_Lesson I._ It seems best to let the child read the first story before
asking questions. Afterwards, however, the following questions may be
of service: Did you ever see a reindeer? Where do reindeer live now?
Where were the reindeer at the time of the Tree-dwellers? Where were
they at the time of the early Cave-men? (See _The Tree-dwellers_, pp.
125-129, and _The Early Cave-men_, pp. 163-167.) Why did the reindeer
come to the wooded hills by the caves at the time of the Cave-men? Why
do reindeer live in herds? Name other animals that live in herds. Do
you think the reindeer herds would stay near the caves all the year?
Should any child inquire how we know that it was once very cold here,
tell him of the tracks that the glaciers made, and of the work of the
glaciers in grinding hard rocks so as to make fertile soil. Let the
children turn to the picture of a glacier on page 136, and let them
hunt for a rock which has markings made by glacial action. But reserve
the fine points of this topic for a later period.
The children will be helped to get a conception of the great number
of reindeer in a herd partly through the story, partly through
illustrations, and partly through tearing reindeer from paper and
mounting them so as to represent great herds. The child's experiences
in seeing processions or large numbers of people assembled can also be
used in forming a picture of the large number of reindeer that met at
the ford.
In this and in succeeding lessons, which refer to the women carrying
the fresh meat to the cave, remember that animals no larger than the
reindeer were carried to the cave. Larger animals, such as the wild
horse, the cow, and the bison, were divided on the spot. The bones
having the greater amount of flesh were removed from the carcass and
carried to the cave where the flesh was eaten and the bones left.
Three women could carry the flesh of one bison without the skin. When
the skins were good they were carried to the cave. In addition to the
skin and the flesh the Cave-men prized the head as a trophy and also
as a means of gaining control over the animals by sympathetic magic.
All the skulls were broken, probably for the sake of removing the
brains, which are usually considered a delicacy among primitive
peoples.
_Lesson II._ Help the children to see that when people had no books,
the person who knew most was of great service to the clan. The older
people, because they had more experience, took the place of books.
That is one reason why people were glad to take care of older and
wiser people than themselves, when the latter were no longer able to
do hard work.
_Lesson III._ This lesson illustrates one form which education among
primitive peoples takes. Relate what is given regarding the speed of
the wild horse in the lessons on pp. 61-71, in _The Tree-dwellers_,
which show the influence of such flesh-eating animals as wolves in
developing the speed of the wild horse on the grassy uplands.
_Lesson IV._ This lesson illustrates the ideas of primitive peoples
regarding sickness and methods of treating the sick, which consisted
largely of ceremonies for driving the "angry god," the "evil spirit,"
away. In dealing with a superstition of primitive peoples always try
to lead the child to discover the mistaken idea which gave rise to it.
_Lesson V._ Let the children experiment in making straight shafts. The
value of this work is not in the product--the shaft--but in its power
to arouse the inventive spirit, to call forth free activity, and to
yield an experience which lies at the basis of a great variety of
subjects.
_Reference_: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary
Education_, pp. 133, 140, 145.
_Lesson VI._ In most places throughout the United States there is some
one who has a small collection of Indian arrows. If the children can
see some of these arrows or other flint implements, it will add
greatly to their interest in this subject. In places where flint can
be found, the children should collect specimens and experiment in
chipping and flaking off small pieces. Where no flint is to be found,
it is possible to get good specimens by exchanging materials with
children in other localities.
_References_: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in
Elementary Education_, pp. 72, 138-140.
_Lessons VII and VIII._ The habit horses have of pawing the ground is
thought to be a survival of the ancient habit of pawing snow away from
the grass. The horses and reindeer stayed in the neighborhood of the
caves all through the winter, going to protected places only in times
of severe storms. The bison and wild cattle, on the contrary, went to
the lowland plains and forests at the close of summer, and returned
only after the snow had melted.
Since few children now have the opportunity to observe the bison, and
no child has the opportunity to see great herds, they must rely upon
books, pictures, and other symbols as sources for the necessary facts.
In bringing the sources of knowledge to the children, the teacher
should remember that the modern European bison, which is a descendant
of the aurochs of Pleistocene times, the species of bison we are
considering, is smaller than the ancient form. The Pleistocene bison
of Europe was similar to the American type that lived in the
woodlands.
Although the teacher should make use of available materials in
supplying herself with information regarding the bison, the following
summary is presented, especially for those who do not have access to
public libraries.
