State of several Southern tribes during the last century--The English
send deputies to the Cherokees, in 1756--Their lives threatened, and
saved by Attakullakulla--Account of that Chieftain and his
principles--The party opposed to him headed by Occonostota--War with the
Colonies in 1759 and two years following--Anecdotes of both these
Chiefs--Saloueh, Fiftoe, and others--Several battles--Peace
concluded--Attakullakulla visits Charleston--His subsequent Career, and
that of Occonostota--Remarks on their character.
Contemporary with the individuals who have just been mentioned, were a
number of noted chieftains among the more Southern tribes. Of them we may
take this occasion to say, that the Chickasaws generally affected the
English interest; and the Creeks, the French;--so that the friendship or
the hostility of Great-Mortar, the Standing-Turkey, the Wolf-King, and the
other leading men among the latter tribe was nearly neutralized, as
regarded the several civilized parties, by the counteraction of the
former.
The Cherokees had been friendly to the English ever since the treaty of
1730; but, owing partly to the influence of the Mortar, and partly to the
direct exertions of the French, they had now become wavering and divided
in sentiment. In 1756, deputies were sent among them, to secure their aid
against the French. A council was convened, and was likely to terminate
favorably, when tidings suddenly came that a party of Cherokees, who had
visited the French on the Ohio, were massacred by some of the Virginians
on their return home. The Council was in an uproar, as much as an Indian
Council could be,--the gravest political assembly on earth,--at once. Many
cried aloud that vengeance should be taken on the persons of the Deputies;
and it was not without a great exertion of influence, that they were at
length rescued by Attakullakulla, or the Little-Carpenter.
This is the earliest appearance of that renowned Chieftain in history,
though he is said to have been already famous both among the Cherokees and
the English, especially for his magnanimity, wisdom, and moderation. Nor
has there ever been, upon the continent, a more faithful or useful friend
to the English cause. We cannot better illustrate his career or his
character than by comparing both with those of White-Eyes; and indeed,
some of the incidents related of _that_ chief, independently of other
circumstances, make it highly probable, that a diplomatic and personal
good understanding was constantly maintained between them.
Like White-Eyes, too, Attakullakulla was opposed by a war-party, the chief
difference being that it was less formally organized, and that it
generally operated in favor of the French. At the head of it was
Occonostota, or the Great-Warrior, a man whose extraordinary prowess
procured him his title, and whose memory is to this day warmly cherished
among his countrymen. Pursuing our comparison, he should remind us of
Pipe; but the suggestion does him injustice. He was not only _for_ war,
but a warrior--in truth, a "_great_ warrior." He fought, and bled, and
led on, where the other appeared only in that capacity of bear-hunter with
dogs, which White-Eyes imputed to him. He was sincere to enthusiasm in his
principles, and frank and fearless almost to fool-hardiness in professing
and pursuing them. He had as much talent as Pipe, and far more virtue.
"Occonostota," says a respectable authority of a date a little subsequent
to that just mentioned, "is returned again from the French fort with
powder and ball, accompanied with some Frenchmen--how many I cannot
learn." And again, soon afterwards,--"Since Occonostota returned from the
French with the goods and ammunition, and has had those assurances from
the Creeks, he says, 'What nation, or what people am I afraid of? I do not
fear all the forces which the great King George can send against me among
these mountains.'" [FN] And yet the Great-Warrior was not rash, as we
shall soon learn from the sequel.
* * * * *
[FN] We refer to Charleston, (S. C.) papers.
A strong excitement followed the provocation already mentioned; and
although the elder part of the nation remained calm, and Attakullakulla
and Occonostota were both against instant war, the French emissaries
wrought so effectually on the younger warriors, that parties of them took
the field, and the English frontiers became the scene of a horrid series
of devastation and massacre. The Governor of South Carolina prepared for
active hostilities, and the militia of the whole Province were summoned to
meet at Congarees.
