Henrik Ling and his successors at the Royal Normal School of Gymnastics
(the “Central Institute of Gymnastics”) in Stockholm was brought to the
attention of Americans as long ago as the early fifties (see p. 258). By
the end of that decade writers on physical education had begun to refer
to it under the name of “the Swedish movement cure,” and authors of
manuals intended for school use were borrowing some of their exercises
from this source. But to meet the needs of growing boys and girls Ling
had also devised a system of school gymnastics. This had been further
elaborated by his son Hjalmar (1820-1886), and teachers trained in the
Central Institute, or by its graduates, were everywhere using it in
Sweden, in common schools and high schools alike. Of the aims, content,
and methods of this branch of the “Ling gymnastics” little or nothing was
known in this country until near the close of the eighties in the last
century. Hartvig Nissen, a native of Norway and the head of a “Swedish
Health Institute” in Washington, D.C., began to use it with teachers and
pupils in the Franklin school in that city in 1883, and with students
at Johns Hopkins University, in Baltimore, early in 1887. A Swedish
gymnasium with its equipment was also shown at the World’s Industrial
and Cotton Centennial Exposition held in New Orleans 1884-1885, in
connection with the exhibit of the Bureau of Education, and Commissioner
Eaton had placed Mr. Nissen in charge of this and other gymnastic
apparatus. Other isolated instances might be cited, but it was not until
1889, however, that the claims of Swedish educational gymnastics were
brought forward in the United States so prominently and stated with
such clearness and cogency as to attract general attention. Boston was
the center from which the movement radiated, and its initiation was due
to the public spirit and liberality of Mrs. Mary Hemenway (1820-1894)
and the executive ability of her assistant, Miss Amy Morris Homans,
coupled with the thorough professional training and forceful personality
of Baron Nils Posse (1862-1895), the agent who first made their plans
effective and afterwards conducted an independent and vigorous campaign
of enlightenment until his untimely death.
Baron Posse was born in Stockholm, Sweden, where his father, Baron Knut
Henrik Posse, a major in the army, was at one time head of the Royal
Army Staff College (_Kungl. Krigshögskolan_, at Marieberg). Both parents
ranked among the Swedish nobility. The boy, an only son, was graduated
from a private high school at the age of eighteen, and afterwards
completed the fifteen-month course at the Royal Military School (_Kungl.
Krigsskolan_, at Karlberg), and the two years of study and practice then
offered at the Central Institute of Gymnastics, including medical as well
as educational and military gymnastics. Meanwhile for five years he had
been enrolled in the Swedish army, half of that time as a private and
later as second lieutenant, first in the Life Grenadier Regiment and then
in the Royal Svea Artillery. Outside of this formal training his fondness
for physical activity led him to join the Stockholm Gymnastic and Fencing
Club, the Gymnastic Association, the Rowing Club, and two skating clubs,
and in fancy skating he won his title as amateur champion over some of
the most accomplished masters of that art in all Sweden.
[Illustration: FIG. 89.—Nils Posse (1862-1895).]
It was on his twenty-third birthday (May 15, 1885), that Baron Posse
graduated from the Central Institute of Gymnastics. Three months later
he was on his way to America, and in October, after a visit to Nissen,
then vice-consul of Norway and Sweden in Washington, he took up his
residence in Boston with the hope of interesting physicians there in
medical gymnastics and building up for himself, with their coöperation,
a practice in that method of treatment. The first attempts were not
encouraging, and progress was slow, yet after three years of such efforts
opportunity at length knocked at his door—an opportunity not of his own
choosing, but it found him ready. In the interval he had been married
to Miss Rose Moore Smith of Newburyport. Besides writing a sixteen-page
pamphlet on Medical Gymnastics (Boston, 1887), he had also completed
an abridged translation into Swedish of an article on Massage by Dr.
Douglas Graham (Lund, 1889), and was at work on an English translation of
the Swedish physician Björnström’s work on “Hypnotism: Its History and
Present Development” (in the _Humboldt Library of Science_, New York,
1889). These labors help to explain that rare command of the language of
his adopted country for which he was afterward conspicuous.
Mrs. Mary Hemenway, whose only son had given the new gymnasium to Harvard
College in 1879, was herself widely known as one of the wealthiest women
in Boston and as a wise and generous dispenser of her riches for the
promotion of worthy objects, at home and elsewhere. The introduction
of systematic training in sewing and of the kitchen garden and school
kitchen into the city schools were among the results of her efforts.
Together with Miss Homans, who has been called “one of her right hands”
in the execution of such projects, she had been impressed with the need
of some efficient system of physical training for school children. A
friend suggested Swedish gymnastics, and spoke of the graduate of the
Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics who was at that time living
in Boston. Baron Posse was accordingly consulted, and in October of
1888 Mrs. Hemenway employed him to demonstrate the system in a course
of lessons given to twenty-five or more women teachers gathered from
the public schools. A small room on Boylston Place was leased for the
purpose, and larger quarters, in Park Street, were afterwards secured.
On the twenty-fifth of the following June the Boston School Committee
accepted her offer to furnish free training for one year, beginning in
September, to “one hundred public-school teachers, who may be permitted
to use the system in their school work, thus enabling your Honorable
Board, and educators in general, to decide upon its merits by actual
results produced upon the school children within the environment of
the schoolroom.” At the same meeting the Board of Supervisors was
authorized “to report in print upon the subject of physical training
in the schools.” September 24 the committee accepted Mrs. Hemenway’s
further offer to provide “a teacher of the Ling system of gymnastics for
service in the Normal School for one year, free of expense to the city.”
October 8 the Board of Supervisors reported, recommending “that the Ling
system of gymnastics be the authorized system of physical training in
the public schools,” and at the same meeting a letter was read in which
Mrs. Hemenway expressed her willingness “to provide instruction, free of
expense to the City of Boston, for those masters and submasters who may
desire to make a thorough study of the Ling system for the benefit of the
Boston public schools.” The report was laid on the table, but the offer
was accepted two weeks later. Baron Posse continued to give instruction
to all these various classes up to January of 1890. Several small normal
classes were also organized in 1889, which mark the beginning of the
Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, established and afterwards endowed
by Mrs. Hemenway, and with Baron Posse as its first director. In his
annual report dated March 31, 1890, Superintendent Seaver writes that
these demonstrations of Swedish educational gymnastics had already been
attended by “30 masters, 24 submasters, and 166 other teachers. These
have imparted their knowledge to yet other teachers, so that there are
now 360 teachers prepared to use the ‘Ling system’ in their classes.
In addition to these may be counted 97 recent graduates of the Normal
School, who have all received instruction in this system.”
Mrs. Hemenway and Miss Homans were also responsible for the calling
together and successful conduct of that notable “Conference in the
interest of Physical Training” which was held in Boston on November
29 and 30, 1889.[282] From one to two thousand persons attended each
of the four sessions, which were presided over by William T. Harris,
United States Commissioner of Education, and addressed by many
well-known educators and by representatives of a variety of systems. At
the beginning of the second session Baron Posse set forth “The Chief
Characteristics of the Swedish System of Gymnastics” in a masterly paper,
followed by a demonstration of that system by a class of women under his
leadership. One result of this wisely planned and persevering agitation
of the subject was the action of the Boston School Committee taken June
24, 1890, in line with the report and recommendation of its committee on
physical training presented two weeks before, which ordered “that the
Ling or Swedish system of educational gymnastics be introduced into all
the public schools of this city.” In November of that year Dr. Edward
Mussey Hartwell of Baltimore was elected Director of Physical Training,
to hold office from January 1, 1891.
Meanwhile Baron Posse had been succeeded at the Boston Normal School of
Gymnastics by Claës J. Enebuske in the middle of January, 1890; but on
the first of the following month he opened a gymnasium and training
school of his own in the Harcourt building, on Irvington Street. The
six years of life that remained were crowded with incessant teaching
and writing. During this period, it is said, “gymnastics according
to his methods were officially introduced into the public schools of
fifty-two cities and towns, and into as many more private institutions
and academies. Clinics for medical gymnastic treatment were established
by him in most of the larger Boston hospitals, and instruction was given
to the nurses of many hospitals in adjacent towns.” Summer courses for
teachers and others were conducted at the Martha’s Vineyard Summer
Institute (1890, 1891, 1892), in his Boston gymnasium (1892, 1894, 1895),
and at Harvey, Illinois, while he was in charge of the elaborate exhibit
sent to the Chicago World’s Fair by various Swedish gymnastic societies
and athletic clubs.
A book more complete than anything published in the Swedish language,
at the time it appeared, was his volume on “The Swedish System of
Educational Gymnastics” (Boston, Lee and Shepard; New York, Charles
T. Dillingham, 1890), republished the next year with additions. In a
third edition (1894), considerably enlarged, the title was changed to
“The Special Kinesiology of Educational Gymnastics” (Boston, Lee and
Shepard). His small “Handbook of School Gymnastics of the Swedish System”
(Boston, Lee and Shepard) was ready in 1892. Among his more important
papers were “How Gymnastics Are Taught in Sweden” (The _Academy_, Boston,
V: 485-493, December, 1890), a series on “The Scientific Aspects of
Swedish Gymnastics” (_The Doctor_, New York, October, 1890, to August,
1892, Volumes IV-VI), “The Necessity of Physical Education and the Means
of Introducing it into American Schools” (_Popular Educator_, Boston,
IX: 122 and 123, December, 1891), “Modifications of the Swedish System
of Gymnastics to Meet American Conditions” (_Physical Education_,
Springfield, Mass., I: 169-174, November, 1892), and “Swedish Gymnastics
_vs._ German” (_Posse Gymnasium Journal_, Boston, July, 1893). Four of
these are included in his “Columbian Collection of Essays on Swedish
Gymnastics” (Boston, 1893). The first number of the _Posse Gymnasium
Journal_ (monthly) was issued in December of 1892, and for four years
thereafter nearly every number contained at least one contribution from
his pen. Baron Posse’s death occurred on December 18, 1895, but as late
as 1905 the _Journal_ was still publishing material selected or prepared
from his literary work.
