SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.
§ 138. In the chapter on “Laws in general,” after delineating the
progress of mankind in recognizing uniformities of relation among
surrounding phenomena—after showing how the actual succession in the
establishment of different orders of co-existences and sequences,
corresponds with the succession deducible _à priori_ from the conditions
to human knowledge—after showing how, by the ever-multiplying
experiences of constant connections among phenomena, there has been
gradually generated the conception of universal conformity to law; it
was suggested that this conception will become still clearer, when it is
perceived that there are laws of wider generality than any of those at
present accepted.
The existence of such more general laws, is, indeed, almost implied by
the _ensemble_ of the facts set forth in the above-named chapter; since
they make it apparent, that the process hitherto carried on, of bringing
phenomena under fewer and wider laws, has not ceased, but is advancing
with increasing rapidity. Apart, however, from evidence of this kind,
the man of science, hourly impressed with new proof of uniformity in the
relations of things, until the conception of uniformity has become with
him a necessity of thought, tacitly entertains the conclusion that the
minor uniformities which Science has thus far established, will
eventually be merged in uniformities that are universal. Taught as he is
by every observation and experiment, to regard phenomena as
manifestations of Force; and learning as he does to contemplate Force as
unchangeable in amount; there tends to grow up in him a belief in
unchangeable laws common to Force under all its manifestations. Though
he may not have formulated it to himself, he is prepared to recognize
the truth, that, being fixed in quantity, fixed in its two ultimate
modes of presentation (Matter and Motion), and fixed in the conditions
under which it is presented (Time and Space); Force must have certain
equally fixed laws of action, common to all the changes it produces.
Hence to the classes who alone are likely to read these pages, the
hypothesis of a fundamental unity, extending from the simplest inorganic
actions up to the most complex associations of thought and the most
involved social processes, will have an _à priori_ probability. All
things being recognized as having one source, will be expected to
exhibit one method. Even in the absence of a clue to uniformities
co-extensive with all modes of Force, as the mathematical uniformities
are co-extensive with Space and Time, it will be inferred that such
uniformities exist. And thus a certain presumption will result in favour
of any formula, of a generality great enough to include concrete
phenomena of every order.
* * * * *
§ 139. In the chapters on the “Law of Evolution,” there was set forth a
principle, which, so far as accessible evidence enables us to judge,
possesses this universality. The order of material changes, first
perceived to have certain constant characteristics in cases where it
could be readily traced from beginning to end, we found to have these
same characteristics in cases where it could be less readily traced; and
we saw numerous indications that these same characteristics were
displayed during past changes of which we have no direct knowledge. The
transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous, first observed
by naturalists to be exhibited during the development of every plant and
animal, proved to be also exhibited during the development of every
society; both in its political and industrial organization, and in all
the products of social life,—language, science, art, and literature.
From the disclosures of geology, we drew adequate support for the
conclusion, that in the structure of the Earth there has similarly been
a progress from uniformity, through ever-increasing degrees of
multiformity, to the complex state which we now see. And on the
assumption of that nebular origin to which so many facts point, we
inferred that a like transition from unity to variety of distribution,
must have been undergone by our Solar System; as well as by that vast
assemblage of such systems constituting the visible Universe. This
definition of the metamorphosis, first asserted by physiologists of
organic aggregates only, but which we thus found reason to think, holds
of all other aggregates, proved on further inquiry to be too wide. Its
undue width was shown to arise from the omission of certain other
characteristics, that are, not less than the foregoing one, displayed
throughout all kinds of Evolution. We saw that simultaneously with the
change from homogeneity to heterogeneity, there takes place a change
from indefiniteness of arrangement to definiteness of arrangement—a
change everywhere equally traceable with that which it accompanies.
Further consideration made it apparent, that the increasing definiteness
thus manifested along with increasing heterogeneity, necessarily results
from increasing integration of the parts severally rendered unlike. And
thus we finally reached the conclusion, that there has been going on
throughout an immeasurable past, is still going on, and will continue to
go on, an advance from a diffused, indeterminate, and uniform
distribution of Matter, to a concentrated, determinate, and multiform
distribution of it.