But no sooner did the Cherokees hear of this movement than they sent
thirty-two of their chief men, among whom was the Great-Warrior, to settle
all differences at Charleston. A conference ensued, the burthen of which
however was assumed by the Governor alone; for when,--after he had made a
long speech of accusations, and concluded with saying that the Deputies
must follow his troops, or he would not be answerable for their
safety,--Occonostota gravely rose to reply, the Governor interrupted him
and forbade him to proceed. He was determined that nothing should prevent
his military expedition; and at all events "he would hear no talk in
vindication of the Orator's countrymen, nor any proposals with regard to
peace." [FN]
* * * * *
[FN] Ramsay's History of South Carolina.
The Great-Warrior was indignant, and his companions were still more so
than himself. It must be allowed, that the Governor's deportment on this
occasion, independently of his treatment of the Deputies out of Council,
was in the highest degree insulting. The Warrior felt it the more keenly,
because he had been appointed to speak, and had prepared himself. The
Cherokees were conscious, too, that the English had originally occasioned
the war. The sacred respect attached in their view,--as it is in that of
the Indians quite generally even now,--to the dignity of their orators,
may be gathered from the well-authenticated anecdote of the Virginian
Chieftain who was rashly interrupted in a Conference with the English by
one of his own subjects. He split the offender's head with a tomahawk at a
single blow, and then calmly proceeded with his speech. [FN]
* * * * *
[FN] Beverly.
The Deputies were detained several days, at the end of which they
accompanied the Governor and his troops to Congarees, where were collected
fourteen hundred men. Accompanied, we say,--but not freely; they were even
made prisoners, to prevent their escaping, (as two had already done,) and
a Captain's guard was set over them. No longer, says the historian, could
they conceal their resentment; sullen and gloomy countenances showed that
they were stung to the heart. To make the matter worse, on reaching Fort
Prince-George, on the borders of their own territory, they were all
confined in a miserable hut scarcely sufficient to accommodate a tenth
part of their number.
But the troops becoming discontented and mutinous, the Governor dared not
advance any farther against the enemy. He therefore sent for
Attakullakulla, as being "esteemed the wisest man in the nation, and the
most steady friend to the English." [FN] The summons was promptly obeyed,
and a conference took place on the 17th of December, (1759.) The Governor
made a long speech as before, to the effect that the Great King would not
suffer his people to be destroyed without satisfaction; that he was
determined to have it; and that twenty-four Cherokee murderers, whom he
named, must be given up in the outset, for which he would graciously allow
the term of twenty-four hours.
* * * * *
[FN] Ramsay.
The Little-Carpenter very calmly replied;--He remembered the treaties
alluded to by the Governor, because he had helped to make them. He owned
the good conduct of South Carolina, as also alleged, but complained of
Virginia, as having caused the present misunderstanding. He could not
forbear adding, that the Governor did not treat all the tribes alike, any
more than all the whites treated the Cherokees alike; he remembered that,
when several Carolinians were killed a few years before by the Choctaws,
satisfaction was neither demanded nor given. Finally, he desired the
release of some of the Deputies, that they might assist him in endeavoring
to procure the performance of the Governor's terms, though he was by no
means confident that they either would or could be complied with.
Agreeably to this suggestion, the Governor released the Great-Warrior,
together with Fiftoe and Saloueh, the Chief-Men of the towns of Keowee and
Estatoe. The latter, on the day ensuing, surrendered two Indians, who were
immediately put in irons. But all the Cherokees in the vicinity now fled,
through fear of the same fate, and it became impossible to complete the
required number. Attakullakulla abruptly commenced his return home in
despair; but the moment the Governor ascertained his departure, messengers
were sent to induce him to turn back. The good Chief again obeyed the
summons. A treaty was negotiated, the result of which was that twenty-six
of the deputies were detained "until as many of the murderers should be
given up," nominally by their free consent, but in fact by force. One more
Indian was surrendered, making three in all, and all three soon after died
in confinement at Charleston. The small-pox breaking out in the army about
the same time, the troops dispersed in disorder,--the expedition having
already cost the province 25,000 pounds,--and the Governor returned "in
triumph" to his capital.
But the rejoicings on account of the peace were scarcely over, when news
arrived that the Cherokees had killed fourteen whites within a mile of
Fort George. The Commandant at that station, Captain Coytmore, had become
peculiarly odious to the Indians, and the continued imprisonment of the
Deputies, above all, incensed them beyond endurance. From this moment,
indeed, Occonostota was the fierce enemy of the Province; and he
resolved, much as he despised treachery, to avail himself of the first
opportunity of revenge. With a strong party, he surrounded Fort George,
and kept the garrison confined; but finding that no impression could be
made on the works, he resorted to stratagem.
