“Some animals have horns, some have hoofs, some talons,
some claws, some spurs and beaks; man hath none of all
these, but is weak and feeble, and sent unarmed into the
world. Why?—a hand, with reason to rise it, supplies the
place of all these.”—RAY.
FORM OF EXTREMITIES DIFFERS IN INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME SPECIES.
Sir J. Barrow states of the Hottentot that there is not an animal among
the numbers that range the wilds of Africa, if he be at all acquainted
with it, the print of whose foot he cannot distinguish. The print of
any of his companions’ feet he would single out among a thousand.
That particular species of animals can be distinguished by their feet
appears, then, an undoubted fact; and it is not less true than that
modifications in the form of the extremities are met with among animals
of the same species. Thus the male frog is distinguished from the
female by the presence of a more fully-developed thumb and the addition
of a velvety, cushion-like substance to its outer surface, by means
of which he is enabled to grasp the latter more securely, and ensure
the fecundation of the eggs. The land-frog (_Hyla_) differs from the
common frog (_Rana_) in possessing a viscous disc at the extremity of
each toe, so that this animal can readily mount the branches of trees
in search of prey. The courage of the falcon is estimated by the form
and disposition of the wing feathers, and that of the fighting cock by
the conformation of his foot. But it is to the hand of man,—the emblem
of his vast superiority over all the lower animals, that we would more
particularly invite attention. The hand of man, like the appendages
to the trunk of animals, has a certain definite relation with his
whole organisation. As Sir C. Bell observes, “The possession of an
instrument like the hand implies that there must be a great part of the
organisation which strictly belongs to it concealed. The hand is not
a thing appended, or put on to the body, like an additional movement
in a watch; but a thousand intricate relations must be established
throughout the whole frame in connexion with it.”
The form of the hand, like that of the entire body, is materially
influenced by age, sex, and race; and it is not less affected by the
particular kind of organisation, the mental disposition, and the
temperament of the individual.
_Age._—In the minute germ, or embryo of a month, the form of the hand
resembles that of one of the lower animals. It puts on the appearance
rather of a respiratory organ than of an instrument of prehension,
and, being completely destitute of fingers, presents a great analogy
in form with the fin of a fish. As the little being increases in size,
the fingers become gradually developed. They at first appear as small
bud-like projections attached to the perfectly-formed palm. By degrees
the several pieces of the fingers become more and more elongated,
and at length attain their perfect length and shape; though, even at
birth, the relative size of the palm, compared with the fingers, is
considerably greater than in the adult. During infancy and childhood
the hand retains, to a certain extent, the same character, the hand
of the child being soft and thick, with a broad palm and short
rudimentary fingers. With the period of puberty it attains its perfect
developement, and acquires characters which it preserves throughout
manhood. As old age creeps on the hand loses its softness and pliancy,
it becomes hard and insensible, and its vigour, like that of the
mind, may be said to be gone. “Le cal de la main, presque toujours,
jette une ombre sur l’esprit,” says D’Arpentigny. Politics, science,
literature—whatever active intellectual pursuit the mind formerly
delighted in, commences at this period of life to lose its former
charm, to be succeeded by a love of quiet rural occupation. In the
language of the author just quoted, “It is when our stiffened hands,
become, as it were, ossified and nearly insensible, afford a faithful
image of our impoverished intelligence, that we are the most ruled by
this mania for agricultural pursuits.”
_Sex._—The sexes differ as much in the form of their hands as they
do in the figure of the skeleton, and in the general habit and
conformation of the entire body. As Carus observes, “He must be but a
superficial observer of mankind who could not at once recognise the sex
from a simple inspection of the hand. The hand of woman is smaller,
more delicate, and much more finely articulated than that of man; it
has a softer palm, and joints which are but slightly prominent. The
hand of man, on the contrary, is large, firm, and broad, is furnished
with strong projecting joints, and a hard wide palm, together with a
large thumb, with a strong convex ball or root.” Here, again, we find
the physical structure in harmony with the mental disposition—the firm,
strong, broad hand of man being indicative of his active, energetic,
reasoning mind; and the soft, narrow, delicate hand of woman,
symbolical of her sensitive, yielding, contemplative character.
_Race._—We have not yet obtained sufficient data to enable us to
ascertain any thing very definite respecting this part of our subject.
