I. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL TOXINS.
The vegetable toxins possess the characteristic property of being
innocuous, and of being almost completely devoid of poisonousness, when
they are absorbed by the intestines; we can see, from this, how greatly
they differ from the poisons proper.[51]
[51] It is understood that the active principles of mushrooms are not
comprised under this definition, but they will be studied under the
next heading.
The vegetable toxins known are quite numerous; nevertheless our
knowledge regarding them is very incomplete. Our review of them will be
chiefly descriptive.
Many of the leguminous plants are poisonous, either because of
emanations exhaled by them, or by reason of their alkaloids, or because
of some toxins contained in them. We shall commence with these.
=Abrin.=--This toxin, which was studied in particular by Warden
and Waddell,[52] then by Kobert[53] and de Hellin,[54] is found
in the fruit of the Leguminosæ, Abrus precatorius (wild licorice,
or jequirity). Its name was given it by Warden and Waddell, who
discovered both its toxic nature and the vegetable toxin; the toxin
is found only in the seeds. To extract it, the seeds are macerated
in water, and the solution filtered and precipitated with alcohol;
the precipitate which forms is collected and dissolved in distilled
water, from which it is again precipitated by adding powdered ammonium
sulphate. The precipitate is then collected and submitted to dialysis
in order to eliminate the ammonium sulphate. The abrin so obtained
forms an albuminoid substance[55] stable at 100° C., and possessing
rotatory power; it liquefies starch paste, and is extremely toxic. One
milligramme suffices to kill a rabbit within several hours. It must
be observed, however, that, as is the case with all the toxins, abrin
acts or kills only after a period of incubation which generally exceeds
twenty-four hours.
[52] WARDEN and WADDELL: _Non-bacillar Nature of Abrus Poison_.
Calcutta, 1884.
[53] KOBERT: _Arbeit. aus dem Pharmak. Institut._ Dorpat, 1893.
[54] HELLIN: _Inaug. Dissert._ Dorpat, 1891.
[55] EHRLICH: Experiment. Untersuchungen über Immunität. _Deutsch. Med.
Woch._, 1891.
It is possible to vaccinate an organism so as to withstand a lethal
dose of abrin, but it requires quite a long time; it is effected by
injecting into a suitable animal very small doses of the substance,
and increasing the quantity gradually. Rabbits which have been
rendered highly immune towards venoms are capable of resisting without
inconvenience doses of abrin which are ordinarily fatal; and the blood
serum afforded by them contains a specific antibody for the substance.
=Ricin.=--This vegetable toxalbumin has been studied particularly by
Stillmark,[56] by Dixon,[57] and Thuson.[58] It is found in the seeds
of the castor plant; three or four of the seeds suffice to cause a
gastroenteritis accompanied by serious symptoms and even by death.
[56] STILLMARK: _Arbeit. aus dem pharmacol. Inst. Dorpat_, 1889.
[57] DIXON: _Austr. Med. Gazette_, 1887.
[58] THUSON: _Journ. f. prakt. Chem._, XCIV, p. 444.
It was first isolated by P. Ehrlich, by treating the seeds with
lukewarm water, and precipitating the aqueous solution with alcohol.
The toxalbumin is soluble in water, but on boiling the solution, the
substance loses in great measure its activity.
Ricin possesses considerable activity. 0.00003 Gm. suffice to kill a
rabbit when injected hypodermically; 0.2 Gm. are fatal to man. The
action is not immediate, but follows a period of incubation. Ehrlich
has shown that, exercising precaution, it is possible to create, as
with abrin, a condition of tolerance or habituation, and in consequence
to cause the formation of a specific antibody.
=Robin.=--This toxic albuminoid was obtained from the bark of an Acacia
(Robinia Pseudacacia) by Power and Cambier,[59] by exhausting with
water at a temperature of about 30° C., and precipitating the infusion
with alcohol. The substance is analogous to ricin, and like this,
possesses powerful toxic properties.
[59] POWER and CAMBIER: _Pharm. Journ. and Transact._, 1890.