He placed a party of savages in a dark thicket by the river-side, and then
sent an Indian woman, whom he knew to be always welcome at the fort, to
inform the Commander that he had something of consequence to communicate
and would be glad to speak with him near the water. Coytmore imprudently
consented, and without any suspicions of danger walked down towards the
river, accompanied by Lieutenants Bell and Foster. Occonostota, appearing
upon the opposite side, told him he was going to Charleston, to procure a
release of the prisoners, and would be glad to have white men accompany
him as a safeguard. To cover his dark design he had a bridle in his hand,
and added he would go and hunt for a horse. Coytmore replied that he
should have a guard, and wished he might find a horse, as the journey was
very long. Upon this, the Indian, turning about, swung the bridle thrice
round his head as a signal to the savages placed in ambush, who instantly
fired on the officers, shot the Captain dead, and wounded his two
companions. Orders were riven to put the hostages in irons, to prevent any
further danger from them, which, while the soldiers were attempting to
execute, the Indians stabbed one and wounded two more of them. The
garrison then fell on the unfortunate hostages, and butchered all of them
in a manner too shocking to relate.
There were few men in the Cherokee nation that did not lose a friend or
relative by this massacre, and therefore with one voice all immediately
declared for war. The leaders in every town seized the hatchet; "the
spirits of their murdered brothers were hovering around them and calling
out for vengeance on, their enemies." Large parties of warriors took the
field. Burning with impatience to imbue their hands in the blood of their
enemies, they rushed down among innocent and defenceless families on the
frontiers of Carolina; and there men, women and children, without
distinction, fell a sacrifice to their merciless fury. Such as fled to the
woods and escaped the scalping-knife, perished with hunger; and those whom
they made prisoners were carried into the wilderness, where they suffered
inexpressible hardships. Every day brought fresh accounts of their ravages
and murders.
Great alarm prevailed throughout the Province, and corresponding efforts
were made for defence. Seven troops of rangers were raised to protect the
frontiers. Application was made to Virginia and North Carolina for aid; as
also to General Amherst, Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in
America, who immediately despatched twelve companies to the theatre of
hostilities. The various detachments mustered at Congarees in May, 1760,
and the campaign began with a rapid invasion of the Cherokee territory.
Considerable ravages were speedily made, including the destruction of
Estatoe and Keowee, (the latter of which contained two hundred houses,)
and the army then marched to relieve Fort George.
And now the war grew fervid. Saloueh and Fiftoe had sworn vengeance over
the ashes of their homes, and the soul of the Great-Warrior was hot within
him. The invaders were suffered to pursue their hazardous and difficult
march, through dark thickets and deep defiles, and over mountains, rivers
and swamps, till they came within five miles of Etchoe. Here was a low
valley, covered so thick with bushes that the soldiers could scarcely see
three yards before them. The army was obliged to pass through it, and that
in such a manner as to permit but few of the troops to act together. An
officer was ordered to advance, and scour the thicket with a company of
rangers. He obeyed, but a sudden discharge from unseen fire-arms laid him
dead on the spot, with several of his soldiers. The light-infantry and
grenadiers now charged their enemy,--a heavy fire commenced on both
sides,--and the woods around rang with the warrior's whoop, the shouts of
the soldiery, and the cries of the dying. The action lasted more than an
hour,--the English losing about twenty men killed and eighty
wounded,--when, the Indians slowly retreated and disappeared, carrying off
the bodies of their slain. "Upon viewing the ground," (says our
historian,) "all were astonished to see with what judgment they had chosen
it. Scarcely could the most experienced officer have fixed upon a spot
more advantageous for attacking an enemy." Orders were immediately given
for an expeditious retreat.