Whether the hand of races springing from the Caucasian stock presents
a form essentially different from that of people originating from the
Mongolian,—whether the hand of the Negro races resembles or differs
from that of the American tribes, must be determined by the future
investigations of intelligent and observing travellers. From the
few observations that have hitherto been made, it would appear that
in the American and Mongolian races the hand is characterised by a
preponderance of the motive element over the sensitive, the member
being large and coarse, with the bones, muscles, and joints, strongly
developed. As regards the dark-coloured races we know that they differ
somewhat from the white in the texture of their skin: it is coarse
in its structure, provided with a larger number of sebaceous glands,
and covered by a thicker layer of cuticle, so that the sentient
terminations of the nerves being less exposed its general sensibility
must be considerably less than that of the skin of white people.
But the hand not only affords us characters by which the age and sex
may be determined, it is likewise an index of the general habit of
body, of the kind of temperament, and of the mental tendency and
disposition.
HAND, INDEX OF HABIT OF BODY AND TEMPERAMENT.
The general habit of body, and the kind of temperament, we determine
from certain general signs deduced from the hand. We observe the
structure of the skin—whether it be fine or coarse in its texture,
whether it be hard and unyielding, or soft and elastic. We note
the quantity of fat and of cellular tissue; and this enables us to
form a judgment respecting the degree of _embonpoint_, and we have
already abundantly proved that a man of a soft, lax habit, with an
abundance of cellular and fatty tissues, differs in mental tendency and
disposition from one of firm, tense fibre, in whom the bones, muscles,
and articulations, are strong and prominent. Thus, a soft, thick hand,
loaded with fat, denotes little energy of character, and a soft,
yielding, inactive disposition; while, on the contrary, a thin, firm,
bony, or muscular hand indicates a rough, active, energetic nature.
With respect to the texture of the skin—a hand possessing a delicate
and highly-sensitive skin is accompanied by a similar structure of the
tegumentary envelope of the entire body, and is always associated with
an excitable organisation, with a highly sensitive, mobile disposition.
A coarse, dry texture of the skin denotes a preponderance of muscular
force over sensibility, and a character more remarkable for solidity
and resolution than for imagination or vivacity of conception. The
hand partakes of the nature of the whole body; when the latter is
gracefully and symmetrically formed, with its several parts in nice
adaptation and co-ordination, the former shares its perfection and is
constructed after the same general plan; and we accordingly find that
a powerful, athletic individual is furnished with a large hard hand,
with its joints or articulations strong and prominent, and a delicate,
sensitive person, with a small, narrow hand, with its joints small and
but slightly prominent.
HAND, FOUR PRIMARY FORMS OF, CONNECTED WITH PARTICULAR MENTAL
TENDENCIES.
In order correctly to determine the more particular signs of the mental
disposition which may be drawn from an examination of the hand, we
must first take into consideration the special physiological functions
of the organ. On the one hand, it is the most delicate instrument
of feeling,—the organ of touch, by means of which we judge of so
many properties of bodies; on the other hand, the finest and most
skilful instrument of motion and of prehension; and it may likewise be
regarded as the organ of art. A hand rather below the average size,
and of which the skin is soft and delicate, the fingers long, and
provided with numerous cuticular ridges, which are indicative of a
large number of the sentient papillæ of touch, the bony portion but
slightly developed, and the joints not prominent, is admirably adapted
for an organ of sensation, but by no means suited for an instrument
of motion; while, on the contrary, a size rather above the average,
together with a massive, bony, framework, strong muscles and tendons,
and large joints, are the characteristics of a powerful instrument of
prehension—of a hand in which sensation is sacrificed to motion.
In the former case, we may with certainty predicate a mind mobile,
imaginative, and inclined to abstraction,—a mind employed chiefly on
subjective phenomena; in the latter, the mind is rather objective in
its action than subjective, operating powerfully upon the external
world, whether by arms, agriculture, or the mechanical arts: the former
hand we term sensitive, the latter motive.
In the highest and most perfect form of hand, thin, delicate, conical
fingers are combined with a moderate-sized palm and a well-developed
thumb,—both the sensitive and motive parts are in nice and accurate
adaptation; the instrument being thus rendered capable of executing
whatever the intellect may desire: such a hand we term “psychical.”