=Toxicity of the Vegetable Diastases.=--The diastases, which have been
treated of in a volume of the Encyclopédie Léauté,[60] and to which
we would refer the reader who is desirous of more complete details,
develop powerfully energetic toxic properties when injected into
the organism. Thus _amylase_ causes, when injected subcutaneously,
a considerable rise of temperature, but without any other toxic
symptoms. _Invertin_ or _sucrase_ was studied by Roussy under the name
_pyretogenin_, but it appears probable that this diastase was not the
only substance present in the product, but that there were present
reducing diastases, as we have already shown in the first volume of
this collection, devoted to the phenomena of reduction within the
living organism.
[60] POZZI-ESCOT: _Les Diastases et leurs Applications_, Masson, 1900.
The pyretogenin of Roussy gives rise to an attack of violent fever, but
it loses all activity when heated to 80-100° C.
Through his researches, Roussy clearly demonstrated,[61] for the
first time, that the fever may cause the formation within the blood
of a substance clearly belonging to the class of soluble ferments or
zymases. Now, it is well known that within the animal economy there
exist many ferments of this character; and experiment has shown that
they can, at a given period and under various influences, leave the
cells in which they are normally localized, pass into the blood plasma,
and reach the nervous centers, where they cause serious effects. We
have already dwelt upon the mechanism of autointoxication of the
organism. The toxic action of certain digestive diastases has been
shown by Hildebrandt, who has demonstrated that 0.1 Gm. of pepsin is
capable of killing a rabbit in two or three days.
[61] ROUSSY: _Aperçu historique sur les ferments et fermentations_.
Paris, 1901. J. Rousset, publ.
II. TOXINS FROM MUSHROOMS.
Mushrooms are alimentary substances of the highest order, causing
a general stimulation of the entire organism. The substances
met with belong, according to their composition, to different
classes--celluloses, sugars, and amylaceous substances, alcohols,
acids, fats, astringents, essential oils, resins, alkaloids, and
albuminoids. The study of the last only, the albuminoids and diastases,
interests us here. The most important of these albuminoid substances,
_phallin_, was discovered in 1890 by Kobert. Pouchet also has isolated
a whole series of other toxic albuminoids, particularly from Amanita
muscaria (Fly Agaric).
There are alimentary as well as toxic species in every possible variety
among mushrooms, some species consisting chiefly of the edible kind,
others consisting of the poisonous variety.
In consequence of the toxicity of mushrooms, great attention must be
given to the treatment to which they are subjected when it is desired
to utilize them for alimentary purposes. Thus the toxic principles of
several varieties can be removed, and the mushrooms rendered edible by
very simple means.
Pouchet has made a very ingenious comparison between the ethereal,
alcoholic, saline, and aqueous extracts of mushrooms, and bacterial
cultures. The analogy is striking as to the presence of toxin,
toxalbumose, and albumoses more or less toxic; it is moreover not
exaggerated, since, according to the classification generally admitted,
mushrooms are nothing more than the very advanced representatives of a
group the more simple members of which constitute the bacteria.
The same author has shown that phallin obtained from the juice of the
Fly Agaric will kill a guinea-pig weighing 600 grammes in one hour.
As we have already stated, it is the phalline to which the ordinary
disorders which mushrooms cause are due. According to Kobert, a 1:250
000 solution of this substance causes an intense hemolysis, with all
its disastrous consequences.
According to Pouchet, the flesh of mushrooms must be compared with meat
that has been kept for some time to become tender, and it is well known
that though this "tendering" process renders the meat more digestible,
it may also allow the meat to acquire noxious properties, due to the
presence of toxins.
Phallin is the type of those toxic albuminoids of unknown composition
which exist in mushrooms, and which are comprised under the name
_sapotoxins_. The intravenous injection of phallin into an animal, in
the proportion of 1 part to 1 000 000 parts of body weight, causes
sudden death within one minute; in the proportion of 1:5 000 000, death
occurs in about three minutes; in the proportion of 1:50 000 000, death
also occurs, but is greatly retarded. An injection of 0.0005 Gm. per
kilo of body weight of animal causes solution of the blood corpuscles
to such an extent that thirty minutes later the blood serum is strongly
colored red, as well as the veins.
Instead of being easily altered under the influence of an elevated
temperature, as are many of the albuminoid substances, whereby their
toxic power is lost, phallin may be boiled for half an hour with water
without undergoing any noticeable alteration. Pellegrini has observed
that the dried juice of Amanita Phalloides (Death-cup) preserves its
properties for more than a year.