Thus Occonostota succeeded in the field. But his heart still thirsted for
blood, and he found means to gratify his revenge in another quarter. Fort
Loudon, (built, like Fort George, on the frontier,) with a garrison of
twenty men, was surrounded by the enraged enemy, and reduced to the
extremities of famine. Under these circumstances Captain Stuart, a
gentleman well known to the Cherokees during a long official and private
intercourse with them, obtained leave to go to Choteh, the town of the
Great-Warrior,--who was sometimes called "_Prince_ of Choteh." A
capitulation was agreed upon with him. The arms of the garrison were
surrendered on the faith of it; and they marched out, on their way towards
Fort George, under the escort of an Indian detachment headed by the Prince
himself. Having gone fifteen miles, they encamped at night near an Indian
town. All the escort left them, but still they remained unmolested. At
length, about day-break, a guard came running in with intelligence that
the woods and bushes around them were full of hideously painted savages,
who had already enclosed them. In a moment after, the enemy rushed upon
them, and fired, and thirty of their number fell dead. The residue either
fled or were captured; and the latter, including Stuart, were pinioned and
sent back to Fort Loudon.
And now Attakullakulla came forward. He had taken no part in the war, on
either side, but Stuart had been his best friend in former times, and he
could not think of seeing him a prisoner and in peril of his life. He
hastened to the fort, and purchased him of his Indian master, giving his
rifle, clothes, and all he could command as a ransom; and then took him
into his own family, and shared with him the provisions which his table
afforded.
Occonostota, meanwhile, had formed the design of attacking Fort George,
and sent messengers throughout the Cherokee country to collect his
warriors for that purpose. At this juncture, a quantity of ammunition was
found in Fort Loudon (where the English captives were still confined)
which the garrison had buried before leaving it, The discovery had nearly
cost Stuart his life, but his protector again rescued him. The Indians,
indeed, found occasion for his services. At a great Council held at
Choteh, whither he was carried, the warrior told him they had resolved to
march against Fort George with a quantity of English cannon, to be managed
by men under his (Stuart's) command, and they wished him previously to
write letters for them to the Commandant, demanding a surrender. If he
refused, they intended to burn his companions, one by one, before his
face.
Captain Stuart was now really uneasy in his situation, and he determined
from this moment to make his escape or perish in the attempt. He privately
communicated his feelings to Attakullakulla, and appealed to his
magnanimity. The old Warrior took him by the hand. "Be calm," said he, "be
calm, my son; I am your friend--trust me." He went forward, and claimed
the Englishman for _his_ prisoner; and then gave out word among his
countrymen, that he intended to "go a-hunting" for a few days, and to take
his Englishman with him.
They set out together, accompanied by the warrior's wife, his brother, and
two others. For provisions they depended on what they might kill by the
way. The distance to the frontier settlements was great, and the utmost
expedition necessary to prevent any surprise from Indians pursuing them.
They traveled nine days and nights through a dreary wilderness, shaping
their course for Virginia, by the light and guidance of the heavenly
bodies. On the tenth they arrived at the banks of Holstein river; where
they fortunately fell in with a party of three thousand men, sent out by
Colonel Bird for the relief of such soldiers as might make their escape
that way from Fort Loudon.
Here the Chieftain was content to relinquish his charge. He bade his
friend farewell, and, as composedly as if the whole transaction were a
matter of course, turned back into the wilderness, and retraced his long
and wearisome journey.
Such was the issue of the first campaign. The spring of 1761 opened with
new efforts on the part of Carolina. A new provincial regiment was raised;
fresh reinforcements of regulars arrived from the north; and numbers of
the Chickasaw and Catawba Indians were induced to give their
assistance--so that, on the 27th of May, an army of two thousand six
hundred men mustered at Fort George.
Latinac, a French officer, was at this time among the Cherokees, and he
proved an indefatigable instigator to mischief. He persuaded them, that
the English would be satisfied with nothing less than to exterminate them,
man, woman, and child, from the face of the earth. He gave them arms, too,
and urged them to war. At a grand meeting of the nation, he brandished his
hatchet, and, striking it furiously into a log of wood, cried out--"Who is
the man that will take this up for the King of France? Where is he? Let
him come forth!" Saloueh, the young Warrior of Estatoe, instantly leaped
forward, laid hold of it, and cried out--"I will take it up. I am for war.
The spirits of the slain call upon us; I will avenge them; and who will
not? He is no better than a woman that refuses to follow me." Many a
fierce look, and many a lifted tomahawk answered the appeal of the Orator,
and again did the war-torrent rush down upon the frontiers.