The Boston “Conference in the Interest of Physical Training,” held
in November of 1889, is a landmark that grows in significance as the
years give perspective. Leading educators attended its sessions, and
the published report of papers and discussions reached a larger
audience. German and Swedish gymnastics, the systems employed at Amherst
College and Harvard University, the claims of military drill, physical
training for purposes of emotional expression, and for mental and moral
quickening—these were all set forth by able champions. But the first
place on the program, after the opening remarks by Commissioner Harris,
was assigned to a judge and not an advocate, to a trained biologist and
thorough scholar, able to speak with authority regarding the effects of
exercise upon body and mind, familiar with the history of this phase
of education at home and abroad, and made acquainted with the various
systems by travel and personal observation. It was peculiarly fitting
that Dr. Edward Mussey Hartwell should be chosen to discuss “The Nature
of Physical Training, and the Best Means of Securing Its Ends,” on that
occasion, and his appointment as director of physical training in the
Boston schools a year later came as a further testimonial to proved
ability. There was need in those years of just such a keen and fearless
critic, impatient of assumption and half-knowledge, conscious of adequate
mastery of his theme, and gifted with a pungent vigor of expression that
compelled attention.
Dr. Hartwell came from a long line of New England ancestry. Shattuck
Hartwell, his father, a graduate of Harvard College and Law School, was
just closing the fourth year of service as tutor in Latin at Harvard when
the boy was born (May 29, 1850, at Exeter, New Hampshire). The mother was
a daughter of Dr. Reuben Dimond Mussey, who after holding for almost a
quarter-century a professorship in the medical department of Dartmouth
College, his _alma mater_, had moved to Cincinnati twelve years before to
become professor of surgery in the Medical College of Ohio. In the fall
of 1850 Shattuck Hartwell took up his residence in the same city, but
after less than seven years in the practice of law returned to Littleton,
Mass., his birthplace, thirty miles northwest of Boston. This was
henceforward the family home. With the exception of a few years, he was
employed in the Boston Custom House from the fall of 1865 until his death
in 1899.
Edward, the oldest of eight children, graduated from the Public Latin
School in Boston at the age of nineteen. It is worth noting that as one
of Captain Hobart Moore’s orderly sergeants in the school battalion he
gained experimental knowledge of military drill at this period. Then
followed four years at Amherst College (A.B. 1873, A.M. 1876, LL.D.
1898), and the fact that he was chosen captain of his class in the
gymnasium in the junior year, rowed on class and other crews, and was at
one time commodore of the navy, suggests not only physical fitness and
gifts of leadership, but also the influence of Dr. Edward Hitchcock and
the department of hygiene and physical education. In 1871 he won the gold
medal for excellence in human physiology. College days were succeeded
by four years of teaching, first as vice-principal of the high school
in Orange, New Jersey (1873-1874), and then as “usher” in the Public
Latin School in Boston (1874-1877), where he had once been a student. At
the latter Hobart Moore was still instructor in military drill, and in
obedience to the wish of the head master Hartwell introduced the Amherst
plan of class exercises in light gymnastics among the smaller boys.
Greatly interested in natural science, he had already attended the summer
school at Penikese Island, and this inclination now led him to abandon
teaching for a time. An uncle, Dr. William Heberden Mussey, was professor
of surgery in the Miami Medical College in Cincinnati, and prominent
in scientific and educational circles in the city. Thither he came,
therefore, to take up the study of medicine (1877-1878), but interrupted
the course for three years in biology at Johns Hopkins University
(1878-1881), leading to the degree of Ph.D., and did not receive his M.D.
in Cincinnati until 1882. In Baltimore, where he was fellow in biology
for two years in succession (1879-1881), he made animal physiology, under
Professor H. Newell Martin, his principal study, and the subordinate
ones animal histology and morphology under Dr. William K. Brooks.
Membership in and papers before the Scientific Association, the History
and Political Science Association, and the Metaphysical Club attest the
breadth of his view at this time, and reveal a fondness for historical as
well as biological research.
After a summer’s work in Baltimore in 1881, and before entering upon the
second and final year in Cincinnati, Dr. Hartwell went home to Littleton
for a brief vacation, and in Cambridge looked over the new Hemenway
gymnasium and made the acquaintance of Dr. Sargent. Interested in what
he saw and heard, he spoke of the visit to Herbert B. Adams, another
Amherst man, then associate in history at Johns Hopkins University. The
students at the university were agitating the subject of a gymnasium. It
was therefore natural that his advice should be sought, and the next fall
(1882) he was offered the position of instructor in physical culture.
The death of Dr. Mussey in Cincinnati, on the first of August, had left
him without definite plans for the future, and a leaning toward hygiene
moved him to accept the call to Baltimore. In June of 1883 the trustees
authorized the construction of a $10,000 gymnasium, which was ready for
use before the Christmas holidays. It was supplied with the Sargent
developing appliances, and he at once introduced the Sargent plan of
physical examinations and prescribed individual work, in place of class
exercises, and also gave lectures to undergraduates on health topics.
After two years of service he became Associate in Physical Training
and Director of the Gymnasium, and remained at Johns Hopkins in that
capacity until the end of 1890.
An address which Dr. Hartwell delivered to the students of the university
and others on the occasion of the formal opening of the new gymnasium,
December 7, 1883, contained a review of the history of physical training
in ancient and modern Europe and in America. Soon afterwards Commissioner
John Eaton, of the United States Bureau of Education, asked him to
prepare a special report for that department. The result was a visit to
college and other gymnasia from Maine to Tennessee, in the summer of
1884, and the manuscript for a volume of 150 pages on “Physical Training
in American Colleges and Universities,” with illustrations and plans,
which was handed in on the fourth of March following. Immediately upon
completing it he sailed for Europe, to look up matters relating to
hygiene as well as gymnastics. After a brief visit to England he spent
most of the time in Frankfort and Berlin, with a side trip to Dresden for
the Sixth General Gymnastic Festival of the German _Turnerschaft_, and
some attendance upon clinics in Vienna. A 25-page appendix on “Physical
Training in Germany” was now added to the former report, and 2 pages
on the North American _Turnerbund_, whose existence he had discovered
while abroad, and the whole was issued as No. 5—1885 of Circulars of
Information of the Bureau of Education (Washington, 1886).
It seems to have been this visit of Dr. Hartwell’s to Germany which
led, directly or indirectly, to the presence of representative
German-Americans at the second annual meeting of the American Association
for the Advancement of Physical Education, in Brooklyn November 26, 1886,
where for the first time the work of the North American _Turnerbund_
was brought prominently before native American teachers, by descriptive
and historical papers and by illustrative classes of men and children.
Dr. Hartwell himself was elected treasurer of the Association at this
meeting, and read a paper on “The Physiology of Exercise,” not printed
in the _Proceedings_ but later amplified and rewritten and published in
the _Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_ for March 31 and April 7, 1887
(Vol. 116, pp. 297-302 and 321-324). As far back as September of 1884
Commissioner Eaton had introduced him to Hartvig Nissen, at the latter’s
Health Institute in Washington. Early in 1887 Mr. Nissen was invited to
give a course of lessons in “Swedish free movements” and German apparatus
exercises to Johns Hopkins students, and this instruction was continued
in 1887-1888, from November to the middle of April. From the following
May until the end of August, 1889, Dr. Hartwell was in Europe on leave of
absence, interested especially in the hygienic and medical application of
exercise and with the thought of developing a practice in this specialty
upon his return. The winter was spent in Stockholm, with almost
daily visits to the Zander Institute and the Royal Central Institute
of Gymnastics. He went also to St. Petersburg, revisited Vienna, and
received six weeks of instruction in Bonn. December 20, 1889, he read
a paper on “Mechano-Therapy in Sweden and Germany” before the Clinical
Society of Maryland, and repeated it in March before the Johns Hopkins
Hospital Medical Society. In this connection attention may be called to
the 45 pages on General Exercise which he prepared for Vol. I of Dr. H.
A. Hare’s “System of Practical Therapeutics” (Philadelphia, 1891), and
to his translation, from the Swedish, of Dr. Emil Kleen’s “Handbook of
Massage” (Philadelphia, 1892).
Meanwhile he had been consulted in the preparation of plans for the
Boston Conference of 1889, and an examination of the printed proceedings
will show how conspicuous a part he played at the various sessions. The
summer of 1890 was devoted to a third visit to Europe, this time to
gather material relating to school gymnastics and playgrounds. The trip
took him to England, France, Switzerland, parts of Austria and Germany,
and again to Stockholm. June 24 the Boston School Committee had voted
to introduce the Ling or Swedish system of educational gymnastics into
all the public schools, and on November 25 they elected him director
of physical training. Still hoping to become eventually the head of an
institution for mechano-therapy, he consented to inaugurate the work of
the new department, and his resignation was therefore presented to the
Johns Hopkins trustees, to take effect December 31.
A part of the story of the next seven years is contained in his series
of five “Reports of the Director of Physical Training” to the School
Committee of Boston, dated December 31, 1891 (75 pages. School Document
No. 22—1891), June, 1894 (151 pages. School Document No. 8—1894), 1895
(82 pages. In School Document No. 4—1895), March 15, 1896 (pages 159-192
in School Document No. 4—1896), and March 15, 1897 (pages 135-143 of
School Document No. 5—1897). On September 1, 1897, he resigned his
position in the Boston schools to become secretary of the newly created
Department of Municipal Statistics in that city. One must also examine
the contents of the published _Proceedings_ of the American Association
for the Advancement of Physical Education, from the sixth meeting (1891)
onward, and of their successor, the _American Physical Education Review_,
to appreciate fully the yeoman’s service he rendered to physical training
in the country at large, during these years and also after his direct
connection with the work had ceased. In 1891-1892 he was president of the
Association, and again from 1895 to 1899, and he was author of the plan
of reorganization on the basis of local and district societies which was
adopted in 1895. Chapter XII (Physical Training) in the Report of the
Commissioner of Education for 1897-1898 (Washington, 1899), and Chapter
XVII (On Physical Training) in that for 1903 (Washington, 1905), give
final expression to the results of his years of study and observation.
His long series of reports and papers which began in 1885 constitute the
most scholarly contribution hitherto made to the literature of physical
training in English, and no other man in America has done so much to win
for physical training a position of dignity and recognized worth. Dr.