In the lowest form of hand, the member retains throughout adult
life the character which it presented in infancy, and it strikingly
resembles the hand of those of the monkey tribe most nearly allied
to man in their organisation and outward form,—a hard, thick, palm
being joined to short, rudimentary fingers: such a form of hand we
style “elementary.” It is mostly associated with a crude, undeveloped
state of the intellectual powers. Thus, by tracing the normal
developement and the anatomy and physiology of the hand, we have
obtained four definite types of formation founded upon anatomical and
physiological characters, and corresponding to a certain extent to
the temperaments,—the psychical as the highest form, the elementary
as the lowest, and, as intermediate forms, the sensitive and the
motive. The sensitive is characterised by softness, delicacy, and a
rounded form,—by a member adapted by its structure for an accurate
discrimination of the external world, and for a delicate organ
of sensation; the motive, by great developement of the muscular,
tendinous, and osseous structures, and exercising its objective
influence by virtue of its active movements and its physical force; the
psychical uniting the perfections of both the sensitive and the motive
types, the elementary without the excellencies of either.
We pass on to a somewhat more detailed examination of the several parts
of the hand. It may be considered as made up of the palm, the thumb,
and the fingers.
_Palm._—As regards the palm, we have to notice its size, thickness,
and degree of hardness; its temperature, degree of dryness, and the
furrows by which it is marked. In all the lower animals the palm is
large, thick, and hard. Hence D’Arpentigny views the palm as indicative
of the physical appetites or animal propensities, and of the degree and
intensity of the mental affections to which they give rise. Thus, when
the palm is narrow and thin, the temperament is feeble, the imagination
without force, and the mind rather subtle than comprehensive; when its
size and thickness are in harmony with the proportions of the thumb and
fingers, sensual impressions easily excite the mind, but a salutary
control is exercised by reason and imagination; when it is large in
comparison with the fingers, sensuality and egotism predominate;
and lastly, when it is large, thick and hard, the animal faculties
preponderate over reason, and the passions, unrefined by imagination,
have full and uncontrolled sway. A moist, warm, rosy palm denotes
health, youth, delicate sensibility, and energy of the vegetative
functions. Thus Shakspeare in “Othello,” speaking of the hand of
Desdemona,—
“This hand is moist, my lady.
* * * *
This argues fruitfulness and liberal heart;
Hot, hot, and moist. This hand of yours requires
A sequester from liberty, fasting, and prayer,
Much castigation, exercise devout;
For there’s a young and sweating devil here
That commonly rebels.”
In febrile diseases, the palm is hot and dry; and the same obtains when
the vegetative functions are languid, or in exhaustion from debauchery
or other causes. As Shakspeare has it in the “Twelfth Night,”—
“_Maria._ Now, sir, thought is free: I pray you bring
Your hand to the buttery bar, and let it drink.
_Sir Andrew Aguecheek._ Wherefore, sweetheart? What’s
your metaphor?
_Maria._ It’s dry, sir.”
According to the old chiroscopists, the life-line—that is, the furrow
at the line of demarcation between the ball of the thumb and the
palm—measures by its length the term of existence; it is certainly
more strongly marked in strong and healthy than in weak and sickly
persons. A pallid or yellowish colour of the furrows marking the palm
is indicative of disease.
_Thumb._—The thumb deserves particular notice in treating of the hand.
It is the presence of a thumb that imparts to the hand of the higher
animals its character of superiority. It is the higher developement
and greater mobility of the human hand that render it so much more
perfect than that of the ape: “L’animal supérieur est dans la main,
l’homme est dans la pouce,” says D’Arpentigny. The thumb being,
then, the characteristic element of the human hand—the part last
developed and most strongly typical of its superiority over that of
the lower animals, the perfect formation of this part of the hand
must be regarded as a sign of the character of the species being well
marked,—of a strong, active individuality; while the reverse obtains
when it is small and rudimentary. The ball of the thumb is made up
of strong muscles, and in it the motor function of the hand is, as it
were, concentrated. It is the _mons Veneris_ of the old chiroscopists;
the expression of “la volonté raisonnée,” of decision, perception, and
the logical faculty, according to D’Arpentigny, who confirms the old
opinion above alluded to, remarking, “Aimer c’est vouloir, et vouloir
c’est aimer.” Persons with a small thumb are ruled by the heart,
those with a large by the head. The motive hand is always furnished
with a large thumb, and hence, probably, the origin of the term, from
_domare_, to rule (Italian), _Daumen_ (German); power and objective
force being imparted by it to the hand.