According to a recent paper by Gillot, the symptoms of poisoning by
mushrooms must be ascribed to albuminoids (phallin and albumose),
alkaloids (muscarine, choline, or betaine), or to resinoids (cambogic
and agaricic acids).
The _alkaloids_ found in mushrooms are: _Muscaridine_ (an oxyneurine),
which possesses considerable toxicity, and of which 0.00005 Gm.
suffices to kill a frog; _neurine_ (trimethylethylammonium hydroxide);
_choline_ (trimethyloxyethylammonium hydroxide); _mycetomuscarine_;
_anhydromuscarine_ (an oxyneurine); and a whole series of various
betaines.
=Symptomology.=--It is quite natural to divide this symptomology into
three different periods; that of incubation, that of manifestation of
symptoms, and that of termination.
The duration of the first period, that of incubation, is exceedingly
variable; it very rarely lasts more than forty-eight hours, and becomes
general only a few hours after absorption. Certain conditions influence
the duration; firstly the quantity of mushrooms ingested, then the
manner in which they were prepared; and, to some extent, the nature of
the organism, whether child or adult, healthy or in poor health.
When it is a question of the more particularly alkaloid-containing
mushrooms, especially when the poisoning is due to muscarine, the toxic
symptoms generally develop rapidly, the first symptoms appearing about
one hour after the ingestion of the mushrooms. On the other hand, if
the poisoning is due to one of the albuminoid group, and particularly
in the case of phallin, the period of incubation is longer, and may
last ten, twenty, thirty, or even forty-eight hours and more.
The symptoms begin with dizziness and an indefinable sensation of being
ill.
The second period is characterized chiefly by digestive and by nervous
derangements. The digestive derangements are evidenced by very violent
and painful vomiting, and diarrheas of choleraic or dysenteric
character. The nervous derangements vary according to whether they are
developed by an alkaloid, which causes delirium with hallucination, or
by albuminoids, which cause depression, ataxo-adynamia, and stupor,
these being particularly characteristic of the action of the toxic
albuminoids.
As for the period of termination, it results either in death or a cure.
If the poisoning is due to phallin, death appears to be an almost
inevitable consequence, as it occurs in 80 per cent. or more of the
cases. The poisoning by the alkaloids is less dangerous, and the cure,
when it does occur, is very rapid, almost immediate, in fact, while in
the case of the toxic albuminoids the cure is very slow, and attended
by relapses.
One characteristic of these toxalbumins is that they are apt to develop
specific antitoxalbumins. This fact has been verified not only in the
case of abrin, ricin, robin, and their analogues, but also in that
of the vegetable and animal diastases possessing toxic properties
even in the slightest degree only. These antibodies generally exhibit
their action _in vitro_. Thus antiricin exerts its antiagglutinative
action on the erythrocytes _in vitro_ in a saline medium in which the
erythrocytes cannot live.
Here, again, as in the case of the antitoxins, it must be admitted that
the antitoxalbumin possesses a specific affinity by virtue of which it
unites chemically with the toxalbumin to give rise to a new substance
which is devoid of toxicity.
The first antidiastase obtained by immunization methods, and according
to the mechanism we have already seen, was _antiemulsin_, obtained by
Hildebrandt.[62] This antiemulsin counteracts, both _in vivo_ and
_in vitro_, the specific action of emulsin. These studies have been
followed by a large number of scientists, particularly by Camus and
Gley,[63] Carnot, Mesnil,[64] and Charron and Levaditi,[65] in the case
of trypsin; and Sachs[66] in the case of animal pepsin. Gessard[67]
obtained a very active _antityrosinase_, and Mohl an _antiurease_.
[62] HILDEBRANDT: Weiteres über hydrolyt. Fermente, etc. _Virch.
Arch._, CXXXI, 1895, P. 5.
[63] CAMUS and GLEY: _Compt. rend. de la Soc. de Biolog._, 1897.
[64] MESNIL: Sur la digestion des actinies. _Annales de l'Institut
Pasteur_, 1901.
[65] CHARRIN and LEVADITI: _Compt. rend. de l'Académie dest Sciences_,
1900.