The bison are naturally shy, avoiding the presence of man; they have a
keen sense of smell, and hence man has difficulty in approaching a
herd, except from the leeward side. They have little intelligence, are
sluggish and timid, rarely attacking man or beast, except when wounded
or in self-defense. In migrating they travel in large herds, but when
feeding they separate into herds of about two or three hundred each.
The leader maintains his position by superior intelligence and brute
force. If he fails in duty he is punished. Scouts go ahead of the herd
in search of new pastures; and guards, or sentinels surround the herd
and guard it while feeding and during the night. When the guards have
been on duty awhile, they give place to fresh guards. In case of
danger, the guards give a signal of alarm by tossing up the head and
bellowing furiously. At this the leader gives a signal and the herd
starts off at once. Bison run swiftly for a short distance, but are
not able to continue a rapid flight. They can run faster than cattle,
however, and when pursued always run against the wind. When surprised
or wounded, they turn upon their assailants and attack them furiously,
fighting with horns and hoofs. They show their rage by thrusting out
the tongue, lashing the tail, and projecting the eyes. At such times
they are fierce and formidable. The enemies of the bison are the
carnivorous animals. A herd of bison has no cause to be afraid of
wolves or bears, but solitary bison are often killed by these
creatures. The cry of a bison resembles that of a groan or grunt.
In case the leader is killed and no bison is able to assert his
authority, there is great confusion until the question of leadership
is settled.
_References_: Richard Irving Dodge, _The Plains of the Great West_,
pp. 119-147. W. T. Hornaday, _The Extermination of the American
Bison_, in "The Smithsonian Report of the U. S. National Museum,"
1887, pp. 367-548. Poole's Index will supply references to magazines,
and the encyclopedias and natural histories will furnish further
facts.
_Lessons IX and X._ Boiling is such a common process that one seldom
thinks of the importance of the discovery of the art. These lessons
will show the child how people may have learned to boil and the
explanation they would be apt to give of the changes which take place
during the process. Boiling was undoubtedly used as a religious
ceremony long before it was used for cooking food.
_Lessons XI and XII._ If possible let the children take a field trip
in connection with these lessons. If there are no nuts or wild fruits
to gather, let the children gather fruits from a garden or some of the
products of the farm. The particular conditions in which the children
are placed will determine the form this lesson shall take. At any
rate, there will be an opportunity to observe birds, squirrels, or
rabbits.
_Lessons XIII and XIV._ The shelter described is a very early form and
is important as a step in the evolution of shelter. The remains found
give ample evidence that such a form was adopted by the Cave-men of
France.
_Lesson XV._ It was a common practice among primitive peoples to adopt
a child or even a grown person into the clan. The custom is important
as revealing one method of introducing new ideas at a time when means
of communication were undeveloped.
The description of the method of softening skins by beating and
treading upon them illustrates the common use of rhythm and song as
a means of holding the attention to what otherwise would be tedious
work.
_Lessons XVI and XVII._ The data for these lessons is taken from
drawings made by the Cave-men and from the results of anthropological
research among primitive peoples. It will be best not to confine the
children to any one mode of clothing, but to allow them to express
their own ideas regarding the first forms used.
_Lesson XVIII._ In connection with this lesson the children will be
interested in observing the signs of a storm, the actions of animals
before and during a storm, methods they adopt to protect themselves,
as well as the animals and birds which migrate from the place where
the children live.
_Lesson XIX._ Let the children think of ways in which snowshoes might
be invented, and the things the Cave-men would be able to do after
having the snowshoes.
_Lesson XX._ The invention of traps requires more forethought than the
invention of weapons and was at a later date. The accidental catching
of animals in natural traps, such as vines, pot-holes, soft places in
the marshes and cliffs, offered a suggestion; and the tediousness of
lying in wait, on the one hand, and the danger of a direct conflict
with large animals, on the other, offered a strong motive for the use
of nature's suggestions in the way of traps. Undoubtedly women made a
large use of traps in catching the smaller animals before men gave
much attention to this mode of hunting.
If the children make as many simple traps as they can think of and
arrange them in the order of their complexity, they will be able after
a few months to work out a fairly complete series in the evolution of
traps.
_Lesson XXI._ This lesson illustrates the constant interaction between
man's inventions and the animal's habits. A new invention which gives
man greater power in hunting, makes the animals more timid, more
watchful, more skillful in escaping from man's presence. Hence, man
is constantly stimulated to make new inventions, in order to be
successful in the hunt.
