canned annually, is to have troughs containing running water in shady
places in the fields. The asparagus, as fast as cut, is brought to these
troughs, and is thoroughly washed. These troughs are just wide enough to
take in the shoots of the proper length for canning, and each piece is
trimmed before being immersed. From the troughs the asparagus is taken
to the sorting table, then on to the scalding vats until it reaches the
fillers, where is completed the systematic handling of this product,
packing it to perfection, nothing remaining except to be labeled, when
it is ready to be forwarded to the markets of the world. The entire
process from the time the stalks are taken from the ground to the time
they are ready for the table consumes less than six hours. The process
throughout is a marvel of cleanliness, particular attention and stress
being laid on every detail connected with it. No bleaching agents or
anything foreign or deleterious whatever is used in the packing of
this plant. In Fig. 39 is seen the interior of one of these canneries,
where the especially constructed solderless cans of the company are
being packed. Everything connected with the growing, harvesting, and
canning is done on Bouldin Island, save only the printing of the labels.
That the operators may be lodged in comfort the company has erected
modern cottages for their employes who have families, besides
well-equipped boarding-houses. The development and growth of this
asparagus cannery is one of the marvels of California. Starting ten
years ago with a rented boiler, under the arched dome of the sky for a
roof, and nothing but the shade of weeping willows for a storehouse, as
seen in the Frontispiece, it has developed into a superb plant, equipped
with all modern appliances. During the active season 1,500 hands are
employed directly and indirectly by the canning company, and the
estimated output for the average season is 150,000 cases. Figs. 40 and
41 present perspective views of some of the asparagus canneries on
Bouldin Island.
DRYING
Although the drying of asparagus is not much practiced in America, it is
well worth the attention of those who at times have a surplus of fresh
stalks. Dried asparagus is especially recommended for soups and sauces,
and if properly prepared it is no less desirable as a table vegetable.
Dried asparagus keeps indefinitely, and cost of transportation is
largely reduced. For the latter purpose medium-sized spears are most
suitable, as they dry more evenly than larger ones. Some recommend the
peeling or scalding of the stalks before drying, but this is not
essential, and, if desired, may be done after steaming. On a large scale
the drying may be done in any modern evaporator.
[Illustration: FIG. 41--CANNERY IN ASPARAGUS FIELDS]
For home use the most satisfactory way is to string the stalks with a
large needle and strong thread through the butt ends of the stalks, and
hang them along buildings or fences where they are exposed to the full
rays of the sun. To insure a uniform drying it is important that all the
spears on the string are of the same thickness, as the thicker ones
require more time to dry than those of smaller size. When the air is dry
and warm one day's exposure to the sun will be sufficient to dry them.
Otherwise the strings will have to be hung up in the kitchen in the
evening, or in some other dry place over night, to be brought out again
the following morning, until the asparagus is perfectly dry. It is then
ready to be put in boxes or loose bags and stored in a dry place. If the
stalks have been peeled before drying, when desired for use they are
placed in cold water for half an hour, some salt is added, and they are
cooked like fresh asparagus.
For preparing dried asparagus that has not been peeled before drying,
Dr. Brinckmeier recommends taking a sufficient number of the dried
stalks and place them in water, which, while not boiling, is very near
the boiling point, and keeping them there until they resume their
succulent, smooth, fresh appearance. To keep the water just right a
double boiler is best, with the stalks in the inner one. The water in
the outer vessel should be kept at a steady boil. As the stalks resume
the fresh appearance, take them out carefully one by one and place in
cold water until cooled, after which place on a dish to dry. They should
be carefully scalded to remove the hard outside skin, done up in a
bundle, either by tying with strings or wrapping in a piece of netting,
placed in boiling water, to which a little salt has been added, and
allowed to remain there a few moments--a very few, for it cooks
quickly--until done.
These methods are recommended for white asparagus only, and when
properly dried and cooked asparagus so treated is by many considered to
be hardly distinguishable from the freshly cut, although it looses its
white color in the process. Smaller and green stalks may be dried on
wire frames or wooden racks over the kitchen stove, similar to apples.