Hartwell died in Boston February 19, 1922.
[Illustration: FIG. 90.—Hartvig Nissen (1855-).]
Other pioneers of Swedish school gymnastics who deserve further mention,
or should be included here, are Hartvig Nissen, Claës J. Enebuske, Jakob
Bolin, Louis Collin, and William Skarstrom. Nissen, born in Kongshavn,
near Christiania, July 13, 1855, was educated in the large private higher
school (_Latin- og Realskole_) opened in the Norwegian capital by his
father, Ole Hartvig Nissen, studied gymnastics and massage with private
teachers here and later in Dresden (1878-1879, in the _Allgemeiner
Turnverein_) and Stockholm (summer of 1890), for three years taught
gymnastics in towns near Christiania, and in March of 1883 established
a “Health Institute” in Washington, D.C., as we have seen. 1891-1897
he worked with Dr. Hartwell in the Boston public schools as assistant
director of physical training, and 1897-1900 himself served as director.
In 1891 he became instructor in Swedish gymnastics and massage in the
Harvard University Summer School, and five years later in the Sargent
Normal School of Physical Education. 1900-1912 he was director of
physical training in the Brookline public schools, and then resigned to
remove to Portland, Oregon. But he soon returned to Boston, and in May
of 1915 acquired a controlling interest in the Posse Normal School of
Gymnastics, of which he became president.[283]
[Illustration: FIG. 91.—Claës Julius Enebuske (1855-).]
Enebuske was born in Ystad, southern Sweden, May 6, 1855, graduated as
a student of pharmacy in Stockholm (1877), and took his doctor’s degree
(Ph.D.) at the University of Lund in 1886. After a year of special work
in school and medical gymnastics, under Colonel Norlander, fencing-master
and teacher of gymnastics at the university, he came to New York City in
1887. Dr. William G. Anderson, then in charge of physical training in
Adelphi Academy, Brooklyn, had begun to train teachers there (February
1, 1886), and at Chautauqua, New York (summer school, in 1886), and he
secured Enebuske’s services at the latter in the summers of 1889 and
1890, and in his normal school in Brooklyn during the intervening year.
We have said that Enebuske succeeded Posse at the Boston Normal School
of Gymnastics early in 1890. Here his chief work was done, in the eight
years that followed, and meanwhile (1896) he graduated from the medical
department of Harvard University. In 1898 he left the Normal School, and
in 1902 removed to Paris, receiving the degree _Docteur en Médecine_ from
the _Faculté de Médecine de Paris_ four years later. He was a scholarly
gentleman and a thorough teacher.[284]
[Illustration: FIG. 92.—Jakob Bolin (1863-1914).]
Bolin, born in Stockholm November 5, 1863, and educated in the higher
schools of Visby and Stockholm and at the Stockholm University, spent two
years in the United States (1885-1887) and then returned to Sweden for
a year to study medical gymnastics in Liedbeck’s Institute (Stockholm).
From 1888 until he accepted the professorship of physical education in
the University of Utah (Salt Lake City) in 1910 he practised medical
gymnastics and massage in New York City, but in the meantime followed
Enebuske as teacher of Swedish gymnastics at the Anderson Normal School
of Physical Education (transferred from Brooklyn to New Haven, Conn., in
1892 and since 1901 known as the New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics),
until 1907, and at Chautauqua Summer School of Physical Education
1891-1909. He died in Salt Lake City May 15, 1914.[285]
Carl Oscar Louis Collin, born February 1, 1866, at Sölvesborg, a seaport
near Kristianstad in southern Sweden, graduated from the higher classical
school in Kristianstad in 1884 and as a student there was for four years
class leader under Major Carl Silow, who afterwards became second teacher
in the section of school gymnastics at the Stockholm Central Institute
of Gymnastics. From September of 1884 until October of 1888 Collin was
a student in the University of Lund, taking courses in gymnastics under
Colonel Carl Norlander at that time, and in November of 1888 joined
Enebuske in New York City. He taught gymnastics at Chautauqua with the
latter in the summers of 1889 and 1890, and went with him to Boston
in the fall of 1890 to become instructor in practical gymnastics and
afterwards in anatomy also at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics.
From April till August of 1892 he studied under Major Silow in Stockholm,
in 1898 graduated from the medical department of Harvard University,
spent six weeks of the summer in the medical gymnastic clinic of Dr.
Anders Wide in Lysekil, Sweden, succeeded Enebuske that fall as chief
instructor in the theory and practice of gymnastics at the Normal
School, and continued in that position for three years after it became
the department of hygiene and physical education of Wellesley College,
in September of 1909. He taught in the Battle Creek Normal School in
1912-1913, and in the latter year became an instructor in the Chicago
Normal School of Physical Education.
William Skarstrom was born in Stockholm June 15, 1869, and educated in
the Nya Elementarskola (higher school for boys), whose pupils received
their physical education in the halls of the Central Institute of
Gymnastics. For two years following the fall of 1891 he was in New
York City, a member of the Twenty-third Street Young Men’s Christian
Association and volunteer instructor of classes in its gymnasium, and
during one winter taking a correspondence course with the Springfield
Training School. He entered the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics as
a student in the fall of 1893 and completed the course there in 1895,
acting as Bolin’s substitute at Chautauqua in the summer of 1894, and in
1901 received the degree of doctor of medicine from Harvard University.
From the fall of 1899 through the spring of 1903 he gave instruction in
gymnastics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and also at the
Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. 1903-1912 he was instructor in the
Columbia University gymnasium, giving courses in Teachers College also
and in the Summer School. In 1912 he was appointed associate professor
and later (1918) professor in the department of hygiene and physical
education at Wellesley College. He has written “Gymnastic Kinesiology: A
Manual of the Mechanism of Gymnastic Movements” (Springfield, Mass., The
F. A. Bassette Co., 1909), and “Gymnastic Teaching” (Springfield, Mass.,
the American Physical Education Association, 1914).
Alice Tripp Hall, a graduate of Wellesley College (1881) and the Woman’s
Medical College in Philadelphia (1886), visited the Central Institute of
Gymnastics in Stockholm in the spring of 1889, and that fall when she
took up her duties as professor of physiology, hygiene, and physical
training in the Woman’s College of Baltimore (now Goucher College)
classes in the new gymnasium, Bennett Hall, were put in charge of a
graduate of the Central Institute, Mathilda Kristina Wallin (class of
’85). Miss Wallin was followed two years later by Gulli Öberg (’85) and
Maria Palmquist (’91), under whom a demonstration of Swedish gymnastics
was given April 7, 1892, before visitors on their way to the seventh
annual convention of the American Association for the Advancement of
Physical Education, in Philadelphia. Thereafter the instructors employed
in the gymnasium were regularly graduates of the Stockholm Central
Institute, or of the Physical Training College at Dartford Heath,
England, which was directed by Madame Bergman Österberg, herself a
graduate of the Central Institute in 1881.
In a similar manner Dr. Kate Campbell Hurd, also a graduate of the
Woman’s Medical College in Philadelphia, and under appointment as the
first medical director at the Bryn Mawr School for Girls, in Baltimore,
spent the winter of 1889-1890 at the Central Institute in Stockholm
and the spring with Madame Bergman Österberg in London (Her Physical
Training College was removed to Dartford Heath, Kent, in 1895), and
engaged as her first assistant in the gymnasium Fanny Schnelle (Stockholm
Central Institute, class of 1891), whom she had met in Sweden. After
Miss Schnelle came one of Madame Bergman Österberg’s graduates, to be
succeeded in turn by young women trained at the Boston Normal School
of Gymnastics, Miss Senda Berenson, a graduate of the latter school,
introduced the Swedish system at Smith College, in Northampton, Mass.,
where she was director of physical training in the years 1892-1911.
In this connection attention may be called again to Mrs. Hemenway’s
gift which made possible the publication of a portion of Hjalmar Ling’s
collection of pen-drawings illustrating positions and movements used in
gymnastics (see p. 161). One half of the edition was presented to the
Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. Director Törngren of the Stockholm
Central Institute also accepted her invitation to come to Boston as her
guest, reached that city May 14, 1893, and spent some time at the Normal
School, in June watched the classes in gymnastics at many of the Boston
schools, and the next month read a paper on “The Royal Central Institute
of Gymnastics in Stockholm” at the eighth annual meeting of the American
Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, in Chicago (see
_Proceedings_ VIII: 50-52). The clearest and most intelligent exposition
of the system under discussion which has yet been written by an American
is “A Review of Swedish Gymnastics,” by Theodore Hough, first prepared as
a lecture in 1899 while its author was assistant professor of biology in
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and instructor in physiology
and personal hygiene at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. It was
published in pamphlet form (Boston, George H. Ellis, 1891, forty pages),
and later reprinted in the Report of the United States Commissioner of
Education for 1898-1899 (Vol. I, pp. 1209-1226, Washington, 1900).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The first part of this chapter, including the biographical sketches of
Posse and Hartwell, has already appeared in print as Chapters XIX and XX
in the author’s “Pioneers of Modern Physical Training” (New York, 1915).
It is based on personal correspondence and conversations with the persons
concerned, supplemented by information gleaned from catalogues, reports,
and other authentic sources.
FOOTNOTES:
[282] See “A Full Report of the Papers and Discussions of the (Physical
Training) Conference held in Boston in November, 1889. Reported and
edited by Isabel C. Barrows” (Boston, 1890).
[283] The numbers of the _Posse Gymnasium Journal_ for February and May,
1920, contain portions of an autobiography by Nissen, covering his early
years in Norway. He also published in 1891 an “ABC of the Swedish System
of Educational Gymnastics” (Philadelphia, F. A. Davis).