At a subsequent stage of our inquiry, we discovered that this
progressive change in the arrangement of Matter, is accompanied by a
parallel change in the arrangement of Motion—that every increase in the
structural complexity of things, involves a corresponding increase in
their functional complexity. It was shown that along with the
integration of molecules into masses, there arises an integration of
molecular motion into the motion of masses; and that as fast as there
results variety in the sizes and forms of aggregates and their relations
to incident forces, there also results variety in their movements.
Whence it became manifest, that the general process of things is from a
confused simplicity to an orderly complexity, in the distribution of
both Matter and Motion.
It was pointed out, however, that though this species of transformation
is universal, in the sense of holding throughout all classes of
phenomena, it is not universal in the sense of being continued without
limit in all classes of phenomena. Those aggregates which exhibit the
entire change from uniformity to multiformity of structure and function,
in comparatively short periods, eventually show us a reverse set of
changes: Evolution is followed by Dissolution. The differentiations and
integrations of Matter and Motion, finally reach a degree which the
conditions do not allow them to pass; and there then sets in a process
of disintegration and assimilation, of both the parts and the movements
that were before growing more united and more distinct.
But under one or the other of these processes, all observable
modifications in the arrangement of things may be classed. Every change
comes under the head of integration or disintegration, material or
dynamical; or under the head of differentiation or assimilation,
material or dynamical; or under both. Each inorganic mass is either
undergoing increase by the combination with it of surrounding elements
for which its parts have affinity; or undergoing decrease by the solvent
and abraiding action of surrounding elements; or both one and the other
in varied succession and combination. By perpetual additions and losses
of heat, it is having its parts temporarily differentiated from each
other, or temporarily assimilated to each other, in molecular state. And
through the actions of divers agents, it is also undergoing certain
permanent molecular re-arrangements; rendering it either more uniform or
more multiform in structure. These opposite kinds of change, thus
vaguely typified in every surrounding fragment of matter, are displayed
in all aggregates with increasing distinctness in proportion as the
conditions essential to re-arrangement of parts are fulfilled. So that
universally, the process of things is either in the one direction or the
other. There is in all cases going on that ever-complicating
distribution of Matter and Motion which we call Evolution; save in those
cases where it has been brought to a close and reversed by what we call
Dissolution.
* * * * *
§ 140. Whether this omnipresent metamorphosis admits of interpretation,
was the inquiry on which we next entered. Recognizing the changes thus
formulated as consisting in Motions of Matter that are produced by
Force, we saw that if they are interpretable at all, it must be by the
affiliation of them on certain ultimate laws of Matter, Motion, and
Force. We therefore proceeded to inquire what these ultimate laws are.
We first contemplated under its leading aspects, the principle of
correlation and equivalence among forces. The genesis of sensible motion
by insensible motion, and of insensible motion by sensible motion, as
well as the like reciprocal production of those forms of insensible
motion which constitute Light, Heat, Electricity, Magnetism, and
Chemical Action, was shown to be a now accepted doctrine, that involves
certain corollaries respecting the processes everywhere going on around
us. Setting out with the probability that the insensible motion radiated
by the Sun, is the transformed product of the sensible motion lost
during the progressive concentration of the solar mass; we saw that by
this insensible motion, are in turn produced the various kinds of
sensible motion on the Earth’s surface. Besides the inorganic
terrestrial changes, we found that the changes constituting organic life
are thus originated. We were obliged to conclude that within this
category, come the vital phenomena classed as mental, as well as those
classed as physical. And it appeared inevitably to follow that of social
changes, too, the like must be said. We next saw that phenomena
being cognizable by us only as products of Force, manifested under the
two-fold form of attraction and repulsion, there results the general law
that all Motion must occur in the direction of least resistance, or in
the direction of greatest traction, or in the direction of their
resultant. It was pointed out that this law is every instant illustrated
in the movements of the celestial bodies. The innumerable transpositions
of matter, gaseous, liquid, and solid, going on over the Earth’s
surface, were shown to conform to it. Evidence was given that this same
ultimate principle of motion underlies the structural and functional
changes of organisms. Throughout the succession of those nervous actions
which constitute thought and feeling, as also in the discharge of
feeling into action, we no less found this principle conspicuous. Nor
did we discover any exception to it in the movements, temporary and
permanent, that go on in societies. From the universal coexistence
of opposing forces, there also resulted the rhythm of motion. It was
shown that this is displayed from the infinitesimal vibrations of
molecules up to the enormous revolutions and gyrations of planets; that
it is traceable throughout all meteorologic and geologic changes; that
the functions of every organic body exemplify it in various forms; that
mental activities too, intellectual and emotional, exhibit periodicities
of sundry kinds; and that actions and reactions illustrating this law
under a still more complex form, pervade social processes.