The Great-Warrior too, more a general, and not less a soldier, was again
ready for his enemy. They commenced their march into the interior on the
7th of June, and advanced unmolested as far as the well remembered
battle-ground of the year previous; but there, the Indian scouts in front
observed a large body of Cherokees posted upon a hill on the right flank
of the army. Immediately the savages, rushing down, began to fire on the
advanced guard, which being supported repulsed them; but they recovered
their heights. Colonel Grant ordered a party to march up the hills, and
drive the enemy from them. The engagement became general, and was fought
on both sides with great bravery. The situation of the troops was in
several respects deplorable--fatigued in a tedious march in rainy
weather--surrounded with woods so that they could not discern the
enemy--galled by the scattering fire of savages who when pressed always
fell back, but rallied again and again. No sooner was any advantage gained
over them in one quarter than they appeared in another. While the
attention of the Commander was occupied in driving the enemy from their
lurking-place on the river's side, his rear was attacked, and so vigorous
an effort made for the flour and cattle, that he was obliged to order a
party back to the relief of the rear-guard. From eight o'clock in the
morning until eleven, the savages continued to keep up an irregular and
incessant fire, sometimes from one place and sometimes from another, while
the woods resounded with hideous war-whoops frequently repeated, but in
different directions. At length the Cherokees gave way and were pursued.
Such is the account of this famous engagement given by history. The
English lost between fifty and sixty killed and wounded. The loss of the
Cherokees was uncertain, as that of an Indian army always is,--they
carried off the slain.
And now commenced a scene of devastation scarcely paralleled in the annals
of the continent. For thirty days, the English army employed themselves in
burning and ravaging the country and settlements of the enemy. "_Heaven
has blest us,_" says a letter-writer from the camp, under date of July
10th, "with the greatest success; we have finished our business as
completely as the most sanguine of us could have wished. All their towns,
fifteen in number, beside many little villages and scattered houses, have
been burnt; upwards of fourteen hundred acres of corn, according to a
moderate computation, entirely destroyed; and near five thousand
Cherokees, men, women and children, driven to the mountains to
starve--their only sustenance for some time past being horseflesh." [FN]
* * * * *
[FN] Charleston Paper of 1761.
The result of these measures was decisive. A great part of the Cherokee
nation became desirous of procuring peace upon any terms; and the army had
no sooner reached Fort George, than a deputation of about twenty chiefs
visited the camp. Neither the Great-Warrior nor his staunch aid-de-camp,
Saloueh, was among them; but the Man-Killer, came, and the Raven, and Old
Cesar of Hywassih, and at the head of all the Little Carpenter himself.
On the 28th of August they waited upon Colonel Grant, who had prepared a
bower for their reception. Having seated themselves in grave array, the
Little Carpenter was asked, if he had come to sue for peace. He answered
in the affirmative. "Have you authority from the whole nation?" demanded
the Colonel; to which all the chiefs replied that they would confirm
whatever the Carpenter should agree to. The latter then delivered his
talk.--
"_You_ live at the water-side," said he, "and are in light. We are in
darkness; but hope all will yet be clear. I have been constantly going
about doing good, and though I am tired, yet I am come to see what can be
done for my people, who are in great distress." Here he produced the
strings of wampum he had received from the different towns, denoting their
earnest desire of peace, and added,--"As to what has happened, I believe
it has been ordered by our Father above. We are of a different color from
the white people. They are superior to us. But one God is father of us
all, and we hope what is past will be forgotten. God Almighty made all
people. There is not a day but some are coming into, and others going out
of the world. The Great King told me the path should never be crooked, but
open for every one to pass and repass. As we all live in one land, I hope
we shall all love as one people."
This account is taken partly from news-papers of the period under
consideration. Ramsay only adds, that peace was formally ratified; and
that the ancient friendship of the parties being renewed, both expressed
their hope that it would last as long as the sun might shine and the
rivers run. Some little difficulty appears to have occurred in the
adjustment, which should mentioned to the credit of Little-Carpenter. He
consented to every requisition excepting that which demanded the surrender
of four Cherokees, to be put to death in front of the camp. This he would
not promise. The Colonel gave him a day to think of it, but he still
refused. Finally, it was thought advisable to refer him to the Governor,
and he undertook a journey to Charleston, several hundred miles distant,
for the express purpose of procuring a mitigation of the treaty of peace
in regard to the single obnoxious provision.