[284] His chief literary work was the “Progressive Gymnastic Day’s
Orders, according to the Principles of the Ling System,” first published
in Boston in 1890 and reissued in 1892 (New York, etc., Silver, Burdett
& Co). Other publications include: “The Place of Physical Training in a
Rational Education” (in _Boston Conference Report_, 1889, pp. 35-41),
“The Gymnastic Progression of the Ling System” (_Proceedings_ of the
American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, =5=
(1890), pp. 21-35), “The Pedagogical Aspect of Swedish Gymnastics,”
read before the American Institute of Instruction at its annual meeting
in Bethlehem, N. H., July 8, 1891, (_Popular Educator_, Boston,
=9=, 52 and 53, October, 1891), “Some Measurable Results of Swedish
Pedagogical Gymnastics” (_Proceedings_ of the American Association for
the Advancement of Physical Education, =7= (1892), pp. 207-235), “An
Anthropometric Study of the Effects of Gymnastic Training on American
Women” (Quarterly Publications of the American Statistical Association,
December, 1893, =3=, pp. 600-610), “A Diagram of Working Capacity and
Resistance as manifest in Gymnastic Exercises” (_Proceedings_ of the
American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, =9=
(1895), pp. 11-17), and “Pedagogical Gymnastics” (_American Physical
Education Review_, =2=, 81-88, June, 1897).
[285] His publications were: Three articles on “Den svenska gymnastiken
och dess representanter i Amerika” (_Valkyrian_, New York, January,
February, and March, 1891, =2=, pp. 28-30, 91-94, 138-143), “Mental
Growth through Physical Education” (18-page pamphlet, 1893), “The
Physical Processes Involved in the Nutrition of Muscle” (_Proceedings_
of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education,
=10=, 1895, pp. 83-89), President’s address at the annual meeting of the
Physical Education Society of New York and Vicinity, December 4, 1896
(_American Physical Education Review_, =2=, 1-11, March, 1897), another
President’s address (_American Physical Education Review_, =3=, 25-29,
March, 1898), “On Group Contests” (_American Physical Education Review_,
=3=, 288-294 and =4=, 66-72, December, 1898, and March, 1899), “What is
Gymnastics” and “Why Do We Teach Gymnastics” (28- and 57-page pamphlets,
New York, by the author, 1902 and 1903), and a posthumous volume,
“Gymnastic Problems” (New York, Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1917).
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT IN AMERICA. STATEWIDE PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
The playground movement, which we have already traced in Germany (pp.
132-145) and Denmark (pp. 194-197), was slow in gathering headway in
the United States. Minister von Gossler’s playground order was issued
in Prussia October 27, 1882, and the German “Central Committee for the
Promotion of Games” was organized in Berlin May 21, 1891. The Danish
minister Bardenfleth sent out his games circular August 31, 1896, and
a group of men and women met in Copenhagen April 11, 1897, to form a
“National Committee for Promoting Group Games among School Children.” In
this country certain Boston children had access to a sand pile, under
supervision, as far back as the summer of 1885, and a public outdoor
gymnasium was opened in that city August 27, 1889; but not more than
10 cities are known to have established playgrounds before 1900, and
26 others in the years 1900-1905, _i.e._, up to the founding of the
Playground Association of America, at Washington, D.C., in April of 1906.
In the four years following (1906-1909) 83 cities were added to the list,
and by the end of 1916 a total of 480 had been reached, according to a
report in _The Playground_ for March, 1917.
The first step in the Boston experiment is recorded as follows by
Mrs. Kate Gannett Wells, chairman of the executive committee of the
Massachusetts Emergency and Hygiene Association, in the second annual
report of that body (May, 1886. The Association was organized in 1884):
“Last summer (1885), at the suggestion of Dr. Marie Zakrzewska, and
in accordance with the plan in Berlin, which has proved so useful to
children, a large heap of sand was placed in the yard attached to the
Parmenter-street Chapel.... An average of fifteen children connected with
the chapel came there three days in the week, through July and August,
and under the guidance of Mrs. Gamble, dug in the sand with their little
wooden shovels and made countless sand-pies, which were remade the next
day with undismayed alacrity. They sang their songs and marched in their
small processions, and when weary, were gathered in the motherly arms
of the matron.... The same plan was tried at the West End Nursery, but
as the children there were hardly two years old they cared little for
it. Your committee hope, however, that the success of the experiment in
Parmenter Street may have sufficiently demonstrated the usefulness of the
sand-garden to secure its adoption elsewhere....”
The third annual report (May, 1887) announces that three sand-gardens
“are now permanently established during the summer seasons in the
playyards of Parmenter-street Chapel, of Warrenton-street Chapel, and
of the Children’s Mission. They are maintained in the interest of
hygiene and amusement.... An awning has been placed over the sand at
the Children’s Mission; and there, with wooden shovel, broken bricks,
and much sand, the long days are passed out of doors....” In 1887 “the
number of these gardens increased from three to ten. No rent was paid
for them. The sand was given ..., and the School Committee granted the
use of the Wait School yard.... The matrons in charge of each garden
were generally women who lived in the neighborhood, and who watched, in
their play, the children, to whom shovels and pails were given, with
which they made castles and pies. At the end of the season the sand was
stored in barrels for future use.... This spring (1888) the Association
petitioned the School Committee for the use of schoolyards which would
be suitable as playgrounds for little children kept in town through the
summer....” As a result, during this fourth season (1888) “seven school
yards situated in the neighborhoods where children swarm, were open for
three hours on four fair days of each week. A kindly matron was ready
to welcome the children, and offered them sandheaps and shovels, balls,
tops, skipping-ropes, reins, bean-bags, building-blocks, flags to march
under, and transparent slates to draw upon. Besides these seven yards
which were dignified by the name of ‘Playgrounds,’ there were three
‘Sand-Gardens,’ where only sand and shovels were furnished....” A year
later “there were eleven playgrounds instead of seven; there were 1000
instead of 400 children; there was double the number of tops, twice the
amount of sand....”
In the seventeenth annual report of the Boston Board of Park
Commissioners, for the thirteen months ending January 31, 1892, the
open-air gymnasia at Charlesbank are described in detail. The site is
a strip of land containing about ten acres, and lies along the Boston
shore of the Charles River between the Craigie and West Boston bridges.
It measures about 2200 feet in length by 200 in width. A sea-wall and the
filling behind it were completed in 1886, and the plan of the grounds was
drawn up by Frederick Law Olmsted, the landscape architect. It included
a level promenade, 25 feet wide, overlooking the salt waters of the Back
Bay, and behind this, on the side toward the city, stretches of lawn
planted with trees to resemble a natural grove, but with a space 500
by 150 feet at the north end fitted up as a gymnasium for men and boys,
and another at the south end, 370 by 150 feet in extent, enclosed with
a screen of shrubbery and prepared especially as an exercise-ground
for women and girls. At either end there was to be a landing for
boats, offered for hire, and near this and the entrance a house with
waterclosets, toolrooms, and offices of administration.
[Illustration: FIG. 93.—View of Charlesbank, Boston, looking north.]
[Illustration: FIG. 94.—Charlesbank: Men’s Gymnasium.]
The men’s gymnasium, surrounded by an iron fence, was reached only from
the upper story of one of the houses just mentioned, connected with
the grounds inside by a bridge on which turnstiles were placed, for
registering attendance. The equipment, designed by Dr. Sargent of Harvard
University, consisted of two sheds with twelve sets of chest-weights in
each, including six high and six low pulleys, “two giant-strides, eight
sets of horizontal bars, eight sets of parallel bars, six jumping-boxes,
seven boxes for quoit-pitching and shot-throwing, two sets of jumping
standards and ropes, two sets of sandbags and attachments, four vaulting
poles, three shots, two heavy weights, twenty-four quoits, twenty
pairs of dumb-bells, ten sets of hurdles, and two large frames, each
160 feet long, to which are attached the following apparatus: four
balance-swings, eight breast-bars, four single swings, two double
swings, five swinging-ropes, one rope ladder, one iron Jacob’s ladder,
one perpendicular ladder, one inclined ladder, four pairs of flying
rings, four single trapezes, one climbing-pole, two inclined poles, two
perpendicular poles. Around the outside of the ground there is a running
and bicycle track 15 feet wide and ⅕ mile long.” The men’s grounds were
opened to the public on August 27, 1889, in charge of Superintendent John
Graham, and the next season extended from April 1 to about the middle of
December, an average of 447 men and boys a day entering for use of the
apparatus during this period. In May of 1891 thirteen electric arc-lamps
were added, and thereafter the gymnasium was kept open until 9.30 P.M.
The total number of visitors this year was 169,219, and on the three days
showing the largest attendance the turnstiles registered 1649 (May 3),
1480 (July 30), and 1572 (July 31) admissions.
Entrance to the women’s gymnasium and the children’s playground was
likewise through the upper story of the women’s lavatory building. The
apparatus included “two balance-swings and frames, two seesaws (with
side-rails and guards), two seesaws (plain), two single swings, two pole
ladders, two perpendicular ladders, four hanging ropes (fastened at the
bottom), one long inclined rope and attachments, four long and four short
inclined poles, four perpendicular ladders combined, five serpentine
ladders united (with guard-rails), two perpendicular climbing-poles,
twelve swinging-ropes, one horizontal rope-ladder, two sets horizontal
bars and stanchions (with heights adjustable), one set of movable
parallel bars, one set of high parallel bars, one set of vaulting-bars,
eleven travelling rings and attachments, two single trapezes (with
height made adjustable by pulley and chain attachments), two sets of
flying-rings (with height made adjustable as above), twelve pairs of
chest-weights to run in wooden boxes, one set of jumping standards and
ropes, two giant-strides (ropes, handles, and fixtures), twenty-four
ring quoits and pins, twelve jumping-ropes, twelve hoops, twenty-five
long and ninety-eight short wands, ninety-eight pairs dumb-bells,
ninety-eight pairs Indian clubs.” In the rear of the building were sand
courts for the younger children. “The problem of the proper supervision,
management, and care of this gymnasium was satisfactorily settled by our
acceptance of the proposition of the Massachusetts Emergency and Hygiene
Association, which is under the management of well-known ladies, to
take the entire charge and oversight of it without expense to the city,
beyond the furnishing of supplies, cleaning the rooms, and taking care of
the grounds and apparatus.” Miss Elizabeth C. McMartin, a pupil in Dr.
Sargent’s Normal School, was appointed superintendent, and the matron had
had six years of experience as assistant in a kindergarten. The informal
opening occurred at noon on June 1, 1891. From this time until November 1
the average daily attendance was 945, and the largest was 2477 (July 6),
2368 (July 9), and 2389 (July 11).[286]
[Illustration: FIG. 95.—Charlesbank: Women’s Gymnasium.]