[66] SACHS: Ueber Antiseptika. _Zeitschr. f. Biolog._, 1901, XXVI.
[67] GESSARD: _Annales de l'Institut Pasteur_, 1901, p. 609; _Comp.
rend. de la Société de Biologie_, May, 1902.
The most important researches regarding this subject have been
published by Morgenroth, Briot,[68] and Korschum[69] on _antilab_ (or
_antirennet_). The researches of these authors have fully demonstrated
that there is considerable difference between the various rennets,
which had heretofore been confounded under one head; thus there is no
difference whatever between animal rennet and the rennet extracted
by Rosetti[70] from Cynara cardunculus (cardoon) so far as their
coagulant action on milk is concerned, yet each yields an antibody
which is strictly specific to itself. From a scientific point of
view we see, therefore, that the preparation of antidiastases permits
us to differentiate certain diastases that could otherwise not be
differentiated.
[68] BRIOT: Thèse de Doctorat ès-Sciences, Paris, 1900.
[69] KORSCHUM: _Zeitschr. f. physiolog. Chemie_, 1902, XXXI.
[70] ROSETTI: _L'Orosi, giorn. di chemica, farmacia et scienza affini_,
1898.
III. ANIMAL TOXINS.
As we have shown at the beginning of this chapter, certain diastases,
and particularly those that are concerned with the digestive processes,
pepsin, trypsin, etc., and which are produced in abundance by the
entire living organism, possess quite clearly defined toxic properties,
and sometimes to even a considerable extent.[71]
[71] GUSTAVE SAUX: De la toxicité des produits de la digestion
peptique. _Thèse de doctorat_, Bordeaux, 1902.
Hemialbumose, from which peptones are formed, is itself a dangerous
toxin. It is generally believed that the toxic action of the peptones
and of the products of digestion of the albuminoids is due not to
the peptone itself, but to the more advanced products of digestion,
alkaloidal products unquestionably closely allied to the ptomaines.
Nevertheless, the true peptones behave just like true poisons, when
they are introduced hypodermically into the blood.[72]
[72] SCHMIDT: _Mühlheim, Arch. de physiol._, 1880.
Brieger has made us acquainted with a non-proteid substance, under
the name of "peptotoxin," which is met with at the beginning of the
putrefaction of albuminoids. This toxin, which is not a protein, is
nothing else but a ptomaine. It is not altered by heat, and possesses a
very high toxicity. Brieger claims that it is a hydroxylized derivative
of an aromatic amide.[73]
[73] BRIEGER: _Berichte d. D. chem. Gesellsch._, XIX, p. 3120; and
_Verhandl. d. Congress f. innere Med._, II, p. 277.
Besides these facts, experiment has shown that the leucocytes, or white
corpuscles, the defensive rôle of which we have noted in phagocytosis,
owe their properties to the ferments which they secrete, and
particularly to some of the digestive ferments. These white corpuscles
are very rich in ferments of all kinds. Rossbach found in them amylase;
Achalme found lipase, casease, and trypsin; and the study of immunity
has brought to light a series of other ferments, the alexins or cytases
(microcytase and macrocytase), which have an exceedingly important rôle
to play.
It may easily be conceived that under certain circumstances a part or
the whole of these ferments can pass into the blood of the fluids of
the body, when they give rise to serious disturbances in certain cases,
or confer immunity in others.
It is thus that, according to Gautier, the rise of temperature which
characterizes fever is a consequence of the abnormal transudation of
these normal ferments into the blood, and their transmission by the
general circulation to the nervous centers.
However, it is not only in the leucocytes that we meet with these
toxic digestive ferments; it appears quite probable, and has even been
partially demonstrated, that they occur in a large number of other
cellular elements.
It is not necessary here to dwell upon the formation of the antibodies
of this group of active substances. The animal toxins are animal
diastases, and we have seen in the preceding paragraph that these
substances yield specific antibodies with great facility. For the rest,
we will dwell more fully on these antibodies of the animal toxins in
another volume of this collection, specially devoted to the study of
these substances, and entitled "_Les Serums Immunisants_," to which we
refer the reader who is desirous of obtaining more complete details
than he can obtain in the present volume.