_Reference_: Katharine E. Dopp. _The Place of Industries in Elementary
Education_. (See Index under _Animals_ and _Traps_.)
_Lesson XXII._ No animal was more difficult to hunt than the wild
horse. Herds of horses were organized under a leader and sentinels
which were very alert in detecting the least sign of danger; and as
soon as the alarm was given, the herds would run with great speed
until they were out of sight. When unable to escape they would fight
furiously with hoofs and teeth. When in need of a new pasture,
scouts--the old, experienced, wise, cautious, and observant members of
the herd--would be sent out to search for good feeding grounds and to
report to the herd.
_Lesson XXIII._ Help the children to see that, although the children
of the caves did not go to such schools as we have, they had lessons
to learn and tests to take. Those who lived together had to learn
to work together. Each one must learn to be patient, brave, and
self-controlled. The thoughtless, impatient, and cowardly were apt to
prevent the capture of wild animals in the hunt, and to risk the lives
of their clansmen. Hence, from early childhood the old men and women
gave attention to teaching the children, preparing them for the tests
which must be passed before they ranked with the men and women.
_Lesson XXIV._ Instances of stags meeting death by having their horns
interlocked are well known.
_Lesson XXV._ Encourage the children to notice the difference between
those animals which live in herds and those which lead a solitary
life. Although the dog has changed greatly since it was domesticated,
a study of the dog will be helpful in understanding the habits of
packs of wolves. Jack London's _Call of the Wild_, and Ernest Thompson
Seton's stories will be helpful in this connection. The cat, having
changed less than the dog, will furnish the child with a good type of
carnivorous animals that lead a solitary life.
_Lesson XXVI._ From an examination of the skeletons which have been
referred to the late Pleistocene period, it is evident that the
Cave-men were able to treat wounds and to set bones. "No one could
have survived such wounds as we have described," writes Mr. Nadaillac,
"but for the care and nursing of those around him, such as the other
members of his tribe. The wounded one must have been fed by the others
for months; nay more, he must have been carried in migrations, and his
food and resting place must have been prepared for him."
_Lesson XXVII._ There was little difference between weapons and tools
until the period of the later Cave-men. A piece of chipped stone
served as a tool and a weapon. The children learned when they read
_The Tree-dwellers_ how people used the tools in their bodies and how
they supplemented these by the use of natural tools, such as sticks,
stones, shells, bones, and horns. In reading _The Early Cave-men_ they
learned how people chipped flint and bound strong handles to heavy
spear points and axes. At this time they can learn how people came to
make use of new materials--materials which require the use of _tools_
in shaping into weapons. Tools had been used by women from a very
early time. The digging-stick, the hammer-stone, the chopper, the
knife, and the bone awl are tools which every woman used. Men, on the
contrary, were more interested in weapons than in tools, and it is
quite likely that the first steps which led to the differentiation of
tools from weapons was made by a man who had been wounded and thus
disabled for the hunt.
The incident of Bighorn making fun of the bone dagger is introduced
to illustrate the conservative tendency which is still present in
society, a tendency less powerful now than in early times, yet strong
enough to keep many people out of sympathy with the forces which work
for progress.
Let the children examine a real antler, if possible, and notice its
fitness for being made into a variety of tools and weapons. If no
antler can be found let them examine the picture of one, so as to
determine what part of it is used in making a dagger, a hammer, a
baton, a tent peg, and an awl.
_Lesson XXVIII._ The invention of the flint saw marks an important
step in the evolution of both tools and weapons. Without the saw it
would have been impossible to use such material as bone, horn, and
ivory. It is interesting to notice that the saw was at first not
clearly differentiated from the file and the knife, the three tools
being united in one piece of flint.
_Lesson XXIX._ In representing the action of a story by means of
pantomime, let the children choose a leader who shall take charge
of the action. Where this has been tried the results have been very
satisfactory. The children, because they feel the responsibility, are
stimulated to their best thought. The pleasure they take in the play
leads them to a far more careful study of the book than they would
make without this stimulus. In addition to this, it leads them to be
alert in making use of various sources of knowledge.