XIV
INJURIOUS INSECTS
While a number of different insects feed upon the asparagus plant, there
are only two species which have so far become extensively distributed
and caused serious damage in the United States. Both of these were
imported from Europe, and are limited for their food supply to the
asparagus plant.
THE COMMON ASPARAGUS BEETLE[A]
(_Crioceris asparagi_)
This beetle is by far the most important enemy of the asparagus plant.
It was first noticed in this country at Astoria, L. I., now a part of
New York City, in 1859, but its actual introduction into that locality
occurred about 1856. The injury inflicted by this insect is due to the
work of both adults and larvae upon the tender shoots, which they render
unfit for market, early in the season. Later they destroy, by
defoliation, growing plants, and are particularly injurious to
seedlings, the roots of which are weakened by having their tops
devoured. Larvae, as well as beetles, attack the tenderest portions of
the plants, but the latter gnaw with seemingly equal relish the
epidermis, or rind, of the stems. The beetles are also accused of
gnawing young shoots beneath the surface, causing them to become woody
and crooked in growth.
The beetle illustrated in Fig. 42 is a most beautiful creature--from the
entomologist's point of view--slender and graceful in form, blue-black
in color, with red thorax and lemon-yellow and dark blue elytra or wing
covers, with reddish border. Its length is a trifle less than one-fourth
of an inch.
[Illustration: FIG. 42--COMMON ASPARAGUS BEETLE
_a_, beetle; _b_, egg; _c_, newly hatched larva; _d_, full-grown larva]
From the scene of its first colonization in Queen's County, N. Y., the
insect migrated to the other truck-growing portions of Long Island. It
soon reached southern Connecticut, and has now extended its range
northward through Massachusetts to New Hampshire. Southward it has
traveled through New Jersey, where it was first noticed in 1868, to
southern Virginia. At present it is well established in the principal
asparagus-growing sections of New England, of New Jersey, Delaware, and
Maryland, and is present in Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio. The
question of distribution is an important one, as this species is rapidly
extending its range. In a very few years we may expect its spread to
other portions of the States in which it is now local, and later it will
naturally move westward to Indiana and other States west and south of
there.
The insect passes the winter in the beetle state under convenient
shelter, and toward the end of April or early in May, according to
locality, or at the season for cutting the asparagus for market, issues
from its hibernating quarters and lays its eggs for the first brood. The
eggs are deposited endwise upon the stem or foliage, and in the early
spring upon the developed stalks, usually in rows of from two to six, or
more. In from three to eight days the eggs hatch, the young larvae,
commonly called "grubs" or "worms," presenting the appearance indicated
in Fig. 42, _c_. They at once begin to feed, and are from ten days to a
fortnight, according to Fitch and others, in attaining full growth. When
full grown the larva appears as in Fig. 42, _d_. It is soft and fleshy,
much wrinkled, and in color dark gray or olive, which usually becomes
lighter and yellowish with age. The mature larva enters the earth, and
here, within a little rounded, dirt-covered cocoon which it forms, the
pupa state is assumed. In from five to eight or more days the adult
beetle is produced, which soon issues from the ground in search of food
and of a suitable place for the continuance of the species. In Fig. 43
is shown a spray of asparagus, with the common asparagus beetle in its
different stages, asparagus top at the right showing eggs and injury.
[Illustration: FIG. 43--SPRAY AND TOP OF ASPARAGUS ATTACKED BY BEETLES]
The duration of the life cycle is about thirty days from the time the
eggs are laid until the insects attain maturity, but the time is shorter
in the hotter parts of a season than in the cooler days of May or
September. In the District of Columbia the eggs, in the warmest part of
midsummer, develop in three days and the pupae in five days. From this it
may be estimated that, in the very warmest weather, the development of
the insect may be effected in about three weeks from the time the egg is
laid. In colder climates and in spring and autumn the development from
egg to beetle will require from four to perhaps seven weeks. In the
northern range of the species, two and perhaps three broods are usually
produced, and farther southward there is a possibility of at least a
fourth generation. In the latitude of the District of Columbia the
beetles usually disappear to enter into hibernation in the latter days
of September.