Such being the principles to which conform all changes produced by
Force on the distribution of Matter, and all changes re-actively
produced by Matter on the distribution of Force, we proceeded to
inquire what must be the consequent nature of any re-distributions
produced: having first noted the limiting conditions between which
such re-distributions are possible, and the medium conditions that are
most favourable to them. The first conclusion arrived at, was,
that any finite homogeneous aggregate must inevitably lose its
homogeneity, through the unequal exposure of its parts to incident
forces. We observed how this was shown in surrounding things, by the
habitual establishment of differences between inner and outer parts,
and parts otherwise dissimilarly circumstanced. It was pointed out
that the production of diversities of structure by forces acting under
diverse conditions, has been illustrated in astronomic evolution,
supposing such evolution to have taken place; and that a like
connection of cause and effect is seen in the large and small
modifications undergone by our globe. In the early changes of organic
germs, we discovered further evidence that unlikenesses of structure
follow unlikenesses of relations to surrounding agencies—evidence
enforced by the tendency of the differently-placed members of each
species to diverge into varieties. We found that the principle is also
conformed to in the establishment of distinctions among our ideas; and
that the contrasts, political and industrial, that arise between the
parts of societies are no less in harmony with it. The instability of
the homogeneous thus caused, and thus everywhere exemplified, we also
saw must hold of the unlike parts into which any uniform whole lapses;
and that so the less heterogeneous must tend continually to become
more heterogeneous—an inference which we also found to be everywhere
confirmed by fact. Carrying a step further our inquiry into
these actions and reactions between Force and Matter, there was
disclosed a secondary cause of increasing multiformity. Every
differentiated part becomes, we found, a parent of further
differentiations; not only in the sense that it must lose its own
homogeneity in heterogeneity, but also in the sense that it must, in
growing unlike other parts, become a centre of unlike reactions on
incident forces; and by so adding to the diversity of forces at work,
must add to the diversity of effects produced. This multiplication of
effects, likewise proved to be manifest throughout all Nature. That
forces modified in kind and direction by every part of every
aggregate, are gradually expended in working changes that grow more
numerous and more varied as the forces are subdivided, is shown in the
actions and reactions going on throughout the Solar System, in the
never-ceasing geologic complications, in the involved symptoms
produced in organisms by disturbing influences, in the many thoughts
and feelings generated by single impressions, and in the
ever-ramifying results of each new agency brought to bear on a
society. To which add the corollary, confirmed by abundant facts, that
the multiplication of effects must increase in a geometrical
progression, as the heterogeneity increases. Completely to
interpret the structural changes constituting Evolution, there
remained to assign a reason for that increasingly-distinct demarcation
of parts, which accompanies the production of differences between
parts. This reason we discovered to be, the segregation of mixed units
under the action of forces capable of moving them. We saw that when
the parts of an aggregate have been made qualitatively unlike by
unlike incident forces—that is, when they have become contrasted in
the natures of their component units; there necessarily arises a
tendency to separation of the dissimilar orders of units from each
other, and to aggregation of those units which are similar. This cause
of the integration that accompanies differentiation, turned out to be
likewise exemplified by all kinds of Evolution—by the formation of
celestial bodies, by the moulding of the Earth’s crust, by organic
modifications, by the establishment of mental distinctions, by the
genesis of social divisions. And we inferred, what we may everywhere
see, that the segregation thus produced goes on so long as there
remains a possibility of making it more complete. At length, to
the query whether the processes thus traced out have any limit, there
came the answer that they must end in equilibration. That continual
division and subdivision of forces, which is instrumental in changing
the uniform into the multiform and the multiform into the more
multiform, we saw to be at the same time a process by which force is
perpetually dissipated; and that dissipation, continuing as long as
there remains any force unbalanced by an opposing force, must end in
rest. It was shown that when, as happens with aggregates of various
orders, a number of movements are going on in combination, the earlier
dispersion of the smaller and more resisted movements, entails the
establishment of different kinds of moving equilibria: forming
transitional stages on the way to complete equilibrium. And further
inquiry made it apparent that for the same reason, these moving
equilibria have a certain self-conserving power; shown in the
neutralization of perturbations, and the adjustment to new conditions.
