At intervals in the history of science, long periods of comparative
inertia have attended the death of its more distinguished workers. As
time progresses and the number of workers increases, there is a
corresponding increase in the number of men whose labors merit
distinction in the literature of every language; but as these accessions
necessitate in most cases further division of the honors, many names
conspicuously identified with modern science fail of their just relative
rank, and fade into unmerited obscurity. Thus the earlier workers in
science, like Scheele, Liebig, Humboldt, and others of that and later
periods, have won imperishable fame, to which we all delight to pay
homage, while others of more recent times, whose contributions have
perhaps been equally valuable for their respective periods, are given
stinted recognition of their services, if indeed their names are not
quite forgotten. Nothing illustrates so clearly the steps in the
evolution of science as a review of the relative status of its
representatives. As in the political history of the world an epoch like
that of the French revolution stands out like a mountain peak, so in the
history of science an epoch occurs rather by evolution than revolution,
when a hitherto chaotic, heterogeneous mass of knowledge is rapidly
given shape and systematized. Previous to the seventeenth century an
immense mass of facts had accumulated through the labors of
investigators working under the Baconian philosophy, but these facts had
been thrown together in a confused, unsystematic manner. A man of master
mind was then needed to grasp the wonders of nature and formulate the
existing knowledge of them into a scientific system with a natural
basis. Such a system was given by Linnæus, and so great were its merits
that it continues the foundation of all existing systems of
classification.
Charles Linnæus was born May 13, 1707, in a country place named Roshult
in Smaland, near Skane, Sweden. He was called Charles after the well
known Swedish knight errant, King Charles XII., then at the height of
his renown.
The natural beauty of his native place, with its verdure-clad hills, its
stately trees, and sparkling brooks fringed with mosses and flowers,
inspired the boy Linnæus with a love of nature and a devotion to her
teachings which tinged the current of his whole life. He was destined by
his parents for the ministry, and in accordance with their wish was sent
to the Vexio Academy ("gymnasium"). Here the dull theological studies
interfered so much with his study of nature that he would have felt lost
but for the sympathy of Dr. Rothman, one of his teachers, a graduate of
Harderwyk University, Holland, who had been a pupil of Boerhaave (the
most eminent physician and scientist of his day), and been much
impressed by his scientific teachings.
[Illustration]
Dr. Rothman took a great interest in Linnæus, and assured his father
that he would prove a great success financially and otherwise as a
physician (an occupation whose duties then included a study of all
existing sciences). The father was satisfied, but dreaded the effect the
announcement of such a career would have on the mother, whose ambition
had been to see her son's name among the long list of clergymen of the
family who had been ministers to the neighboring church of Stentrohult.
She finally yielded, and the best possible use was made by Linnæus of
Dr. Rothman's tuition. Latin, then the mother tongue of all scientists
and scholars, he wrote and spoke fluently.
At the age of twenty Linnæus entered the University of Lund, and
remained there a year. Here he formed the acquaintance of a medical man,
a teacher in the university, who opened his home and his library to him,
and took him on his botanical excursions and professional visits. Some
time later, on Dr. Rothman's advice, Linnæus entered the University of
Upsala, then the most celebrated university of Northern Europe. His
parents were able to spare him but one hundred silver thalers for his
expenses. At the end of a year his money was spent, his clothing and
shoes were worn out, and he was without prospects of obtaining a
scholarship. When things were at their gloomiest he accidentally entered
into a discussion with a stranger in the botanical garden, who turned
out to be a clergyman scientist named Celsius. Celsius, while staying at
Upsala, had conceived the plan of given a botanical description of
biblical plants. Having learned that Linnæus had a herbarium of 600
plants, he took the young man under his protection, and opened up to him
his home and library.
While studying in this library, his observations regarding the sexes in
plants, hitherto in a chaotic state, took form, stimulated by an
abstract published in a German journal of Vaillant's views, and before
the end of 1729 the basis of the sexual system had appeared in
manuscript. This treatise having been seen by a member of the university
faculty, Linnæus was invited to fill a temporary vacancy, and lectured
with great success therein one and a half years. Meanwhile the
foundation of the celebrated treatises afterward published on the sexual
system of classification and on plant nomenclature had been laid.
As in the history of most great men, a seemingly great misfortune proved
to be a turning point in his career. The position he had temporarily
filled with such credit to himself and profit to the students was
claimed by its regular occupant, and, despite the opposition of the
faculty, Linnæus had to relinquish it. The two subsequent years were
spent in botanical investigations under the patronage of various eminent
men. During one of these he traveled through Lapland to the shores of
the Polar Sea, and the results of this expedition were embodied in his
"Lapland Flora," the first flora founded on the sexual system. He
delivered a peripatetic course of lectures, and during one of these he
formed the acquaintance of Dr. Moræus, a pupil of the great Boerhaave.
