a mere mass

of vapour. The spectroscope shows us that this chromosphere contains

in the state of vapour a number of metallic substances, such as iron

and magnesium. To an observer who could behold this envelope of the

sun from the distance at which we see the moon, the spectacle would be

more magnificent than the imagination, guided by the sight of all the

relatively trifling fractures of our earth, can possibly conceive.

From the surface of the fiery sea vast uprushes of heated matter rise

to the height of two or three hundred thousand miles, and then fall

back upon its surface. These jets of heated matter have the aspect of

flames, but they would not be such in fact, for the materials are not

burning, but merely kept at a high temperature by the heat of the

great sphere beneath. They spring up with such energy that they at

times move with a speed of one hundred and fifty miles a second, or at

a rate which is attained by no other matter in the visible universe,

except that strange, wandering star known to astronomers as

"Grombridge, 1830," which is traversing the firmament with a speed of

not less than two hundred miles a second.

Below the chromosphere is the photosphere, the lower envelope of the

sun, if it be not indeed the body of the sphere itself; from this

comes the light and heat of the mass. This, too, can not well be a

firm-set mass, for the reason that the spots appear to form in and

move over it. It may be regarded as an extremely dense mass of gas, so

weighed down by the vast attraction of the great sphere below it that

it is in effect a fluid. The near-at-hand observer would doubtless

find this photosphere, as it appears in the telescope, to be sharply

separated from the thinner and more vaporous envelopes--the

chromosphere and the corona--which are, indeed, so thin that they are

invisible even with the telescope, except when the full blaze of the

sun is cut off in a total eclipse. The fact that the photosphere,

except when broken by the so-called spots, lies like a great smooth

sea, with no parts which lie above the general line, shows that it has

a very different structure from the envelope which lies upon it. If

they were both vaporous, there would be a gradation between them.

On the surface of the photosphere, almost altogether within thirty

degrees of the equator of the sun, a field corresponding approximately

to the tropical belt of the earth, there appear from time to time the

curious disturbances which are termed spots. These appear to be

uprushes of matter in the gaseous state, the upward movement being

upon the margins of the field and a downward motion taking place in

the middle of the irregular opening, which is darkened in its central

part, thus giving it, when seen by an ordinary telescope, the aspect

of a black patch on the glowing surface. These spots, which are from

some hundred to some thousand miles in diameter, may endure for

months before they fade away. It is clear that they are most abundant

at intervals of about eleven years, the last period of abundance being

in 1893. The next to come may thus be expected in 1904. In the times

of least spotting more than half the days of a year may pass without

the surface of the photosphere being broken, while in periods of

plenty no day in the year is likely to fail to show them.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Ordinary Sun-spot, June 22, 1885.]

It is doubtful if the closest seeing would reveal the cause of the

solar spots. The studies of the physicists who have devoted the most

skill to the matter show little more than that they are tumults in the

photosphere, attended by an uprush of vapours, in which iron and other

metals exist; but whether these movements are due to outbreaks from

the deeper parts of the sun or to some action like the whirling storms

of the earth's atmosphere is uncertain. It is also uncertain what

effect these convulsions of the sun have on the amount of the heat and

light which is poured forth from the orb. The common opinion that the

sun-spot years are the hottest is not yet fully verified.

Below the photosphere lies the vast unknown mass of the unseen solar

realm. It was at one time supposed that the dark colour of the spots

was due to the fact that the photosphere was broken through in those

spaces, and that we looked down through them upon the surface of the

slightly illuminated central part of the sphere. This view is

untenable, and in its place we have to assume that for the eight

hundred and sixty thousand miles of its diameter the sun is composed

of matter such as is found in our earth, but throughout in a state of

heat which vastly exceeds that known on or in our planet. Owing to its

heat, this matter is possibly not in either the solid or the fluid

state, but in that of very compressed gases, which are kept from

becoming solid or even fluid by the very high temperature which exists

in them. This view is apparently supported by the fact that, while the

pressure upon its matter is twenty-seven times greater in the sun than

it is in the earth, the weight of the whole mass is less than we

should expect under these conditions.

As for the temperature of the sun, we only know that it is hot enough

to turn the metals into gases in the manner in which this is done in a

strong electric arc, but no satisfactory method of reckoning the scale

of this heat has been devised. The probabilities are to the effect

that the heat is to be counted by the tens of thousands of degrees

Fahrenheit, and it may amount to hundreds of thousands; it has,

indeed, been reckoned as high as a million degrees. This vast

discharge is not due to any kind of burning action--i.e., to the

combustion of substances, as in a fire. It must be produced by the

gradual falling in of the materials, due to the gravitation of the

mass toward its centre, each particle converting its energy of

position into heat, as does the meteorite when it comes into the air.

It is well to close this very imperfect account of the learning which

relates to the sun with a brief tabular statement showing the relative

masses of the several bodies of the solar system. It should be

understood that by mass is meant not the bulk of the object, but the

actual amount of matter in it as determined by the gravitative

attraction which it exercises on other celestial bodies. In this test

the sun is taken as the measure, and its mass is for convenience

reckoned at 1,000,000,000.