=Alimentary Intoxications.=--What we have already stated permits
us to understand the phenomena of indigestion and botulism. The
toxic substances form within the digestive tract when the nervous
conditions modify the composition of the gastric juice, and arrest
the flow of hydrochloric acid, the presence of which normally checks
the development of the microbial flora, so rich within the stomach.
The result is the production, within the organism, of all kinds of
dangerous toxins. The same thing happens when the liver does not
functionate normally, and this, affords us a knowledge of the mechanism
by which foods that are most wholesome may become toxic by reason of
poor digestion or poor assimilation.
The absorption of spoiled viands may, _a fortiori_, produce serious
results. The alteration may be due not only to a bacterial infection,
as in tainted meat, but it has also been proved that the flesh of an
animal that has died of terror or madness may be very dangerous as a
food, even after cooking, because, although there are toxins which are
destroyed by a sufficient heat, there are ptomaines and certain toxins
that resist destruction under these conditions.[74]
[74] POLLIN and LABIT: _Examens des aliments suspects_, Masson,
publisher.
The use of preserved but spoiled beef, preserved ham or birds, sausages
frequently, and pieces of pork tainted by sausage poison, gives rise to
a succession of toxic symptoms the principal ones of which are dryness,
constriction of the pharynx, bilious vomiting, diarrhea, dyspnea with
pulmonary edema, etc. Fish and eggs are foods quite frequently capable
of developing serious results; the same is the case with molluscs,
mussels, oysters, lobsters, and snails. Lastly, moldy bread, spoiled
cheese, putrid water, and spoiled vegetables themselves, are proper
agents for determining attacks of botulic poisoning.
We have seen, at the beginning of this volume, that putrid meats
contain ptomaines, which are among the most toxic alkaloidal bases. We
have shown that Brieger has isolated from them neuridine, putrescine,
muscarine, and guanidine; that Nencki has isolated hydrocollidine;
and that Gautier and Etard have obtained from them parvoline--only to
mention a few of them.
Lastly, there may develop within the gastrointestinal tract dangerous
putrefactions, the products of which may enter the veins and arteries
from the ileum (a portion of the small intestine) and be distributed
throughout the organism. Although such poisonings occur, they do not
immediately follow the ingestion of the spoiled or toxic foods, but
they are always preceded by a period of incubation varying from several
hours to several days.
These alimentary poisonings are recognized by a great physical
depression, accompanied by vomiting and paralysis of the lower
extremities, sweats, and diarrheas. In some cases there occur cutaneous
eruptions; and when death happens, this occurs only several days later,
and generally without being preceded by any great pain.
=Urinary Toxins.=--As we have already remarked several times, it is by
the renal way that the organism voids its principal waste products.
We have seen also that it is by the kidneys that the toxins are
eliminated in all pathological conditions. As a general rule, the
urines are always more or less toxic. This toxicity of the urines
must be attributed in the first place to the crystallizable organic
principles (ptomaines and leucomaines[75]) which they contain;
secondly, to the non-crystallizable[76] extractive matters not so well
known; and lastly, to the saline substances, among which the potassium
salts are the most active. We find these mineral salts particularly
abundant under normal conditions in the urines of the herbivora.
According to Bouchard, 0.18 Gm. of potassium chloride are sufficient
to prove fatal to 1000 Gm. of living organism; a man excretes on the
average 2.5 Gm. of this salt, and a rabbit excretes about double this
quantity, weight for weight.
[75] ADDUCO: _Arch. Ital. de biolog._, 1891.
[76] POUCHET: _Thèse de Doctorat en Médecine_, Paris, 1878.
A very large number of hypotheses have been advanced regarding the
toxicity of the urines. Wilson considers the urea as being responsible
for it; Stadthagen[77] believes it to be due to the potassium salts,
etc. Bouchard[78] was the first to recognize that the toxicity of the
urines is due to a number of causes. We will not dwell further on these
active principles which, in the last analysis, are no other than
those that form in the various portions of the organism, and which are
eliminated by the urine.
[77] STADTHAGEN: _Zeitschr. f. Klin. Med._, XV.
[78] BOUCHARD: _Leçons sur les Autointoxications_.