Dr. Moræus took Linnæus into partnership with him. Here again a seeming
misfortune proved to be a great advantage. Linnæus fell in love with the
eldest daughter of Dr. Moræus, but was denied her hand until he should
graduate in medicine. Linnæus, to complete his studies as a physician,
then entered the University of Harderwyk, Holland, the alma mater of his
first benefactor, Dr. Rothman, and of the great Boerhaave.
After two years' study he was graduated in medicine with high honors.
His thesis, "The Cause of Chills," received special commendation. He
visited all the botanical gardens and other scientific institutions for
which Holland was then renowned. A learned and wealthy burgomaster,
Gronovius, having read his "Systema Naturæ" in manuscript, not only
defrayed the cost of its publication, but secured him the high honor of
an interview with the great Boerhaave--an honor for which even the Czar
Peter the Great had to beg.
Boerhaave's interest was at once awakened, and he gave Linnæus so strong
a recommendation to Dr. Burman, of Amsterdam, that the influence of the
scientific circles of the Dutch metropolis was exerted in behalf of
Linnæus, and he was soon offered the position of physician
superintendent of a magnificent botanical garden owned by a millionaire
horticultural enthusiast, Clifford, a director of the Dutch East India
Company. Linnæus' financial and scientific future was now secure.
Publication of his works was insured, and his position afforded him
every opportunity for botanical research. After five years' residence in
Holland, during which he declined several positions of trust, he
determined to return to Sweden. His fame had become so widespread in
Western Europe that his system was already adopted by scientists and
made the basis of lectures at the Dutch universities. In the French
metropolis he was greatly esteemed, and during a visit thereto he was a
highly distinguished guest.
[Illustration: ROSHULT, SWEDEN, BIRTHPLACE OF LINNÆUS.]
His reception in Sweden was rather frigid, and but for the hearty
welcome by his family and betrothed he would probably have returned to
Holland. His _amour propre_ was also doubtless wounded, and he
determined to remain and fight his way into the magic circle of the
gilt-edged aristocracy which then monopolized all scientific honors in
Stockholm and the universities. He acquired a great reputation for the
treatment of lung disease, and was popularly credited with the ability
to cure consumption. This reached the ears of the queen (a sufferer from
the disease), who directed one of her councilors to send for Linnæus. He
soon recognized the name of Linnæus as one of great renown on the
Continent, and at once took him under his protection.
The star of Linnæus was now in the ascendant. He was soon delegated to
various pleasant duties, among which was the delivery of lectures on
botany and mineralogy in the "auditorium illustre" at Stockholm. He at
this time founded the "Swedish Scientific Academy," and was its first
president. In 1741 he was elected professor of medicine in Upsala
University, which chair he exchanged for that of botany and the position
of director of the botanical garden. This opened up a new era for
science in Sweden. He who was regarded as the world's greatest botanist
abroad had at last been similarly acknowledged in his native land.
With the indomitable courage and tact characteristic of the man, he set
on foot a gigantic scientific popular educational project. The
government, under his direction, established a system of exploring
expeditions into the fauna, flora, and mineralogy of the whole Swedish
peninsula, partly for the purpose of developing the resources of the
country, partly in the interest of science, but more especially to
interest the mass of the people in scientific research. The vast
majority of the people of Sweden, like those of other countries, were
dominated by fetichic superstitions and absurd notions about plants and
vegetables, which were indorsed to a certain extent by popular handbooks
devoted more to the dissemination of marvels than facts. A popular
clergyman, for instance, stated in a description of the maritime
provinces that "certain ducks grew upon trees." The vast stride which
was made by the populace in the knowledge of nature was due to these
efforts of Linnæus, who, in order to further popularize science,
established and edited, in conjunction with Salvius, a journal devoted
to the discussion of natural history.
During this period, on the first of May, semi-weekly excursions were
made from the university, the public being invited to attend. The people
came to these excursions by hundreds, and all classes were represented
in them--physicians, apothecaries, preachers, merchants, and mechanics,
all joined the procession, which left the university at seven in the
morning, to return at eve laden with zoological, botanical, and
mineralogical specimens.
A man who could thus arouse popular enthusiasm for science a century and
a half ago must have been a remarkable genius. Trusted students of
Linnæus were sent on botanical exploring expeditions throughout the
world. The high renown in which Linnæus was held was shown in the
significant title, almost universally bestowed upon him, of "The Flower
King."--_Western Druggist._
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ON A METHOD OF MAKING THE WAVE LENGTH OF SODIUM LIGHT THE ACTUAL AND
PRACTICAL STANDARD OF LENGTH.