The Romans applied the term _pollex truncatus_ to a person who, for
the purpose of avoiding military service, cut off or mutilated his
thumb—hence our word _poltroon_. It was by the position of the thumb
that spectators determined the fate of conquered gladiators; if it were
raised, life was spared, if it were depressed, it was a sentence of
death. In the Anglo-Saxon laws, it is ordained that mutilation of the
thumb shall be punished by a fine of twenty shillings, and that of the
middle finger by a fine of four only. In La Vendée, a large thumb is
still thought to be indicative of a dabbler in the forbidden mysteries
of the black art. Biting the thumb was formerly held to be expressive
of insult and defiance; thus Shakspeare in “Romeo and Juliet,”—
“_Samson._ I will bite my thumb at them; which is a
disgrace to them if they bear it.”
_Fingers._—Having fully examined the palm and thumb, we have next to
direct our attention to the four fingers—to their length, their general
outline, the size of the joints, and the shape of the pieces of which
the fingers are made up,—the phalanges, more especially of the terminal
one.
Prominent joints evince great development of the bony and muscular
structures of the hand; they indicate a motive and prehensive organ.
Persons with such fingers, according to D’Arpentigny, are remarkable
for their love of order and arrangement, for a mind prone to analysis
and reasoning, and for actions regulated by the calm dictates of
judgment, and not impelled by the sudden inspiration of enthusiasm.
Smooth, even fingers, on the contrary, with a regular outline and
articulations but slightly prominent, denote that the nervous system
is more developed than the bony and muscular, and that the member is
endowed with fine sensibility. Such an individual will be more or less
swayed by imagination, will act rather from the impulse of the moment
than from reason and experience, will be rather disposed to view things
as a whole than to consider in detail their several parts,—in fact,
will be furnished with a mind with more of imagination and synthetical
talent than of reason or logical ability. The joints become more
distinctly marked as age advances. In fine, says D’Arpentigny, “Man
becomes the more orderly, the less credulous, and the more logical, in
proportion as the articular prominences become more strongly defined.”
The last phalanx, or terminal piece of the fingers, may terminate in
either of three ways. It may be rounded, cushiony, somewhat enlarged
as it were; it may be square and flattened; or it may be delicate,
tapering, and conical. The enlarged, rounded, cushiony-terminated
phalanx, characterises “the doigts en spatule” of D’Arpentigny, or, as
we shall term them, “sensitive fingers.” It indicates a great number
of the delicate papillæ of touch, and serves to denote a sensitive
hand. The square terminal phalanx mostly accompanies the motive and
elementary form of hand; and the tapering, conical extremity, the
psychical. It is a remarkable fact, that among all nations the figures
of saints, angels, and divinities, should have been invariably figured
with delicate, tapering fingers. The hands of witches, demons, and
sorcerers, have likewise been delineated with elongated fingers; but
they are rough, thin, and bony, and armed with long nails or claws,
like the toes of the lower animals.
_Nails._—We must say a few words upon the nails,—parts corresponding to
the horny skeleton of invertebrate animals. They are sometimes long and
narrow, as in the psychical hand: sometimes short and broad, as in the
elementary type; and sometimes square and strong, as in the motive, or
they may be brittle or thickened, or otherwise diseased. In consumptive
people they become curved, somewhat claw-like. If the characters which
they furnish be in accordance with those which are indicated by the
other parts of the hand, they are thereby doubly confirmed; if the
two differ, they mutually render each other less positive. Thus an
elementary hand with long, slender nails, must be looked upon as having
a decided tendency to assume a higher type of organisation, while if
the nails be broad and short like the fingers, the signification is
thereby the more confirmed.
FORM OF HANDS.
1.—_The Elementary Hand._ See Plate I.—Fingers thick, and without
flexibility, palm large, thick, and hard, thumb rudimentary, and
frequently bent somewhat backwards, skin coarse in its texture, nails
short and thick. In countries where such hands abound, the people
obey habit and instinct rather than reason. The sensations are dull
and inactive, the imagination is without force, and the character
apathetic; for the extremities of the nerves being deficient in
sensibility, the impressions conveyed to the brain are wanting in
intensity, and the ideas to which they give rise are consequently
neither clear nor vivid. “Aux mains élémentaires, en Europe le
labourage, le soin des étables et la longue suite des travaux grossiers
auxquels suffisent les confuses lumières de l’instinct. A elles la
guerre, en tant qu’il ne s’agit, que d’arroser machinalement de la
sueur un sol étranger. Enfermées dans le monde matériel elles ne se
rattachent guêre à l’ensemble politique, que par l’élément physique.