It is self-evident, and it has already been shown, that the toxicity
of the urines varies greatly according to the malady, in consequence
of the elimination of toxins by the urines. According to Bouchard, in
infectious maladies the urines are twelve times more highly charged
with toxins than is blood serum. Moreover, the toxicity of the urines
is considerably augmented the moment there is the least febrile
condition, no matter what the cause is.[79]
[79] Regarding this point see the excellent work by A. CHARRIN:
_Poisons de l'Organism_. Masson, publ.
Even in the normal condition, the urinary toxicity varies greatly; and
this is easily conceived since the physiological phenomena that control
this secretion undergo incessant rise and fall. Thus, for example, the
urines eliminated during sleep are less active than those produced
during waking, because during sleep the elimination of cellular poisons
is at a minimum. Exercise, walking, physical and intellectual labor,
exert their portion of influence on these oscillations of toxicity;
and this variation of toxicity is due not to any one variation in the
mineral extractive matters, but rather more or less to the organic
toxic products. We will not dwell further on this subject, but will
simply refer to the work by Charrin, already mentioned, for all
supplementary details.
=Autointoxications.=[80]--The cells of the organism having, as a whole,
a life very much like that of the microbes, it is quite natural that
among the excreted products of the living tissues there should be found
the same substances formed as a result of the anaerobic fermentation of
albuminoids. Experiment has demonstrated that this is so, and Armand
Gautier has irrefutably proven the existence of these principles.[81]
Bouchard was the first to demonstrate the toxic nature of muscle
extract,[82] and Roger[83] established the fact that the toxicity of
this extract is due to ferment-toxins; it has since been recognized
that after death these toxins accumulate in the muscles.
[80] CH. BOUCHARD: _Des Autointoxications_. Paris, 1887.
[81] _Bull. Acad, de Médecine_ (2), X, p. 947, and XX, p. 115.
[82] BOUCHARD: _Leçons sur les Autointoxications_, Paris, 1887.
[83] ROGER: Toxicité des Extraits des Tissus Normaux. _Soc. de
Biolog._, 1891, p. 728.
The extract of kidney made rapidly by cold process by triturating the
washed kidney with glycerin, and precipitating the glycerinic solution
with alcohol, contains toxic ferments to which the name "_hystozymes_"
has been given.[84] These ferments split up hippuric acid into benzoic
acid and glycocoll. Lépine has likewise discovered in the kidney a
very toxic pyrogenic substance.[85] Roger has given us evidence of the
toxic properties of the liver, washed and pulped, and then sterilized
by filtration through a porous diaphragm. This scientist has shown that
the toxic properties are due to albuminoids, which lose their activity
when heated to 100°C.[86]
[84] It is well to recall here that the kidneys contain both reducing
and oxidizing ferments, as has been demonstrated by de Rey-Pailhade,
and later by Abelous and Gérard.
[85] LÉPINE: _Compt. rend. de l'Acad. des Sciences_, May 13, 1889;
_Soc. de Biol._, 1891, p. 724.
[86] ROGER: _Compt. rend. Soc. Biol._, 1891, p. 727.
It must be remarked that the organs we have studied are essentially
reducers, and that the more powerful reducers yield the most toxic
extracts. We find here a confirmation of Armand Gautier's views
regarding the anaerobic origin of the toxic substances formed within
the organism.[87]
[87] POZZI-ESCOT: _Compt. rend. de l'Acad. de Médecine_ (3), XLVII, p.
400. See also POZZI-ESCOT: _Etat actuel de nos Connaissances sur les
Oxydases et les Réductases_. Dunod, publ., Paris. 1902.
Blood serum precipitated by alcohol affords products which possess very
marked toxic power. It would appear that the toxic products we speak
of here are thermogenic diastatic substances derived from the white
blood corpuscles. In certain diseases the blood serum may acquire a
high degree of toxicity. We will recur again presently to this property
as a normal characteristic of the blood of various animal species, and
will study it in greater detail in a future volume of this collection,
devoted to the immunizing active principles.
=Glandular Secretions.=--On studying the venoms we will see that a
certain number of these products are the result of glandular secretion.