At Wood Island Park, in East Boston, another outdoor gymnasium and
playground, nine acres in extent, was opened September 6, 1895. Men were
admitted on four days of the week, and women on two. Beginning in 1896,
and with the effective coöperation of Mayor Josiah Quincy (1895-1899),
there was a rapid expansion of public facilities for recreation of all
sorts in and about Boston, including playgrounds, indoor gymnasia,
beach baths, floating bath-houses, swimming pools and all-the-year
baths, and provision for skating and coasting in winter. This whole
series of progressive steps is outlined in Joseph Lee’s “Constructive
and Preventive Philanthropy” (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1902), along
with corresponding steps in other cities, and details will be found in
reports of the Boston Park Commissioners, the Boston Department of Baths,
and for the North End Playground the instructive annual reports of the
Massachusetts Civic League (after 1900). The first municipal indoor
gymnasium was the East Boston (Paris Street) building, a one-story,
truss-roofed structure 137 by 98 feet, with a main hall 100 by 80 feet.
Originally a skating rink, it was purchased by Esther P. (Mrs. Daniel)
Ahl and turned over to the East Boston Athletic Association for use as a
combined gymnasium and bath, and in 1897 given to the city and opened to
the general public. The South Boston (D-Street) gymnasium, the first to
be built by the city, was opened in the winter of 1899-1900.
Next to Boston, Chicago occupies a prominent place in the early history
of the playground movement. As Mrs. Charles Zueblin points out in
_The Playground_ for July of 1907 (pp. 3-5 and 11-13), it has passed
through three distinct phases of growth in that city, represented by
the independent, schoolyard, and municipal playgrounds. The independent
experiments, now almost forgotten, deserve mention, to quote Mrs.
Zueblin, “because their experiences and lessons and accomplishment were
of proved value later on. In 1893 Hull House opened a large playground
in an empty lot, the land belonging to Mr. William Kent; it was equipped
with swings, seesaws, giant stride and sandbins, and was maintained under
their management for five years.... Play was totally disorganized both
on the part of the children and of the supervisors, and everything from
games to management had to be learned.... This playground later passed
under the number of municipal playgrounds. In 1896, under the auspices
of the University Settlement of the Northwestern University, and through
the great generosity of Mr. Livingston Fargo, a large and splendidly
equipped playground was opened accommodating from three thousand to four
thousand children. Besides a fine equipment for play, there was a large
shelter with plenty of benches and retiring rooms. A police officer and
a matron had charge of the grounds, which were maintained for two years,
until the playground had to be abandoned, owing to the extension of the
tracks of the Northwestern Railway Company. For six years, beginning in
1896, the University of Chicago Settlement, under the leadership of Miss
Mary McDowell, maintained a very successful playground, where there was
provision also for mothers with little babies.”
“The first school playground in Chicago,” according to Mrs. Zueblin,
“was maintained in the Washington School’s yard in 1897 by the West
End District of the Associated Charities. In the spring of 1898 an
appropriation of $1000 was obtained from the City Council ($750
additional being later subscribed by individuals) for ‘temporary small
parks,’ the administration of which was turned over to the Vacation
School Committee of Women’s Clubs.” Miss Sadie American, chairman of
that committee, writing of “The Movement for Small Playgrounds” in the
_American Journal of Sociology_ for September of 1898 (pp. 159-170) says
that “the use of six schoolyards, basements, and one room to be used
on hot and rainy days was asked of the board of education, and, being
granted, the yards were equipped with swings, seesaws, sandbins, and
cedar building-blocks. The Turnverein was greatly interested, and loaned
portable apparatus for each school, such as parallel bars, horizontal
bars, horse, ladders, etc., which were taken into the building at night.
The playgrounds chosen were all in densely populated districts and among
various nationalities.... For each there were engaged a kindergartner
and a man who should be a ‘big brother to the boys,’ for the older boys
were considered equally or more than the younger ones.... The men were
inexperienced, but entered into the spirit of the work with enthusiasm,
and from week to week rose in efficiency on the mistakes of the foregoing
days.”
But it is the municipal aspect of the movement that demands more than
passing mention. The _City Club Bulletin_ of March 4, 1908, presents the
significant features of the story as follows: “During the last half-dozen
years Chicago has achieved a development of small parks and playgrounds
more remarkable than has taken place in any other city of the world.
It is remarkable, first, because of its extent, and second, because of
its unique character. Eight years ago there were, besides the six main
parks of the city, fifteen or sixteen small public parks and squares,
some maintained by the three divisional park commissions and some by
the city Department of Public Works. There was not a public playground,
however, in all Chicago nor a public bathing beach. Today there are in
the city over 30 such small parks and squares, 13 public playgrounds,
17 combination small park playgrounds and 3 bathing beaches—in all, 63
public neighborhood centers of rest, beauty, recreation and culture. This
number is also being added to and does not include school playgrounds.
“This expansion has been carried out by four separate authorities,
_i.e._, the Lincoln Park Commission, the regular park authority for the
north side of the city; the South Park Commission, the regular park
authority for the south side; the West Park Commission, the regular park
authority for the west side; and the Special Park Commission, whose
field is the entire city. The first three commissions were created by
the legislature about 1870. The Special Park Commission was created by
the City Council in 1899, to investigate and report upon the need both
for small parks and playgrounds, and for an outer belt park system.
While investigating and reporting upon these two subjects it also
became, by the very pressure of the subject with which it was dealing,
both a promoting and an administrative body. In 1900 it secured from
the City Council an appropriation of $10,000 and opened four ‘municipal
playgrounds’ in thickly populated neighborhoods of the city. The
next year it secured legislation authorizing the three regular park
commissions to raise and expend $2,500,000—that is, $1,000,000 each on
the south and west sides, and $500,000 on the north side—for small parks
and playgrounds.
“The Park Commissions of the north and west sides were slow in securing
the necessary amendment, and approval on referendum, of their laws in
this matter, but in 1903 the South Park Commission secured the amendment
of the law applying to its district, together with legislative authority
for a still larger expenditure for like purposes, and the proposed bond
issues having been approved at the polls, the Commission entered upon an
unparalleled career of small park and playground development.[287] In
1904 and 1905 it acquired fourteen sites, ranging in size from 7 to 300
acres, and equipped ten of them on an entirely novel plan. Two more of
these are being thus equipped, and three more sites are being acquired.
The proposed bond issue for the west side was approved on referendum in
1905, and the West Park Commission has within the last year and a half
secured and nearly finished the equipment, after the south side plan, of
two sites in crowded neighborhoods. It is now acquiring a third site. It
has also made ‘Holstein Park’ a very attractive playground. The Lincoln
Park Commission, having secured approval on referendum for its proposed
$500,000 bond issue, has now acquired three sites, and they are nearly
equipped in somewhat like fashion. Two of the three lack park features
proper, on account of limited space, but they provide equipment similar
to the park-playgrounds, among which they are here counted. The sites for
these various park-playgrounds range in size from 4 to 60 acres, have
cost from $40,000 to $290,000 each, and the buildings cost from $60,000
to $100,000 for each site. Each of these centers calls for an annual
maintenance budget of from $20,000 to $30,000....
“Small park and playground development in Chicago is even more remarkable
because of its unique character than because of its extent. The
assemblage of functions represented in the small park-playgrounds which
we have been considering is a new thing in the world, and its creation
three or four years ago by the South Park Commission was an event of
civic imagination and adventure of which Chicago is worthily proud. A
typical center includes both outdoor and indoor activities. The outdoor
activities comprise as the central feature a liberally planned bathing
pool, with sandbanks, dressing rooms, cleansing showers, life-guards
and bathing suits. Collateral to this are an outdoor gymnasium for men,
another for women, another for boys, another for girls, running tracks,
wading pools, and sand courts for the youngsters; also tennis courts and
ball fields—turned into skating rinks in the winter time. The interior
features include a thoroughly equipped gymnasium for men, another for
women, each having a trained director and being furnished with baths
and lockers, a lunch room, reading and library room, one or two small
club rooms for small gatherings, and a large and beautiful assembly hall
for neighborhood meetings, lectures or pleasure parties. The entire
construction is on a liberal plan and is carried out in accordance with
high standards. So is the maintenance....”
[Illustration: FIG. 96.—South Parks, Chicago: Plan of Armour Square.]
[Illustration: FIG. 97.—South Parks, Chicago: Typical Outdoor Gymnasium
for Girls.]
[Illustration: FIG. 98.—South Parks, Chicago: Typical Swimming Pool
Scene.]
It is not necessary to repeat here in detail the experiences of other
cities in connection with the playground movement. A special report
(“General Statistics of Cities, 1916”) of the United States Bureau of the
Census relating to the recreation service of cities having a population
of over 30,000 contains this statement of progress, prepared by Joseph
Lee, president of the Playground and Recreation Association of America:
“Thirty years have passed since the birth of the movement to protect
children’s play—an era which has seen the spread of the movement from
Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York to Chicago and the Pacific
coast; which has witnessed at least the theoretical establishment of the
children’s right to play in safety under good influences and of a man’s
right to spend his leisure hours, through the provision of the proper
facilities by the city in which he lives, in a way which will fit him to
make the best use of his working hours, and will keep alive in him those
ideal interests for which his work too often furnishes no scope.
“In these thirty years playgrounds have been established in large and
small cities and in rural communities throughout the country. A national
organization, the Playground and Recreation Association of America, has
been called into existence to act as a clearing house for information
and, through the publishing of literature and educational work, to
further the recreation movement. Buildings used wholly for recreational
purposes have been erected. Reports made to the Playground and Recreation
Association of America in December, 1916, show that 38 communities
have recreation buildings, valued at $4,093,525. In rural communities
has come a great awakening to the need of wholesome recreation to
counteract immoral influences and to conserve for the community its
young men and women who would otherwise go to large cities to find their
opportunities. Both large and small cities have established systems,
at the head of which have been placed workers employed throughout the
year, corresponding to school superintendents in our educational system.