Les convictions se ferment en elles dans une sphère inaccessible au
raisonnement, et leurs vertus tiennent le plus souvent à des facultés
négatives.”
Elementary hands abound in the north of Europe. The individuals
characterised by them are always superstitious; witness the Lappes,
the Finns, and the Icelanders. By misfortune they are overwhelmed. In
India, where they do not naturally exist, they have been artificially
produced in a particular caste—the Parias—by political and social
institutions. They have been abundant among every people at the dawning
of their civilisation; they raised the pyramids in Egypt and the
Cyclopean structures in Italy, and are described as existing in a rude
state of society in the literature of various nations: witness the
Polyphemus of the Greeks, the Melibœus of the Latins, the Caliban
of Shakspeare, and the Sancho Panza of Cervantes. This form of hand
can unquestionably be produced by premature hard labour, but it is
found among the upper classes likewise, where manual labour cannot be
supposed to have given rise to it. Physiologically it must be looked
upon as an arrest of developement, its main bulk, like the member of
the lower animals and of the human fœtus, being made up of the solid
palm. It must hence be regarded as a primitive form of the member, as a
rudimentary, and consequently an imperfect organ.
Transitions from the elementary to other forms of hand are frequently
met with. Thus, when the fingers become elongated and somewhat
thinner, and the texture of the skin finer, the hand may be said to be
intermediate between the elementary and sensitive type, while long,
hard, bony fingers indicate an approach towards the motive type. And
thus it is that intelligence is more readily to be attained by persons
with elementary, than a fine sensibility by those furnished with a
motive hand, or great energy in objective action by those provided with
a sensitive.
2. _The Sensitive Hand_ (see Plate II.) is rather below than above
the average size, palm soft and narrow, fingers thin and delicate,
with the extremity plump, rounded, and cushiony, thumb thin and small,
skin fine and very vascular, nails narrow and semi-transparent. This
type of hand may be looked upon as essentially feminine. It denotes
a highly-sensitive frame, and a delicately-organised nervous system.
The nervous ramifications distributed to the surface of the body being
covered only by a thin layer of cuticle or scarf-skin, are easily
excited by impressions from without, and as readily transmit their
excitement to the central organs, thus occasioning a prompt and vivid
flow of ideas.
[Illustration: Plate 2.
The Sensitive Hand]
(_a._) _The Artistic Hand_ of D’Arpentigny is a variety of this type.
It is characterised by a moderately-developed palm, long tapering
fingers, very flexible, and a small thumb. It has for its object
the worship of material beauty, is disposed to view things through
a romantic medium, is fond of leisure, of liberty, and of change;
is at once bold and timid, humble and vain, exalted and depressed,
enthusiastic and desponding. The charms of a quiet, regulated, domestic
life possess but little attraction for such persons, who, with much
originality, have equal fickleness of character. “En France nos armées
sont pleines de mains artistiques de tout genre; elles leur doivent le
caractère de mobilité aventureuse, insouciante, pittoresque; cet élan
fulgurant et prime sautier, qui les distinguent. Elles s’accommodent de
tout et sont propre à tout. On les enlève par la parole.”
(_b._) A gradual transition is afforded from this to the motive type by
means of _the spathulate hand_, which partakes both of the motive and
sensitive character.
_The spathulate hand_, when fully developed, is furnished with smooth
fingers, with a rounded, cushiony termination, and a large thumb. It
denotes a love of corporeal movement, and of active occupation—of
horses, dogs, and field-sports; it prefers the useful to the
agreeable, and is not content, like the elementary hand, with the
merely necessary, but demands abundance. It is distinguished by an
appearance of simplicity and frankness of character, and likewise by
its chastity; so that Diana or Cyrus the Younger may be said to be
its representatives. It is a native of the North, is more common in
Scotland than in England, in England than in France, and in France than
in Italy or Spain. Wherever it is the prevailing type, as in England
and America, the political institutions are free. It is essentially
Protestant. “Amoureuses de l’art, de la poésie, du roman, des mystères,
les mains pointues veulent un dieu selon leur imagination; amoureuses
des sciences et de la réalité, les mains en spatule veulent un dieu
selon leur raison.” So that it may be truly said that the people of
the north are physically Protestant, and those of the south Catholic.