This general principle, like the preceding ones, proved to be
traceable throughout all forms of Evolution—astronomic, geologic,
biologic, mental and social. And our concluding inference was, that
the penultimate stage of this process, in which the extremest degree
of multiformity and completest form of moving equilibrium is
established, must be one implying the highest conceivable state of
humanity.
Thus it became apparent that this transformation of on indefinite,
incoherent homogeneity into a definite coherent heterogeneity, which
goes on everywhere, until it brings about a reverse transformation, is
consequent on certain simple laws of force. Given those universal modes
of action which are from moment to moment illustrated in the commonest
changes around us, and it follows that there cannot but result the
observed metamorphosis of an indeterminate uniformity into a determinate
multiformity.
* * * * *
§ 141. Finally, we have asked whether, for these universal modes of
action, any common cause is assignable—whether these wide truths are
dependent on any single widest truth. And to this question we found a
positive answer. These several principles are corollaries from that
primordial principle which transcends human intelligence by underlying
it.
In the first part of this work it was shown, by analysis of both our
religious and our scientific ideas, that while knowledge of the cause
which produces effects on our consciousness is impossible, the existence
of a cause for these effects is a datum of consciousness. Though Being
is cognizable by us only under limits of Time and Space, yet Being
without limits of Time and Space was proved to be the indefinite
cognition forming the necessary basis of our definite cognitions. We saw
that the belief in an Omnipresent Power of which no commencement or
cessation can be conceived, is that fundamental element in Religion
which survives all its changes of form. We saw that all Philosophies
avowedly or tacitly recognize this same ultimate truth:—that while the
Relativist rightly repudiates those definite assertions which the
Absolutist makes respecting real existence, he is yet at last compelled
to unite with him in predicating real existence. And this inexpugnable
consciousness in which Religion and Philosophy are at one with Common
Sense, proved to be likewise that on which all exact Science is founded.
We found that subjective Science can give no account of those
conditioned modes of existence which constitute consciousness, without
postulating unconditioned existence. And we found that objective Science
can give no account of the existence which we know as external, without
regarding its changes of form as manifestations of an existence that
continues constant under all forms. Absolute Being, or Being which
persists without beginning or end, was shown to be the common datum of
all human thought; for the sufficient reason that the consciousness of
it cannot be suppressed, without the suppression of consciousness
itself.
From this truth which transcends proof, we have seen that the general
principles above set down, are deducible. That the power or force
manifested to us in all phenomena, continues unaltered in quantity,
however its mode of manifestation be altered, is a proposition in which
these several propositions are involved. It was shown that on the
Persistence of Force are based the demonstrations that Matter is
indestructible and Motion continuous. When its proofs were examined, the
correlation and equivalence of forces was found to follow from the
Persistence of Force. The necessity we are under of conceiving Force
under the two-fold form of attraction and repulsion, turns out to be but
an implication of the necessity we are under of conceiving Force as
persistent. On the Persistence of Force, we saw that the law of
direction of Motion is dependent; and from it also we saw that the
rhythm of Motion necessarily results. Passing to those changes of
distribution which, by the Motion it generates, Force produces in
Matter, it was pointed out that from the Persistence of Force are
severally deducible, the instability of the homogeneous, the
multiplication of effects, and that increasing definiteness of structure
to which continuous differentiation and integration leads. And lastly we
saw that Force being persistent, Evolution cannot cease until
equilibrium is reached; and that equilibrium must eventually be reached.
So that given Force manifested in Time and Space, under the forms of
Matter and Motion; and it is demonstrable, _à priori_, that there must
go on such transformations as we find going on.