The common asparagus beetle has very efficient checks in the shape of
predaceous insects, which prey upon its larvae and assist in preventing
its undue increase. One of the most active of these predaceous insects
is the spotted ladybird (_Megilla maculata_ DeG.), represented in its
several stages in the illustration (Fig. 44.) The adult of this beetle
is rose-colored, with numerous black spots. The spined soldier-bug
(_Podisus spinosus_ Dal.) and the bordered soldier-bug (_Stiretrus
anchorado_ Fab.) are also useful as destroyers of asparagus beetle
larvae, which they catch and kill by impaling them upon their long beaks
and sucking out their juices. Certain species of wasps and small
dragon-flies also prey upon the larvae. Asparagus beetles are very
susceptible to sudden changes of temperature, and immense numbers of
hibernating beetles are sometimes killed in winter during severe cold
spells following "open" weather.
[Illustration: FIG. 44--SPOTTED LADYBIRD
_a_, larva; _b_, empty pupal skin; _c_, beetle, with enlarged antenna
above]
_Remedies._--The common asparagus beetle, under ordinary circumstances,
may be held in restraint by the simplest means. Chickens and ducks are
efficient destroyers of the insect, and their services are often brought
into requisition for this purpose. A practice that is in high favor
among prominent asparagus growers is to cut down all plants, including
volunteer growth, in early spring to force the beetles to deposit their
eggs upon new shoots, which are then cut every day before the eggs have
time to hatch. Another measure of value consists in permitting a portion
of the shoots to grow and serve as lures for the beetles. Here they may
be killed with insecticides, or the plants, after they become covered
with eggs, may be cut down and burned, and other shoots be allowed to
grow up as decoys. One of the best and least expensive remedies against
the larvae is fresh air-slacked lime dusted on the plants in the early
morning while the dew is on. It quickly destroys all the grubs with
which it comes in contact. The lime may be conveniently applied by means
of a whisk-broom or a Paris green sifter. Even dry road dust applied in
this manner will have a beneficial effect. The special merit of these
insecticides is that they can be used without the least danger upon
young shoots being cut for market or home use.
Paris green and other arsenites, applied dry in powder, mixed with flour
or plaster, or in solution, answer equally well, after cutting has
ceased, and possess the advantage of destroying beetles as well as
larvae. One pound of Paris green to a barrel of fine plaster makes a
sufficiently strong mixture. It may be necessary to make two of these
applications at intervals or as often as the larvae reappear on the
plants. Powdered hellebore mixed with flour, one part to ten, or in
solution of one ounce of hellebore to three gallons of water, is also
very effective against the young larvae. Pyrethrum or buhach may be used
in similar manner, and kerosene emulsion has been highly recommended by
some experimenters. In hot weather, when the soil is dry, the larvae may
be brushed or shaken from the plants so that they will drop to the
heated ground, where they die, being unable to regain the shelter of the
plants. Whichever methods for the destruction of this pest are adopted,
unless the work be done thoroughly and with concerted action by all the
growers in the section, the relief can not be permanent.
THE TWELVE-SPOTTED ASPARAGUS BEETLE
(_Crioceris 12-punctata_ Linn)
The presence of this insect in America was first detected in 1881, and
it is still much rarer and consequently less injurious than the
preceding species. In Europe, where it is apparently native, it is
common but not especially destructive. The chief source of damage from
this species is from the work of the hibernated beetles in early spring
upon the young and edible asparagus shoots. Later beetles as well as
larvae appear to feed exclusively upon the berries. The eggs are
deposited singly, and apparently by preference, upon old plants toward
the end of shoots, which, lower down, bear ripening berries, and they
are attached along their sides instead of at one end, as in the case
with the eggs of the common species. Soon after the larva hatches from
the egg it finds its way to an asparagus berry, enters it, and feeds
upon the pulp. In due time it leaves the first berry for another one,
and when full growth is attained it deserts its last larval habitation
and enters the earth, where it transforms to pupa and afterward to the
adult beetle. The life cycle does not differ materially from that of the
common species, and there are probably the same or nearly as many
generations developed.