TABLE OF RELATIVE MASSES OF SUN AND PLANETS.[2]

+------------------------------------------------------------+

| The sun 1,000,000,000 |

| Mercury 200 |

| Venus 2,353 |

| Earth 3,060 |

| Mars 339 |

| Asteroids ? |

| Saturn 285,580 |

| Jupiter 954,305 |

| Uranus 44,250 |

| Neptune 51,600 |

| Combined mass of the four inner planets 5,952 |

| Combined mass of all the planets 1,341,687 |

+------------------------------------------------------------+

[Footnote 2: See Newcomb's Popular Astronomy, p. 234. Harper Brothers,

New York.]

It thus appears that the mass of all the planets is about one seven

hundredth that of the sun.

Those who wish to make a close study of celestial geography will do

well to procure the interesting set of diagrams prepared by the late

James Freeman Clarke, in which transparencies placed in a convenient

lantern show the grouping of the important stars in each

constellation. The advantage of this arrangement is that the little

maps can be consulted at night and in the open air in a very

convenient manner. After the student has learned the position of a

dozen of the constellations visible in the northern hemisphere, he can

rapidly advance his knowledge in the admirable method invented by Dr.

Clarke.

Having learned the constellations, the student may well proceed to

find the several planets, and to trace them in their apparent path

across the fixed stars. It will be well for him here to gain if he can

the conception that their apparent movement is compounded of their

motion around the sun and that of our own sphere; that it would be

very different if our earth stood still in the heavens. At this stage

he may well begin to take in mind the evidence which the planetary

motion supplies that the earth really moves round the sun, and not

the sun and planets round the earth. This discovery was one of the

great feats of the human mind; it baffled the wits of the best men for

thousands of years. Therefore the inquirer who works over the evidence

is treading one of the famous paths by which his race climbed the

steeps of science.

The student must not expect to find the evidence that the sun is the

centre of the solar system very easy to interpret; and yet any youth

of moderate curiosity, and that interest in the world about him which

is the foundation of scientific insight, can see through the matter.

He will best begin his inquiries by getting a clear notion of the fact

that the moon goes round the earth. This is the simplest case of

movements of this nature which he can see in the solar system. Noting

that the moon occupies a different place at a given hour in the

twenty-four, but is evidently at all times at about the same distance

from the earth, he readily perceives that it circles about our sphere.

This the people knew of old, but they made of it an evidence that the

sun also went around our sphere. Here, then, is the critical point.

Why does the sun not behave in the same manner as the moon? At this

stage of his inquiry the student best notes what takes place in the

motions of the planets between the earth and the sun. He observes that

those so-called inferior planets Mercury and Venus are never very far

away from the central body; that they appear to rise up from it, and

then to go back to it, and that they have phases like the moon. Now

and then Venus may be observed as a black spot crossing the disk of

the sun. A little consideration will show that on the theory that

bodies revolve round each other in the solar system these movements of

the inner planets can only be explained on the supposition that they

at least travel around the great central fire. Now, taking up the

outer planets, we observe that they occasionally appear very bright,

and that they are then at a place in the heavens where we see that

they are far from the solar centre. Gradually they move down toward

the sunset and disappear from view. Here, too, the movement, though

less clearly so, is best reconcilable with the idea that these bodies

travel in orbits, such as those which are traversed by the inner

planets. The wonder is that with these simple facts before them, and

with ample time to think the matter over, the early astronomers did

not learn the great truth about the solar system--namely, that the sun

is the centre about which the planets circled. Their difficulty lay

mainly in the fact that they did not conceive the earth as a sphere,

and even after they attained that conception they believed that our

globe was vastly larger than the planets, or even than the sun. This

misconception kept even the thoughtful Greeks, who knew that the earth

was spherical in form, from a clear notion as to the structure of our

system. It was not, indeed, until mathematical astronomy attained a

considerable advance, and men began to measure the distances in the

solar system, and until the Newtonian theory of gravitation was

developed, that the planetary orbits and the relation of the various

bodies in the solar system to each other could be perfectly discerned.

Care has been taken in the above statements to give the student

indices which may assist him in working out for himself the evidence

which may properly lead a person, even without mathematical

considerations of a formal kind, to construct a theory as to the

relation of the planets to the sun. It is not likely that he can go

through all the steps of this argument at once, but it will be most

useful to him to ponder upon the problem, and gradually win his way to

a full understanding of it. With that purpose in mind, he should avoid

reading what astronomers have to say on the matter until he is

satisfied that he has done as much as he can with the matter on his

own account. He should, however, state his observations, and as far as

possible draw the results in his note-book in a diagrammatic form. He

should endeavour to see if the facts are reconcilable with any other

supposition than that the earth and the other planets move around the

sun. When he has done his task, he will have passed over one of the

most difficult roads which his predecessors had to traverse on their

way to an understanding of the heavens. Even if he fail he will have

helped himself to some large understandings.

The student will find it useful to make a map of the heavens, or

rather make several representing their condition at different times in

the year. On this plot he should put down only the stars whose places

and names he has learned, but he should plot the position of the

planets at different times. In this way, though at first his efforts

will be very awkward, he will soon come to know the general geography

of the heavens.

Although the possession or at least the use of a small astronomical

telescope is a great advantage to a student after he has made a

certain advance in his work, such an instrument is not at all

necessary, or, indeed, desirable at the outset of his studies. An

ordinary opera-glass, however, will help him in picking out the stars

in the constellations, in identifying the planets, and in getting a

better idea as to the form of the moon's surface--a matter which will

be treated in this work in connection with the structure of the earth.