* * * * *
§ 142. See then the accumulation of proofs. The advance of human
intelligence in establishing laws continually wider in generality,
raises the presumption that there are all-comprehensive laws. Turning to
the facts, we discern a pervading uniformity in the general course of
things where this can be watched, and indications of such uniformity
where it cannot be watched. Considering this uniformity analytically, we
find it to result from certain simpler uniformities in the actions of
Force. And these uniformities prove to be so many necessary implications
of that primordial truth which underlies all knowledge—the Persistence
of Force. The aspect of things raises a presumption; extended
observations lead to an induction that fulfils this presumption; this
induction is deductively confirmed; and the laws whence it is deduced
are corollaries from that datum without which thought is impossible.
No higher degree of verification than this can be imagined. An induction
based on facts so numerous and varied, and falling short of universality
only where the facts are beyond observation, possesses of itself a
validity greater than that of most scientific inductions. When it is
shown that the proposition thus arrived at _à posteriori_, may also be
arrived at _à priori_, starting from certain simple laws of force; it is
raised to a level with those generalizations of concrete science which
are accepted as proved. And when these simple laws of force are
affiliated upon that ultimate truth which transcends proof; this
dependent proposition takes rank with those propositions of abstract
science which are our types of the greatest conceivable certainty.
Let no one suppose that any such degree of certainty is alleged of the
various minor propositions brought in illustration of the general
argument. Such an assumption would be so manifestly absurd, that it
seems scarcely needful to disclaim it. But the truth of the doctrine as
a whole, is unaffected by errors in the details of its presentation. As
the first principles of mathematics are not invalidated by mistakes made
in working out particular equations; so the first principles set forth
in the foregoing pages, do not stand or fall with each special statement
made in them. If it can be shown that the Persistence of Force is not a
datum of consciousness; or if it can be shown that the several laws of
force above specified are not corollaries from it; then, indeed, it will
be shown that the theory of Evolution has not the certainty here claimed
for it. But nothing short of this can invalidate the general conclusions
arrived at.
* * * * *
§ 143. If these conclusions be accepted—if it be admitted that they
inevitably follow from the truth transcending all others in authority—if
it be agreed that the phenomena going on everywhere are parts of the
general process of Evolution, save where they are parts of the reverse
process of Dissolution; then it must be inferred that all phenomena
receive their complete interpretation, only when recognized as parts of
these processes. Regarded from the point of view here reached, each
change that takes place, is an incident in the course of the
ever-complicating distribution of Matter and Motion, except where it is
an incident in the course of the reverse distribution; and each such
change is fully understood, only when brought under those universal
principles of change, to which these transformations necessarily
conform. Whence, indeed, it appears to be an unavoidable
conclusion, that the limit towards which Science is advancing, must be
reached when these formulæ are made all-comprehensive. Manifestly, the
perfection of Science, is a state in which all phenomena are seen to be
necessary implications of the Persistence of Force. In such a state, the
dependence of each phenomenon on the Persistence of Force, must be
proved either directly or indirectly—either by showing that it is a
corollary of the Persistence of Force, or by showing that it is a
corollary from some general proposition deduced from the Persistence of
Force. And since all phenomena are incidents in the re-distributions of
Matter and Motion; and since there are certain general principles,
deducible from the Persistence of Force, to which all these
re-distributions conform; it seems inferrable that ultimately all
phenomena, where not classed as consequences of the Persistence of
Force, must be classed as consequences of these derivative principles.
* * * * *
§ 144. Of course this development of Science into an organized aggregate
of direct and indirect deductions from the Persistence of Force, can be
achieved only in the remote future; and indeed cannot be completely
achieved even then. Scientific progress, is progress in that
equilibration of thought and things which we saw is going on, and must
continue to go on; but which cannot arrive at perfection in any finite
period, because it advances more slowly the further it advances. But
though Science can never be entirely reduced to this form; and though
only at a far distant time can it be brought nearly to this form; yet
much may even now be done in the way of rude approximation. Those who
are familiar with the present aspects of Science, must recognize in them
the broken outlines of a general organization. The possibility of
arranging the facts already accumulated, into the order rudely exhibited
in the foregoing pages, will itself incline them to the belief that our
knowledge may be put into a more connected shape than it at present has.
They will see the probability that many now isolated inductions, may be
reduced to the form of deductions from first principles. They will
suspect that inferences drawn from the ultimate laws of force, will lead
to the investigation and generalization of classes of facts hitherto
unexamined. And they will feel, not only that a greater degree of
certainty must be acquired by Science, as fast as its propositions are
directly or indirectly deduced from the highest of all truths; but also
that it must so be rendered a more efficient agent of further inquiry.