It must also be remarked, that before the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes the Protestants of France were likewise its chief manufacturers;
for the same spirit that led them to embrace Protestantism impelled
them to the cultivation of mechanical and scientific pursuits. It
prefers size and regularity to beauty, opulence to luxury, and that
which excites astonishment to that which pleases. In private life its
motto is, “Chacun pour soi.”
[Illustration: Plate 3.
The Motive Hand.]
_The Motive Hand_ (see Plate III.)—Above the mean size, fingers with
prominent joints, of an average length, and strong, thick, and bony,
with a square tip; palm of a mean size, hollow, and tolerably firm;
thumb large, with the muscular root strongly developed. This form
of hand cannot exist without a strong, massive developement of the
bony and muscular system. It is essentially the hand of man, as the
sensitive is that of woman. Hence, in the female sex, it indicates
a masculine energy of character: witness the hardy peasants of
Switzerland and the Tyrol. In both sexes it denotes a preponderance of
the masculine or reasoning mind over the imaginative faculties. Hence
it loves form and arrangement, possesses a strong instinctive feeling
for right and authority, and a profound respect for established forms;
prefers an aristocracy to a democracy, and the known to the unknown;
takes a delight in organising, in classifying, in systematising, in
subjecting thought to opinion, and man to his fellow-man. Devoid of
originality, and with but little imagination, it moves only in the old
beaten path, and its belief is limited to that which it is capable of
comprehending.
Partaking of the character of the motive and psychical type, we have
a mixed intermediate form, termed by D’Arpentigny “the philosophical
hand.”
(_a._) _The Philosophical Hand_ is somewhat smaller than the motive;
the fingers have large joints, and are somewhat tapering at their
tip; the palm is large and elastic, the thumb also large, with its
two phalanges nearly equal in length. Such was the hand of Locke, of
Condillac, of Descartes, Malebranche, and Leibnitz. It denotes a love
of absolute truth for its own sake, and of speculations respecting the
nature of life and the origin of things. It adopts opinions only upon a
careful investigation, and reason is its only recognised guide.
[Illustration: Plate 4.
The Psychical Hand.]
_The Psychical Hand_ (see Plate IV.) is at once the most beautiful
and the most rare. Compared with the stature it is small and delicate;
the fingers are thin, without articular prominences, and long and
tapering; the palm is of average dimensions, the thumb well formed and
but of moderate size. Persons with such a hand are led by ideality;
soul is for them every thing; great interests alone move them; in
religion and politics they are tolerant. In literature, Milton,
Klopstock, and Göthe, are their representatives. Loving the ideal and
the sublime, they oppose to the school of Voltaire and Hume that of
Lamartine and Chateaubriand. Among the Greeks, Plato is their type.
D’Arpentigny says of these hands: “Elles attachent, elles ajoutent,
aux œuvres du penseur, comme l’artiste à l’œuvre de l’artisan la
beauté, l’idéalité; elles les dorent d’un rayon de soleil, elles les
élèvent sur un piédestal, elles leur ouvrent le porte des cœurs;
l’âme, oubliée et laissée en arrière par les mains philosophiques,
est leur guide,—la vérité dans l’amour, et la sublimité leur but, et
l’expansion leur moyen.”
This form of hand is met with among all classes of society, but is
rarely the prevailing one among any people. In Asia, it is most common
in India; and in Europe, in Germany.
Thus to the spathulate and motive hands appertain matter and reality,
the useful and necessary arts, the action and theory of things, and the
knowledge of facts; to the sensitive and psychical hands the boundless
ideal world—the fine arts, sublime poetry, and abstract intellectual
philosophy.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] La Chirognomonie; ou, l’Art de Reconnaître les Tendances de
l’Intelligence, d’après les Formes de la Main. Par le C^{aine} S.
ARPENTIGNY. Paris, 1843.
[2] Ueber Grund und Bedentung der verschiedenen Formen der Hand in
verschiedenen Personen. By Dr. C. G. CARUS, Physician to the King of
Saxony, &c. &c. Stuttgart, 1846.
[3] P. 237.
[4] Brougham on Paley’s “Natural Theology.”
[5] Natural Theology: ch. on “Relations.”
London: George Barclay, Castle Street, Leicester Square.