_Lesson XXX._ Hunting peoples, because they live a hand-to-mouth life,
have either a feast or a famine. Game was so plentiful during the late
Pleistocene period that we may suppose that the Cave-men usually had
plenty of food. The time when a famine was most likely to occur was
early spring, before the grass furnished food for the herds which came
a little later. When food supplies begin to fail, the clan breaks up
into smaller groups, and, in case of great scarcity, each of these
groups subdivides so that food may be found.
The worship of the bear and other large animals can be traced back to
a very ancient period. It undoubtedly originated in the Pleistocene
period when man first stood in fear of these animals and tried to win
their favor by offering gifts.
_Lesson XXXI._ In Central France, the region from which the greater
part of the data used in this book is derived, small glaciers were to
be found in the upper portions of the mountain valleys, but they did
not extend far down the river valleys. In other places, however,
glaciers extended far down into the lowlands.
While this is not the place for a thorough study of the glacier, it is
possible for the children of primary grades to understand certain
phases of the subject. The teacher who attempts to make clear the
formation of the glacier may find the following quotation from Prof.
Shaler helpful: "When a glacial period comes upon a country, the
sheets of ice are first imposed upon the mountain tops, and then the
ice creeps down the torrent and river beds far below the snow line,
in a manner now seen in Switzerland and Norway. As long as the ice
streams follow the torrent-channels, they act in something like the
fashions of the flowing waters--to gouge out the rocks and deepen the
valleys; but as the glacial period advances and the ice sheet spreads
beyond the mountains enveloping the plains as well, when the glacier
attains the thickness of thousands of feet, it disregards the valleys
in its movements and sweeps on in majestic march across the surface of
the country. As long as the continental glaciers remain the tendency
is to destroy the river valleys. The result is to plane down the land
and, to a certain extent, to destroy all preexisting river valleys."
If this subject is studied while snow is on the ground it will be
interesting to the children to experiment out of doors in making
glaciers. If there are no hills present the children can readily make
small hills on their playground and the falling and partial melting of
the snow will do the rest.
_Lesson XXXII._ Neighboring clans are accustomed to meet at the rapids
of a river during the salmon season. At such places, and in all places
where abundant sources of food are to be found, neighboring clans
participate in feasting, dancing, and general merrymaking. Just as
scarcity of food tends to separate people, so abundance of food tends
to draw them together. At such gatherings people of different clans
exchange ideas, learn new ways of doing things and become accustomed
to act in larger groups for the accomplishment of a common purpose.
_Lesson XXXIII._ On the side of invention the throwing-stick is
a point to be emphasized in this lesson. On the side of social
cooperation, the organization of the brotherhood is the point of
interest. Such organizations are characteristic of primitive peoples,
and similar organizations among children are of common occurrence.
_Lesson XXXIV._ This lesson serves to bring out the contrast between
Fleetfoot, the brave, active young man, who is beginning to develop
the arts which require great personal bravery and force, and Flaker,
the crippled young man, whose ability is directed toward the
development of tools and the arts which later make him a priest and
medicine man. Originally, there was no sharp distinction between the
priest and the medicine man. One person performed both functions, and
in many cases this person was a woman. Later, those who made use of
supplication and entreaty constituted the priesthood, while those who
attempted to frighten the gods were known as medicine men.
_Lesson XXXV._ Overhanging rocks were made use of for natural shelters
from the earliest times. The improvement of the natural shelter by the
addition of front and side walls was a later step and was doubtless an
invention of woman. The motives for such an invention may be found in
the fact that in many places near good hunting grounds there were not
enough caves to shelter the people. Under such circumstances, as well
as in districts where no caves abound, women would not be slow to take
advantage of the overhanging rocks and to use their ingenuity in
converting them into comfortable habitations.
Let the children compare summer and winter skins, if possible; if not,
let them notice the difference between the horse's coat in winter and
summer.
_Lesson XXXVI._ To help the children to realize the importance of the
discovery of the use of poison, let the children think of the many
advantages which the Cave-men enjoyed because they could use it.
The dependence of man upon animals for his food supply is shown here.
The disappearance of the herds caused Fleetfoot and Willow-grouse to
leave the rock-shelter. This is the beginning of a series of events
which culminates in a famine. With this in mind, the teacher can
emphasize the points which lead up to the famine.
_Lesson XXXVII._ Let the children bring together from various sources
the materials and tools required to make needles by the processes of
the Cave-men. Do not require the children to make needles, but permit
them to experiment with the materials so as to understand the subject.