Schools have introduced organized play in connection with their school
playgrounds and specially trained play directors are employed, who spend
their entire time directing the play of the pupils. Cities have come to
see the economic waste of great buildings used a few hours each day for
educational purposes and have thrown their schoolhouses open at night
for the use of all the people for evening recreation-center activities,
for dramatic clubs, orchestras, social dancing, gymnasium work, mothers’
clubs, civic forums, lectures, and motion pictures. In December, 1916,
127 cities reported that their school buildings were being used as
neighborhood recreation centers. Legislation making possible such a
use of school buildings has been passed in a number of states. The
creation of special recreation departments and playground and recreation
commissions to administer playground work has been authorized by law in
many states and cities. Increasingly has the emphasis been laid on the
importance of considering recreation work as a governmental function
and of administering it as one of the duties of a municipality to its
citizens.
“These facts are borne out by the information gathered by the Bureau of
the Census in its study of playgrounds and athletic fields, the results
of which are to be found in Table II. It is a very significant fact
that during the fiscal year 1916, the 213 cities of more than 30,000
population conducted 2190 playgrounds with a total area of 4662.1 acres.
There were, in addition, 19 athletic fields, exclusive of those located
in parks, with an area of 148.7 acres. For this work there were payments
from public funds for expenses amounting to $2,502,902; and for outlays,
$1,017,539. Three thousand seven hundred and ninety-four workers were
in charge of the activities of these playgrounds. Graphic as these
figures are, they by no means represent the total municipal provision
for play and recreation even in the 213 cities themselves. In many of
these cities the schools have playgrounds equipped with apparatus and
with play leaders in charge, and organized play periods are conducted in
connection with their school program. Nor do these figures attempt to
include the evening recreation-center work conducted at many schools at a
considerable expense to the school board, nor the municipal golf courses,
tennis courts, skating facilities, and community music provided for the
public from city funds. The public provision of recreational facilities
is by no means limited to cities of over 30,000. Reports sent to the
Playground and Recreation Association of America show that many cities of
less than 30,000 inhabitants are maintaining playgrounds and neighborhood
recreation centers, while approximately 50 communities of less than 5000
carried on recreational work privately or publicly during the year ending
December 1, 1916.”
The founding of the Playground and Recreation Association of America has
already been mentioned on p. 337. One must turn to the _Proceedings_ of
the first, second, and third “Annual Playground Congresses,” the volumes
of _The Playground_, and other publications of the Association for the
full story of its achievements.
Although there had been legislation favoring statewide physical
education prior to the outbreak of the Great War (_e.g._, North Dakota,
1899; Ohio, 1904; Idaho, 1913), it was without doubt the same military
motive which has operated in the case of European countries, or that
realization of the fundamental values of physical fitness which always
comes with the approach of war, that led twenty-five of our states,
in the years 1915-1921, to enact laws requiring or permitting the
introduction of physical education into their schools. The list is as
follows: In 1915—Illinois; 1916—New York; 1917—California, Nevada, New
Jersey, Rhode Island; 1918—Delaware, Maryland; 1919—Alabama, Indiana,
Maine, Michigan, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Washington; 1920—Georgia,
Kentucky, Mississippi, Virginia; 1921—Connecticut, Massachusetts,
Missouri, North Carolina, West Virginia. These laws differ considerably
in their statement of the educational aims in view and the means to be
employed in attaining them, in the ages or school grades affected, and
the time requirements, and in the provision made for a central authority,
supervision, the training of teachers, and financial support to make the
legislation effective.[288] Some of the state authorities have already
published manuals of physical training.[289]
Three examples, quoted from Bulletin 40, 1918, of the United States
Bureau of Education, will serve to illustrate the general character and
range of the State laws already adopted. The Illinois law (approved June
26, 1915) “provides for physical training in all of the public schools
and in all of the normal schools of the State. Apparently, no special
provision has been made in that State for the operation of the law; no
appropriation for the development of a program or the publication of
a syllabus; and no resources for the employment of State supervisors,
inspectors, or other administrators of physical education....
“The New York law, approved May 15, 1916, and amended at the legislative
session of 1918, provides that: ‘All male and female pupils, above the
age of eight years, in all elementary and secondary schools of the
State, shall receive, as a part of the prescribed courses of instruction
therein, such physical training under the direction of the commissioner
of education as the regents, after conference with the military training
commission, may determine, during periods which shall average at least
twenty minutes each day....’ The administration of this law in the State
of New York is a function of the regents of the University of the State
of New York, that is, of the State department of education. A bureau of
physical training has been established as a subdivision of the State
military training commission. The State inspector of physical training,
the chief officer of this bureau, is required, in accordance with the
law, to observe and inspect the work and methods described under the
provisions of the education law relating to instruction in physical
training. The State law in New York also provides that all public schools
in the State employing special teachers of physical training, qualified
and duly licensed under the regulations of the regents, may receive
financial support from the State to the extent of half the salary of
each teacher so employed, provided that half the salary does not exceed
$600....” In the _State Plan and Syllabus for Physical Training_ that
subject “is interpreted as covering: ‘(1) Individual health examination
and personal health instruction (medical inspection); (2) instruction
concerning the care of the body and concerning the important facts of
hygiene (recitations in hygiene); and (3) physical exercise as a health
habit, including gymnastics, elementary marching and organized supervised
play, recreation, and athletics.’ For the direction and supervision of
the State program there is a force of inspectors, consisting of a State
inspector of physical training and nine assistant inspectors....
“On May 26, 1917, an act providing for physical education became a
law in the State of California. This law provides that the school
authorities in the public schools of the State, elementary and secondary,
shall prescribe suitable courses of physical education for all pupils,
except such as may be excused from such training on account of physical
disability. The California law makes it a duty of the superintendent of
schools in every county and city, and of every board of education, board
of school trustees, and high-school board, to enforce the courses of
physical education prescribed by the proper authority, and to require
that such physical education be given in the schools under their
jurisdiction or control. In the elementary schools the time requirement
in California shall ‘average twenty minutes in each school day,’ and in
the secondary schools ‘at least two hours each week while that school
is in session.’ This law requires that, if the number of pupils in a
given school system is sufficient, there shall be employed a competent
supervisor or such special teachers of physical education as may be
necessary. The enactment further specifies that the State board of
education shall require a course in physical training in all the normal
schools of the State and provides that the State board of education
shall prescribe a course in physical education for such schools and shall
make the completion of such course a requirement for graduation. Under
this law, it is the duty of the State board of education: ‘(1) To adopt
such rules and regulations as it may deem necessary and proper to secure
the establishment of courses in physical education in the elementary and
secondary schools in accordance with the provisions of this act; (2)
to appoint a State supervisor of physical education; (3) to compile,
or cause to be compiled or printed, a manual in physical education for
distribution to teachers in the public schools of the State.’ The sum of
$10,000 was appropriated for the purpose of carrying out the provisions
of the California law....”
Attempts are now being made to secure federal aid to physical education
in the various states, through laws passed by the Congress of the United
States. A commission on the reorganization of secondary education,
appointed by the National Education Association, has also recently
approved a report on Physical Education in Secondary Schools, which is
published by the Bureau of Education as 1917 _Bulletin_ No. 50.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The student of the playground movement in America will need to be
familiar with the following, in addition to the publications already
mentioned: G. E. Johnson, “Education by Play and Games” (Ginn & Co.,
1907); Joseph Lee, “Play in Education” (The Macmillan Co., 1915);
Henry S. Curtis, “Education through Play” (The Macmillan Co., 1915),
“The Practical Conduct of Play” (1915), “The Play Movement and its
Significance” (1917), and other volumes; E. B. Mero, “American
Playgrounds” (Baker & Taylor Co., 1908); A. and L. H. Leland, “Playground
Technique and Playcraft” (Baker & Taylor Co., 1910). See also “The Play
Movement in the United States,” by Clarence E. Rainwater (The University
of Chicago Press, 1922).
FOOTNOTES:
[286] For a full account of this first year see the eighth annual
report (May, 1892) of the Mass. Emergency and Hygiene Association, pp.
13-17. See also _Reports of Proceedings_, American Association for the
Advancement of Physical Education, =9= (1894), pp. 125-130, and _The
Bostonian_ for June, 1896 (pp. 258-266, illustrated).
[287] See Reports of South Park Commissioners for 1904, 1905, and 1906
(illustrated.)
[288] See United States Bureau of Education _Bulletin_, 1918, No. 40
(Recent State Legislation for Physical Education). Part IV contains
copies of the State laws of Illinois, New York, Rhode Island, New Jersey,
Nevada, California, Delaware, and Maryland. Bulletin 1922, No. 1, brings
the story up to July, 1921.
[289] For example, the following: General Plan and Syllabus for Physical
Training in the Elementary and Secondary Schools of the State of New
York, as adopted by the Board of Regents of the University of the State
of New York upon the report and recommendation of the Military Training
Commission of the State of New York. Albany, 1917. A second edition
(Book 4, Complete Syllabus) was published in 1921.—By the Department of
Public Instruction, Trenton, New Jersey, September, 1917, Courses in
Physical Training as follows: For Grades I to VI (Manual 1), Grades VII
and VIII (Manual 2), and Grades IX to XII (High School Manual).—Manual in
Physical Education for the Public Schools of the State of California—Part
IV: Syllabus on Physical Training Activities with Methods of Management
and Leadership. Sacramento, 1918.—A Course in Physical Training for the
Graded Schools of Michigan. Bulletin No. 2 (Third Edition). Lansing,
published by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1919.—Manual
of Physical Education. Department of Education, State of Alabama,
Montgomery, 1920.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
The earliest attempt in America to prepare teachers of physical education
was made by Dio Lewis in the years 1861-1868, at his Normal Institute
for Physical Education in Boston (see pp. 256-259). Its first course
opened at 20 Essex Street July 5, 1861, and at the commencement exercises
held nine weeks later, on September 5, 7 men and 7 women were graduated.
The second course, which extended from January 2 to March 13, 1862 (ten
weeks), was completed by a class of 18, the third (July 5 to September
15, 1862) by one of 12, and the fourth class, graduated March 13, 1863,
numbered 22. Details of later courses are lacking. In a volume published
in 1868 Lewis says that more than 250 persons had taken the diploma
of the Normal Institute in the nine sessions which had been held, but
his biographer states that “421 ladies and gentlemen, in almost equal
numbers,” were graduated in the seven years following its establishment.