This is a general property of the glands; and it was Brown-Sequard who
first drew attention to the rôle played by these glands, and to the
importance of the products that they throw into the blood.[88]
[88] _Compt. rend. de l'Acad. des Sciences_, CXIV, pp. 1237, 1318,
1399, and 1534; CXV, p. 375; and CXVI, p. 856.
P. Noel showed later that the testicular juice possesses a high degree
of activity, which he attributed to an oxidizing ferment, and which we
have already mentioned, _spermine_.
The greater number of the other glands contain proteid matters and
various peptones, more or less toxic, with amides and alkaloids.
Particular mention must be made of the thyroid gland, the secretions
of which exercise a powerful action on the nervous centers and on
nutrition.[89] It appears reasonable to attribute to the secretions
of this gland a very powerful antitoxic action, and the first proof
of this fact is that the organisms deprived of this gland become the
seat of serious derangements; the urines of such organisms become
particularly toxic, while, on the other hand, the hypodermic injections
of the aqueous extract of the gland, when the derangements spoken of
exist, cause the immediate disappearance of the derangements caused by
the excision of the gland.[90]
[89] LAULANIÉ: _Compt. rend. Soc. de Biol._, 1894, p. 187.
[90] GLEY: _Compt. rend. Soc. de Biol._, 1891, p. 250.
Attempts have been made to isolate the active principle of the glands.
Notkine isolated a _tyroproteid_,[91] which is not sensibly toxic to
animals who still retain the gland, but which becomes toxic when the
gland is excised. It seems probable, however, that this product is not
the principal agent of the thyroid gland.
[91] _Semaine Médicale_, Apr. 3, 1895, p. 138.
From the researches of Schaeffer, Roos, and Sigmund Fraenkel[92] it
results that the active principle of the gland is not a toxin, but a
purely chemical substance, a true leucomaine, which has received the
name _thyroantitoxin_.
[92] _Wiener Med. Blätter_, No. 48; and _Gesellsch. d. Aerzte in Wien_,
Nov. 22, 1895.
On the other hand, Baumann quite recently extracted from the thyroid
gland an iodized substance, which he named _thyroiodine_.[93]
[93] _Zeitschr. f. Physiol. Chem._, XXI, pp. 319 and 481; and XXII, p.
1. ARMAND GAUTIER: Chimie Biologique, 2d edit., pp. 330-332. Masson,
publ.
The suprarenal capsules also possess properties that have often
attracted the attention of physiologists during the last few years.
They are considered as being, just like the thyroid gland, producers
of antitoxins; they destroy, or seem to destroy, toxins that are
artificially introduced into the circulation.
Albanèse[94] maintains that the function of the suprarenal capsules
is to neutralize neurine, the toxic product of the disassimilation of
the nervous system; this view, however, is opposed by Boinet[95] and
Langlois.[96] On the contrary, it has been definitely proven that the
suprarenal glands exert a specific action on the poisons of muscular
origin. Abelous and Langlois[97] have in fact demonstrated that the
alcoholic extract of the muscle of a decapsulated animal has the same
properties as the extract of tetanized muscle; the decapsulated animal
gives ergographic tracings analogous to those afforded by tetanized
animals. The removal of the suprarenal capsule from an animal brings
results, hence, analogous to those of fatigue--that is to say, that
the toxic substances which accumulate as a result of the decapsulation
resemble those that result from muscular exertion. The suprarenal
capsules exert their action furthermore on other toxic products as
well, as Guieysse[98] has shown, and particularly on the exogenous
poisons. In conclusion, it may be said that the matter concerns a
most important rôle, and we cannot do better in this respect than
to refer the reader to the memoir presented by Sergent and Bernard
to the Académie de Médecine in 1902 and entitled _l'Insuffisance
Surrénale_.[99]
[94] ALBANÈSE: Recherches sur les fonctions des capsules surrénales.
_Arch. Italiennes Biol._, 1892.
[95] BOINET: _Compt. rend. Soc. de Biol._, Mch. 1896.
[96] See _Compt. rend. de Biol. et Arch. Physiologie_, 1891-1897.
[97] LANGLOIS: Thèse de doctorat en Méd., Paris, 1897.
[98] GUIEYSSE: _Les capsules surrénales du cobaye_, Thèse, Paris, 1901.
[99] Encyclopédie Léauté, CCCXIV, Masson, publ., Paris, 1904.