If the children label and arrange the collection they make in an
orderly way, the work itself will be of great value to them, and the
collection will constitute an interesting feature in the children's
industrial museum.
_Lesson XXXVIII._ Such a lesson as this ought to be helpful in freeing
the child from superstitions without putting him out of sympathy with
people who entertain them. In their origin superstitions are
unsuccessful attempts to explain the phenomena of life. In spite of
the fact that many of the beliefs of mankind have been false, they
have served a useful purpose in the development of the individual and
in uniting individuals into social groups.
The art of the Cave-men, as illustrated in this and in other lessons,
shows a belief in sympathetic magic, a belief that is universal among
primitive peoples. The fear formerly entertained by the American
Indians of having their photographs taken was due to a belief in
sympathetic magic. The one who possessed the likeness was supposed to
have some mysterious power over the person.
Help the children to distinguish between the things the Cave-men did
which really helped and those which they thought helped. Notice that
Flaker actually learned a great deal about the topography of the
country, the location of the best hunting grounds, the movements and
habits of the herds, and, because of this, was often able to give the
Cave-men good advice. The magical ceremonies he practiced were of use
to him in getting the people to believe in his wonderful power. (See,
also, notes under _XXXIV_.)
_Lesson XXXIX._ Although there was a great variety and abundance of
fish, not all the Cave-men used fish. From the remains which have been
found, however, we know that different clans used nearly all the
varieties of fish which still may be found in our rivers and lakes;
and we may readily believe that a salmon stream would be held as
property common to all the neighboring tribes, as it is to-day among
hunting and fishing peoples.
Fishing tackle of the Cave-men was very crude. Fish were sufficiently
abundant, however, to be caught with the hands or by means of stones
and clubs. A fish hook made of a bear's tooth, by removing the enamel
and crown and lessening the thickness by rubbing, has been found. The
barbed harpoons, which were originally made for hunting, were later
used in spearing fish. Harpoons with barbs on both sides were well
adapted for throwing through the air, while those with barbs on one
side were better adapted for use in the water. An experiment with a
pencil in a glass of water will show the child that the part in the
water is not where it appears to be, and from this he can readily
reach the conclusion given above.
_Lesson XL._ If one will notice the clothing and the cradles of the
North American Indians in a museum, he cannot fail to observe that
care was taken in their preparation. They are comfortable and, in many
cases, beautiful. We may well believe from what is known that among
all primitive peoples the beauty, especially that of ornamentation,
was for the sake of some supposed magical power. The representation of
an animal was supposed to secure the especial protection of that
animal, which was worshiped as a god. The bear's tooth, which was
pierced and strung about the neck of an infant, served a useful
purpose when the child was cutting teeth, and it was supposed to be
a charm which served to protect the child.
_Lesson XLI._ The strongest motives for cooperation were doubtless
the common need of protection from dangerous beasts of prey and the
need of adopting methods of hunting wild animals which required the
united efforts of many people. Notice that the different batons and
fragments of batons represented in this book differ in the number of
holes bored through them. It is thought that the number of holes
indicated the rank of the owner. Although many theories are given
regarding the use of batons, the one which seems most tenable to
the author is that which views them as marks of distinction and
instruments used in magical ceremonies and in hunting dances.
_Lesson XLII._ The method of hunting herds by surrounding them is a
cooperative method suitable to such regions as grassy plains, and
comparatively level tracts which are sparsely wooded. The drive, on
the contrary, is adapted to regions where steep cliffs are to be
found. It is a natural development of the earlier method of hunting by
taking advantage of the proximity of animals to steep cliffs. In that
case man's part was to lie in wait until a favorable opportunity
presented itself for frightening the animals over. The lesson in _The
Tree-dwellers_ on "How the Hyenas Hunted the Big-nosed Rhinoceros,"
and the one in _The Early Cave-men_ on "Hunting the Mammoth,"
illustrate early stages of this method.
Notice that there is a new principle employed in this lesson--that of
the decoy--and that the method of hunting by means of the drive makes
use of various ideas worked out before.
_Lesson XLIII._ The experience of children in games is sufficient to
enable them to realize the necessity of making laws and rules for
regulating the conduct of the members of the group. This lesson should
serve to connect this narrow experience with that of the race.
Many of the representations of the Cave-man's art, as shown in the
illustrations of this book, might well have been made the subjects of
special lessons. The limits of this book, however, forbid further
expansion.
* * * * *