[Illustration: FIG. 45--TWELVE-SPOTTED ASPARAGUS BEETLE
_a_, beetle; _b_, larva; _c_, second abdominal segment of larva; _d_,
same of common asparagus beetle]
This species is at present distributed throughout the asparagus-growing
country of New Jersey, particularly in the vicinity of the Delaware
River, the whole of Delaware, nearly the entire state of Maryland, the
District of Columbia, the southeastern portion of Pennsylvania bordering
the state line of New Jersey, northeastern Virginia in the vicinity of
the western shore of the Potomac River, Staten Island, and Monroe
County, N. Y., the last mentioned being the most northern locality known
for the species. The mature beetle in life rivals the common asparagus
beetle in beauty, but may be distinguished by its much broader wing
covers and its color. The ground color is orange red, each wing cover is
marked with six black dots, and the knees and a portion of the under
surface of the thorax are also marked with black, as seen in Fig. 45,
_a_. The beetle as it appears on the plant when in fruit very closely
resembles, at a little distance, a ripe asparagus berry. The full-grown
larva is shown in Fig. 45, _b_. It measures, when extended,
three-tenths of an inch, being of about the same proportions as the
larva of the common species, but is readily separable by its ochraceous
orange color. Fig. 45, _c_, shows the second abdominal segment of larva,
and _d_ same of the common asparagus beetle, much enlarged.
_Remedies._--The remedies are those indicated for the common asparagus
beetle, with the possible exception of caustic lime and other measures
that are directed solely against that species, but the habit of the
larva of living within the berry places it for that period beyond the
reach of insecticides. The collection and destruction of the asparagus
berries before ripening might be a solution of the problem, but it is
questionable if recourse to this measure would be necessary, save in
cases of an exceptional abundance of the insect.
THE ASPARAGUS MINER
(_Agromyza simplex_)
In a recent bulletin from the New York Experiment Station, Prof. F. A.
Sirrine describes a comparatively new and injurious insect on asparagus.
It was discovered on Long Island, and injures the young plants by mining
just underneath the outside surface. The habits of this creature are
such that there is little chance of applying remedies for its
destruction. Cultural and preventive measures seem to be the most
practical, and are suggested. The parent insect is a small fly, which
deposits its eggs for the first brood early in June, and no doubt much
can be done toward keeping the pest under control by not allowing small
shoots to grow during the cutting season. Professor Sirrine is of the
opinion that where young beds are put out yearly the pest can be kept in
check by pulling and burning the old stalks. He points out the fact that
the stalk should be pulled in the fall rather than in the spring, as it
is difficult to pull them early in the season, and in many cases the
dormant stage of the insect is left in the ground.
FOOTNOTES:
[A] Condensed from an official report by J. H. Chittenden of the United
States Department of Agriculture.
XV
FUNGUS DISEASES
Asparagus is subject to the attacks of a number of fungi, the most
widespread and destructive being the "rust," the cause of which is a
fungus described by De Candolle as _Puccinia asparagi_ in the year 1805.
From this it is seen that the rust upon the asparagus has been known to
scientists for nearly a hundred years, and it is but reasonable to
suppose that more or less of this fungus has existed beyond the history
of man.
The first mention of asparagus rust in the United States was by Dr.
Harkness, who claimed to have observed it on the Pacific Coast in 1880,
although it is doubtful whether the genuine asparagus rust was ever
found there. The first mention of it in the Eastern States was in the
fall of 1896, and since then its range has been widening each year. Dr.
Byron D. Halsted, of the New Jersey Experiment Station, was the first to
call attention to it, and made it the subject of careful study. The
results and conclusions derived from his experiments were published in a
special bulletin, and from this the greater part of the following has
been condensed.
RECOGNITION OF THE RUST
[Illustration: FIG. 46--ASPARAGUS STEMS AFFECTED WITH RUST]
[Illustration: FIG. 47--PORTION OF RUSTED ASPARAGUS STEMS]
When an asparagus field is badly infested with the rust the general
appearance is that of an unusually early maturing of the plants (Fig.