The second normal school, that of the North American _Turnerbund_, was
projected as far back as 1856, but not actually opened until November
22, 1866. After two courses in New York City (1866-1867, 1869), one in
Chicago (1871), and a third in New York (1872-1873), it became firmly
established in Milwaukee under Brosius (1875-1888). Then followed two
years in Indianapolis (1889-1891), a return to more ample quarters in
Milwaukee, under Brosius and Wittich (1891-1907), and finally a permanent
transfer to Indianapolis (in 1907). Its present name, Normal College of
the American Gymnastic Union, was received in 1919. Four summer courses
were given at Milwaukee, 1895-1898 inclusive. The history of the school
is given at some length on pp. 297-300 and 307.
We have already mentioned Dr. Sargent’s contribution to the training
of teachers (p. 284). During his forty years at Hemenway Gymnasium
(1879-1919) his influence in this direction was more widely felt than
that of any other man in America. The beginning was modest enough,
at Witneys Block, corner of Palmer and Brattle Streets in Cambridge
(1881-1883), where a single pupil, Mrs. Mary E. W. Jones, completed the
one-year course in 1882. A second year was now added, and 4 women were
graduated in 1884. Meanwhile quarters had been secured and equipped at
20 Church Street, and here in the years 1883-1904 a total of 261 women
finished the prescribed work in theory and practice. About 70 others
remained for a single year only. In 1902 the course became a three-year
one, with attendance at a summer camp in New Hampshire added in 1912.
When the new “Sargent Gymnasium,” on Everett Street, was occupied, in the
school year 1904-1905, men as well as women were received as students,
and in the next five years 130 more women and 6 men were graduated. In
the year 1918-1919 the total enrollment had reached 406, with 22 names on
the list of “officers of instruction,” not counting student assistants
and special camp instructors and assistants.
In connection with the Harvard University Summer School five-week courses
in physical education, under the direction of Dr. Sargent, were first
given in 1887, attended that year by 18 men and 37 women. The total
registration in the years 1887-1898 was 982 (329 men and 653 women), or
an average attendance of 82. For the next three years the course was
lengthened to two summers, and the enrollment was 98 men and 204 women,
or a total of 302 and an average of 101. Thereafter the graded course
covered four successive summers of theory and practice. The figures
reached in the period 1902-1919 were 971 men and 2211 women, or a total
of 3182 and an average per season of 177. For the entire period of
thirty-three years, from 1887 through 1919, the enrollment was 4466 (1398
men and 3068 women), with an average attendance of 135.
The Brooklyn-Anderson-New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics and the
Chautauqua (summer) School of Physical Education stood in much the same
relation, in the years 1886-1904, as the Sargent Normal School and
the Harvard University summer courses. William Gilbert Anderson, the
prime mover in each, was the son of Edward Anderson, a Congregational
clergyman, and grandson of Rufus Anderson, assistant secretary of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions 1824-1832 and
secretary 1832-1866. He was born at St. Joseph, Michigan, September 9,
1860. From 1874 to 1880 his father was pastor in Quincy, Illinois, and
early in this period the boy became “an ardent champion of advanced
work in gymnastics, possessed of considerable skill as a performer on
the horizontal bars, a tumbler and a battoule-board and springboard
leaper.... Attainment as an acrobat had come, in part, from association
with the circus men who wintered” in Quincy, and his enthusiasm was
further stimulated by William Blaikie’s “How to Get Strong” (New York,
1879) and Archibald Maclaren’s “Physical Education” (Oxford, 1869). In
the year 1877-1878, while a student in the Roxbury Latin School, Boston,
Anderson was a pupil of Robert J. Roberts in the Young Men’s Christian
Association at 68 Eliot Street. Then came two years (1878-1880) as
freshman and sophomore in the classical course at the University of
Wisconsin, where military drill was the only required form of exercise,
though there was a crude outdoor gymnasium which the catalogue described
as “well-furnished,” and “open to students at fixed hours.” After
teaching school for a year in Clayton, Illinois, he became superintendent
of the Cleveland, Ohio, Young Men’s Christian Association gymnasium
(1881-1882), and received the degree of doctor of medicine from the
Cleveland Medical College in 1883. The next two years were spent in
Columbus and Toledo, Ohio. He had now decided to follow physical training
as a profession, and in the fall of 1885 accepted an appointment as
director of the gymnasium at Adelphi Academy (now Adelphi College),
Brooklyn, New York.
Here, early the next year, he organized the “Brooklyn Normal School
for Physical Education.” Its first announcement, which lists a faculty
of ten, calls attention to the fact that “no school in the country
pays more attention to the physical education of its scholars than the
Adelphi Academy. The number of scholars enrolled is within a few of one
thousand, the majority of whom take daily exercise (obligatory). Members
of the Normal Class will have opportunity to observe and assist in the
instruction of these classes.... The gymnasium of Adelphi Academy, corner
of St. James Place and Lafayette Avenue, has been secured for the use
of Normal classes.... The first course in reading and study will extend
from February 1 to October 1, 1886. The course in practical training in
the gymnasium will begin February 1 and end June 1, 1886. The second term
will begin October 4, 1886, and end June, 1887.” A class of 10 students
was graduated in 1887, and 87 altogether in the period 1886-1892. At
the end of that time Dr. Anderson removed to New Haven, Connecticut,
to become associate director of the Yale University gymnasium, and the
school, rechristened the “Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics,” was
opened in the new location in September of 1892. In the next eleven years
its graduates numbered 140. Meanwhile Dr. Ernst Hermann Arnold[290] had
been associated with Dr. Anderson in the management of the school, and in
1903 the latter’s active connection with it ceased altogether.[291] The
name had again been changed in January of 1901, this time to “New Haven
Normal School of Gymnastics.”
In 1886 Dr. Anderson went to Chautauqua, New York, to take charge
of physical education in the summer school established there by the
Chautauqua Institution seven years before, and gave some free instruction
to a normal class of three pupils. The next season there was a charge
for such tuition, and certificates were given to the few who finished
the work; but the normal course was not formally established until the
following summer (1888). An old skating rink at the corner of Palestine
and Scott avenues served as headquarters until a new gymnasium, started
in 1890 and completed in the winter of 1890-1891, was ready for use.
Meanwhile a company had been organized to erect the building and conduct
the normal course, and the summer school of physical education was
managed by this company in the years 1890-1912. Dr. Anderson held the
position of principal from 1890 to 1894, and dean 1895-1904. By the
addition of an advanced year in 1891 the course was extended to cover two
summers, and in 1903 a third term was offered for the first time. In 1902
a second gymnasium, for classes in Swedish and corrective gymnastics,
was available. Upon Dr. Anderson’s retirement Jacob Bolin, a member of
the faculty since 1891, succeeded him as dean (1905-1909). In 1913 the
school passed into the hands of the Chautauqua Institution. Dr. Jay
W. Seaver[292] had been an instructor at the summer school since 1889
and president of the company 1895-1912, and now became director of the
courses in physical education. After his death Dr. Joseph E. Raycroft was
acting director for two years (1916 and 1917), and in 1918 the position
was given to Professor Charles Winfred Savage of Oberlin College, who had
already served for two seasons as a member of the faculty.
The history of the physical training departments of the International
Young Men’s Christian Association College at Springfield, Massachusetts
(since 1887) and the Young Men’s Christian Association College in Chicago
(since 1890) has been given in a previous chapter (pp. 309-319). In
the absence of other opportunities for the professional training of
men, these schools have enrolled among their students some who were
not looking forward to Association service, and on the other hand many
of their graduates have withdrawn from Association positions to accept
others in public schools, in secondary and state normal schools, in
colleges and universities, in church or settlement or playground work, or
with athletic clubs or Boy Scouts.
We have already noted (p. 325) the beginning of the Boston Normal School
of Gymnastics, in 1889, the teaching done there by Posse, Enebuske, and
Collin, and that in September of 1909 this school became the department
of hygiene and physical education of Wellesley College. Mrs. Hemenway, at
her death in 1894, had endowed it for a period of fifteen years, and Miss
Amy Morris Homans was its director from the start until her retirement
from the Wellesley faculty in the summer of 1918. After occupying
temporary quarters at Boyleston Place and on Park Street, in Boston,
the school was housed in Paine Memorial Building, 9 Appleton Street,
between Tremont and Berkeley, and then from September of 1897 until the
transfer in 1909 in the building of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic
Association at 97 Huntington Avenue, near Exeter Street. At Wellesley
the new Mary Hemenway Hall, constructed with a view to the needs of
the Normal School and also to provide for the physical training of all
Wellesley College students, was ready for its use. Twelve women had
graduated from the first class, in 1891, and 433 women and 9 men in the
years 1891-1909 inclusive.
Upon severing his connection with the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics
Baron Posse at once opened a small gymnasium of his own in the Harcourt
Building, 23 Irvington Street, on February 1, 1890. Afterwards more
spacious quarters in the same building were occupied. From the normal
classes, during the next six years (1890-1895), a total of 96 women
and 6 men were graduated, 3 of them receiving the diploma from the
medico-gymnastic course only. A still larger number had come under
his instruction in the brief summer courses conducted in the Boston
gymnasium, at the Martha’s Vineyard Summer Institute, and at Harvey,
Illinois (see p. 326). Following Baron Posse’s death, on December 18,
1895, Baroness Rose Posse became director of the school. In the fall
of 1900 it was transferred to the Fensmere Building, 206 Massachusetts
Avenue, and in June of 1911 incorporated under the name “Posse Normal
School of Gymnastics,” with Baroness Posse as president. That same summer
(1911) the building at the corner of Garrison and St. Botolph streets,
originally constructed (1886) for the (Mary E.) Allen Gymnasium and
later used by the Women’s Athletic Club of Boston, was secured. This was
completely destroyed by fire in the spring of 1913. A plot of land at
773-781 Beacon Street, near its intersection with Commonwealth Avenue,
was now purchased, and the formal opening of the new building erected
here took place on November 17 of that year. Baroness Posse retired from
active connection with the school in May, 1915, and was succeeded as
president by Mr. Hartvig Nissen (see p. 332).