His perseverance and firmness were rewarded as they deserved. "This day,"
says a Charleston paper of September 23d, "Attakullakulla had his last
public audience, when he signed the treaty of peace, and received an
authenticated copy under the great seal. . . . _He earnestly requested
that Captain John Stuart might be made Chief White-Man_ [Indian Agent] _in
their nation._ He said, 'all the Indians love him; and there would never
be any uneasiness if he were there.' This faithful Indian afterwards dined
with his Honor the Governor, and tomorrow sets out for his own country. He
has received several presents as a mark of the regard this government has
for him."
Thus ended the Cherokee war. That its conduct did no discredit to the
talents of the Great-Warrior, we need not argue. As to the principles upon
which it was fought, we may content ourselves with the comment of an
impartial historian. "In the review of the whole," says Ramsay, "there is
much to blame, and more to regret. The Cherokees were the first aggressors
by taking horses from the Virginians; but by killing them for that offence
the balance of injury was on their side. Then treachery begat treachery,
and murder produced murder. The lives of those men who came originally as
messengers of peace, though afterwards retained as hostages, were
barbarously taken away without any fault of theirs, other than their
obeying the laws of nature in resisting a military order for putting their
persons in irons. A deadly hatred and a desolating war was the
consequence."
We do not meet with frequent mention of either of the Chieftains named in
this chapter, after the campaign of 1761. They fought against the
neighboring tribes occasionally, but with the English they preserved a
firm peace of at least fifteen years. The character of the contest between
England and the Colonies appears to have confused them, and their
embarrassment was not at all relieved by the unsparing efforts made to
instigate them to hostilities against the latter. The result was a
division of opinion, and a diversity of practice, as in the case of their
Northern neighbors. A part of the nation took up arms for the
English,--probably the younger warriors;--but the whole were compelled to
suffer in consequence. A powerful army from South Carolina invaded their
territory, and after a severe struggle, peace was once more enforced at
the point of the bayonet.
It is doubtful whether the Great-Warrior was living at this period, for
his name does not appear in the history of the conflict or the treaty.
Little-Carpenter still survived, but, as usual, took no part in the war.
Indeed he must now have been nearly disabled from very active service by
his advanced age,--as well as disinclined for better reasons,--for he is
believed to have been one of the seven Cherokees who visited England and
were introduced to George II, as early as 1730. But this cannot be
affirmed with certainty.
We shall close our imperfect sketch of this wise and worthy Chieftain,
with the characteristic account of an interview with him, given by
Bertram, author of the well-known Southern Travels. It occurred early in
the Revolution:--
"Soon after crossing this large branch of the Tanase, [in Upper Georgia,]
I observed, descending the heights at a distance, a company of seven
Indians, all well mounted on horseback. They came rapidly forward. On
their nearer approach I observed a Chief at the head of the caravan, and
apprehending him to be the Little Carpenter, Emperor or Grand Chief of the
Cherokees, as they came up I turned off from the path to make way, in
token of respect. The compliment was accepted, and returned, for his
Highness, with a gracious and cheerful smile, came up to me, and clapping
his hand on his breast, offered it to me, saying, '_I am
Attakullaculla,_' and heartily shook hands with me, and asked me '_If I
knew it._' I answered, that the Good Spirit who goes before me, spoke to
me and said, 'That is the great Attakullaculla,' and added that I was of
the tribe of the white men of Pennsylvania, who esteem themselves brothers
and friends to the Red Men, but particularly to the Cherokees, and that
the name of Attakullaculla was dear to his white brethren. After this
compliment, which seemed to be acceptable, he inquired 'if I came lately
from Charleston, and if _John Stuart was well,_' [the agent,] saying that
he was going to see him. I replied that I had come lately from Charleston,
on a friendly visit to the Cherokees; that I had seen the Superintendent,
the Beloved Man, &c. The Great Chief was pleased to answer, that I was
welcome in their country, as a friend and brother, and then shaking hands
heartily he bade me farewell, and his retinue confirmed it by a united
voice of assent."