46). Instead of the healthy green color there is a brown hue, as if
insects had sapped the plants or frost destroyed their vitality. Rusted
plants, when viewed closely, are found to have the skin of the stems
lifted, as if blistered, and within the ruptures of the epidermis the
color is brown, as shown in Fig. 47. The brown color is due to
multitudes of spores borne upon the tips of fine threads of the fungus,
which aggregate at certain points and cause the spots. The threads from
which the spores are produced are exceedingly small and grow through the
substance of the asparagus stem, taking up nourishment and causing an
enfeebled condition of the victim, which results in loss of the green
color and the final rustiness of the plant, due to the multitude of
spores formed upon the surface. These spores are carried by the wind to
other plants, where new disease spots are produced; but as the autumn
advances a final form of spore appears in the ruptures that is quite
different in shape and color from the first ones produced through the
summer. The spores of late autumn, from their dark color, give an almost
black appearance to the spots.
There is another form which the rust fungus assumes not usually seen in
the asparagus field, but may be found in early spring upon plants that
are not subjected to cutting. This is the cluster-cup stage, so named
because the fungus produces minute cups from the asparagus stem, and in
small groups of a dozen to fifty, making usually an oval spot easily
seen with the naked eye. This stage of the fungus comes first in the
order of time in the series, and is met with upon volunteer plants that
may grow along the roadside or fence row, or in a field where all the
old asparagus plants have not been destroyed.
METHODS OF TREATING THE RUST
All the cultivated varieties of asparagus are readily affected by the
rust, although it has been found that some varieties, notably Palmetto,
are less susceptible to its attacks than others. The most effectual
means of controlling the disease are spraying, burning of the brush,
cultivation, and irrigation.
_Spraying._--Dr. Halsted, in his first experiments, used soda-bordeaux,
hydrate-bordeaux, and potash-bordeaux. The spraying began June 2d, and
ten sprayings were applied during the season. The applications were made
with a knapsack pump, and therefore were far more expensive than they
would have been if the sprayings were made with horse-power. With the
fungicide costing $5.00 per acre, and a machine that would spray two or
more rows at a time, it would be possible to reduce the cost to $10.00
per acre, or even less. In effectiveness the soda-bordeaux stood first.
Between the other fungicides there was but little difference. The best
results showed a reduction of rust of about one-quarter, which is not as
satisfactory a result as had been expected.
In the spraying work conducted by Professors G. E. Stone and R. E.
Smith, at the Massachusetts Experiment Station, the results were more
encouraging. The solutions used were potassium sulfide, saccharate of
lime, and bordeaux mixture. The spraying was done with a knapsack
sprayer, provided with a Vermorel nozzle, and after the first
application it became evident that the practice was of little importance
on account of the difficulty in making the solution stick to the plant.
For successful spraying of asparagus a finer nozzle is required than any
that is now in the market.
In some other experiments carried out on a small scale the asparagus
plants were practically covered with solutions, when they were put on
with an ordinary cylinder atomizer, and the lime solutions showed
excellent sticking qualities; but with the ordinary coarse nozzle the
solutions would run off of the glossy epidermal covering of the plant
very readily. Should the spraying of asparagus ever become a necessity,
then some apparatus which can be strapped to a horse's back should be
used. The narrow space between the rows forbids the use of the ordinary
mounted appliances, and if spraying is to be carried on upon a large
scale, it would be better to have the spraying mixture carried in some
manner on the horse's back. In this way it would be possible to carry
some thirty or forty gallons of mixture through the narrow rows.
_Burning the affected tops._--There can be no doubt that by the burning
of the infested brush, after the cutting season, innumerable rust spores
are destroyed. But if this is done before the stalks are entirely dead
new ones will spring up at once, and in a few days will be as badly
affected as the first. The burning of the tops in the summer has,
moreover, a decidedly injurious effect upon the roots, seriously
weakening their vitality, and making the growth of the following year
still more susceptible to the infection.