No attempt is made here to trace the growth of the numerous other
privately owned gymnasia, most of them of later origin, which have
offered training courses for teachers. Nor have the data been collected
which would make possible a history of physical training at the various
state normal schools. One recalls, however, in the case of the latter,
the long service of Dr. and Mrs. C. E. Ehinger at West Chester, Pa.,
Dr. H. B. Boice at Trenton, N. J., and Professor Wilbur P. Bowen at
Michigan Normal College, Ypsilanti (since 1894). Much more significant,
as pointing the way to the final solution of the problem of adequate
professional preparation for leadership in physical education, are
the beginning of teachers’ courses at our colleges and universities.
But here again the facts are not at hand for a complete story. Such
courses, counting toward a bachelor’s degree, have been offered at the
University of California since 1898, the University of Nebraska since
1899, Oberlin College since 1900, University of Missouri at about the
same time, Teachers College of Columbia University since 1903, Wellesley
College since 1909, and University of Wisconsin since the fall of 1911.
Doubtless there are other institutions which should be added to this list
for the period it covers, and within the last ten years the number has
grown considerably. Summer courses, with university credit allowed, have
been conducted at Columbia University since 1899. Carefully coördinated
courses leading to advanced degrees will mark the next step in advance,
and in this direction, also, there are some encouraging signs of progress.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Catalogues, announcements, and lists of graduates published by the
institutions or in connection with the summer courses of which mention
has been made.
FOOTNOTES:
[290] Born in Erfurt, Germany, February 11, 1865, of German and Polish
ancestry; educated in the _Realgymnasium_ at Halle until 1883; completed
the ten-month course at the normal school of the North American
_Turnerbund_, in Milwaukee, in April of 1888, and was teacher of
gymnastics in _Turnvereine_ in Trenton, New Jersey (1888-1891), and New
Haven, Connecticut (1891-1894); M.D., Yale University Medical School,
1894, and the next year took courses in surgery and orthopedics in the
universities at Halle and Leipsic; became associate director of the
Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics in 1895, and its director in 1896.
[291] Dr. Anderson published a volume on “Light Gymnastics” in 1890
(New York, Effingham Maynard & Co), and another on “Methods of Teaching
Gymnastics” in 1896 (Meadville, Pa., Flood & Vincent).
[292] Born at Craftsbury, Vermont, March 9, 1855; prepared for college
at Craftsbury Academy and Williston Seminary; A.B., Yale, 1880, and
M.D., Yale Medical School, 1885; instructor in physical training at Yale
University 1883-1892, and medical examiner in the department after 1885;
died at Berkeley, California, May 5, 1915. Published “Anthropometry and
Physical Examination” (New Haven, 1890. New edition in 1909).
INDEX.
A
Amherst College, 245, 271-274
Amoros, Don Francisco, 81
Amsinck, Julius, 184, 188
Anderson, William Gilbert, 353-355
Andre, Christian Carl, 70
Arnold, Ernst Hermann, 354
Asceticism, doctrine of, 37;
effects, 39
influence on education, 41, 47
practices, 38
Athens, physical education at, 20
B
Balck, Viktor, 163, 224
Bardenfleth, Wilhelm, 194, 196
_Barrenstreit_ of 1861 and 1862, 123
Basedow, Johann Bernhard, 67
Beck, Carl, 227, 230-235, 242
Beecher, Catharine, 227, 261
Bergmann Österberg, Martina, 209
Betz, Carl, 302-305
Bolin, Jakob, 333, 355
Bornemann, Johann J. W., 92
Bowdoin College, 249, 274, 280
Branting, Lars Gabriel, 123, 152, 154, 155
Brosius, George, 297-300
Brown University, 247, 275
_Burschenschaften_ in German universities, 98-100, 111, 229
C
Caledonian games, 278
Camerarius, Joachim, 53
Cardano, Girolamo, 51
Clias, Phokion Heinrich, 81
Collin, Carl Oscar Louis, 334
Comenius, Johann Amos, 54
Coubertin, Pierre de, 202, 216-218
D
D’Alfonce, J. E., 265
Dartmouth College, 264, 266, 275
Demeny, Georges, 224
Diebow, Paul, 126
Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 123
Dürre, Eduard, 96, 97
Du Toit, Johann Jakob, 68
E
Eckler, Gebhard, 124
Eiselen, Ernst, 92-94, 101, 111, 120
Eitner, Gustav Ernst, 140, 142, 145
Elyot, Sir Thomas, 55
Enebuske, Claës J., 325, 332
English public schools and universities, 133, 141, 201, 216
Euler, Carl Philipp, 123-125
F
Feltre, Vittorino da, 49
Filelfo, Francesco, 51
Follen, Charles, 227-233, 235-238, 242, 247
Fuller, Francis, 64
G
Georgii, Carl August, 152, 154, 157, 209
Germans in time of Caesar and Tacitus, 34
Goldie, George, 275, 278
Gossler, Gustav von, 136, 137
“Greek gymnastics” at Dessau, 69
at Rome, 31
Griscom, John, 244
Gulick, Luther Halsey, 309, 312-319
GutsMuths, Johann Christoph Friedrich, 71-81, 110, 111, 149, 179, 183
Gymnasium, the Greek, 22
H
Hartelius, Truls Johan, 159
Hartwell, Edward Mussey, 284, 301, 325, 327-331
Hartwich, Emil, 135-137, 140
Harvard University, 235-237, 242, 268-270, 279-284, 353
Hasenheide _Turnplatz_, 88-95
Hemenway, Mrs. Mary, 161, 322, 324, 336, 356
Hermann, August, 133, 142, 145
Hitchcock, Edward, 272-274
Hoffmann, Friedrich, 65
Homans, Amy Morris, 322, 324, 356
Humanists of 15th century, 49
I
Isthmian games, 27
J
Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 81, 83-101, 106-108, 111, 115, 238, 240
K
Kloss, Moritz, 103, 117, 260
Knight, training of the, 43
“Knightly exercises” at Dessau, 69
Knudsen, Knud Anton, 189-192, 195
Koch, Konrad, 132, 137, 142, 145
Küppers, Ignaz, 125
L
La Cour, Nils Georg, 182-184
Land-grant Act (1862), 270
Lewis, Dio, 251-263, 352
Lieber, Francis, 97 (footnote), 227, 238-242, 243
Ling, Hjalmar Fredrick, 154, 159-161
Per Henrik, 81, 146-155
Locke, John, 59
Lorinser, Dr. Karl Ignaz, 121
Lübeck, Wilhelm, 102, 121
Luther, Martin, 53
M
Maclaren, Archibald, 203-208
Mann, Horace, 251
Manual labor movement, 227
training advocated by Locke, 61
introduced at Dessau Philanthropinum, 70
and Rousseau, 63
and Schnepfenthal, 75
Massmann, Hans Ferdinand, 93-99, 114, 120-123
Mercurialis, Hieronymus, 52, 56
Miami University, 266-268
Military training in Land-grant colleges, 276
Roman, 29
in Swedish schools, 173, 175
Milton, John, 57
Montaigne, Michel de, 55
Mount Holyoke College, 264, 275
Mulcaster, Richard, 56
N
Nachtegall, Franz, 81, 149, 151, 178-183
Neal, John, 240, 248-250
Nemean games, 27
New York High School (1825), 244
Nissen, Hartvig, 322, 329, 331, 356
Northmen of viking age, 34, 36
Nyblæus, Gustav, 117, 152, 158
O
Oberlin College, 274, 357
Olympic games, ancient, 24 (see also 32 and 33)
modern, 216-224
P
Palæstra, exercises of the, 21
Partridge, Alden, 227, 264, 276
Pentathlon, 23
People’s high schools (Denmark), 184, 186
Philanthropinum at Dessau, 68, 70
Piccolomini, Enea, Silvio, 50
Posse, Nils, 322-326, 356
Princeton University, 266, 275
Pythian games, 27
R
Rabelais, François, 54
Ramsing, Peter Erhard Marius, 189
Raydt, Hermann, 141, 145
Rifle clubs (Denmark), 184
Roberts, Robert, J., 309-312, 353
Rothstein, Hugo, 120, 122-124, 157
Round Hill School, 233-235, 242
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 61
S
Sadoleto, Jacopo, 51
Salzmann, Christian Gotthilf, 70
Sand, Karl Ludwig, 100, 230
Sargent, Dudley Allen, 279-284, 352
Schenckendorff, Emil von, 139-145
Schmidt, Dr. F. A., 142, 145, 177
Schnepfenthal Educational Institute, 70
Seaver, Jay Webber, 355
Silow, Carl, 162, 177, 334
Simon, Johann Friedrich, 68
Skarstrom, William, 334
Sparta, physical education at, 18
Spiess, Adolf, 109-119
Swedish medical gymnastics in America, 358
in England, 207
T
Thermæ (public baths), Roman, 32
Tissot, Clement Joseph, 66
Simon André, 65
Törngren, Lars Mauritz, 161, 202, 336
Tournaments and jousts, 45
_Turnen_, origin of the word, 89
its revival, 101 ff.
its spread in Germany, 96
suppressed in Prussia (1820), 100
_Turnerschaft, Deutsche_, 104-108
_Turnfeste_, German, 106
German-American, 293, 296, 307
U
University courses in physical education in Denmark, 191
in Germany, 126
University courses in physical education in United States, 285, 357
V
Vassar College, 275
Vegio, Maffeo, 50
Vergerio, Pietro Paulo, 50
Vieth, Gerhard Ulrich Anton, 81
Virginia, University of, 264
Vives, Juan Luis, 54
Völker, Karl, 98, 229, 240, 248
W
_Wartburgfest_ of 1817, 99
Wassmannsdorff, Karl, 119
Wegener, Johann Theodor, 184
Welch, Follansbee Goodrich, 271, 275
Weld, Theodore Dwight, 261
Wellesley College, 334, 356, 357
Wesleyan University, 274
Williams College, 246, 268, 274
Winship, George Barker, 258, 310
Wood, Williams, 309
Y
Yale College, 245, 270, 280
Z
Zückert, Joh. Friedrich, 65
Zwingli, Ulrich, 53