To bring scientific knowledge to such degree of logical coherence as is
at present possible, is a task to be achieved only by the combined
efforts of many. No one man can possess that encyclopedic information
required for rightly arranging even the truths already established. But
as progress is effected by increments—as all organization, beginning in
faint and blurred outlines, is completed by successive modifications and
additions; advantage may accrue from an attempt, however rude, to reduce
the facts already accumulated—or rather certain classes of them—to
something like co-ordination. Such must be the plea for the several
volumes which are to succeed this.
* * * * *
§ 145. A few closing words must be said, concerning the general bearings
of the doctrines that are now to be further developed. Before proceeding
to interpret the detailed phenomena of Life, and Mind, and Society, in
terms of Matter, Motion, and Force, the reader must be reminded in what
sense the interpretations are to be accepted. In spite of everything
said at the outset, there are probably some who have gained the
impression that those most general truths set forth in the preceding
chapters, together with the truths deducible from them, claim to be
something more than relative truths. And, notwithstanding all evidence
to the contrary, there will probably have arisen in not a few minds, the
conviction that the solutions which have been given, along with those to
be derived from them, are essentially materialistic. Let none persist in
these misconceptions.
As repeatedly shown in various ways, the deepest truths we can reach,
are simply statements of the widest uniformities in our experience of
the relations of Matter, Motion, and Force; and Matter, Motion, and
Force are but symbols of the Unknown Reality. That Power of which the
nature remains for ever inconceivable, and to which no limits in Time or
Space can be imagined, works in us certain effects. These effects have
certain likenesses of kind, the most general of which we class together
under the names of Matter, Motion, and Force; and between these effects
there are likenesses of connection, the most constant of which we class
as laws of the highest certainty. Analysis reduces these several kinds
of effect to one kind of effect; and these several kinds of uniformity
to one kind of uniformity. And the highest achievement of Science is the
interpretation of all orders of phenomena, as differently-conditioned
manifestations of this one kind of effect, under differently-conditioned
modes of this one kind of uniformity. But when Science has done this, it
has done nothing more than systematize our experience; and has in no
degree extended the limits of our experience. We can say no more than
before, whether the uniformities are as absolutely necessary, as they
have become to our thought relatively necessary. The utmost possibility
for us, is an interpretation of the process of things as it presents
itself to our limited consciousness; but how this process is related to
the actual process, we are unable to conceive, much less to know.
Similarly, it must be remembered that while the connection between the
phenomenal order and the ontological order is for ever inscrutable; so
is the connection between the conditioned forms of being and the
unconditioned form of being, for ever inscrutable. The interpretation of
all phenomena in terms of Matter, Motion, and Force, is nothing more
than the reduction of our complex symbols of thought, to the simplest
symbols; and when the equation has been brought to its lowest terms the
symbols remain symbols still. Hence the reasonings contained in the
foregoing pages, afford no support to either of the antagonist
hypotheses respecting the ultimate nature of things. Their implications
are no more materialistic than they are spiritualistic; and no more
spiritualistic than they are materialistic. Any argument which is
apparently furnished to either hypothesis, is neutralized by as good an
argument furnished to the other. The Materialist, seeing it to be a
necessary deduction from the law of correlation, that what exists in
consciousness under the form of feeling, is transformable into an
equivalent of mechanical motion, and by consequence into equivalents of
all the other forces which matter exhibits; may consider it therefore
demonstrated that the phenomena of consciousness are material phenomena.
But the Spiritualist, setting out with the same data, may argue with
equal cogency, that if the forces displayed by matter are cognizable
only under the shape of those equivalent amounts of consciousness which
they produce, it is to be inferred that these forces, when existing out
of consciousness, are of the same intrinsic nature as when existing in
consciousness; and that so is justified the spiritualistic conception of
the external world, as consisting of something essentially identical
with what we call mind. Manifestly, the establishment of correlation and
equivalence between the forces of the outer and the inner worlds, may be
used to assimilate either to the other; according as we set out with one
or other term. But he who rightly interprets the doctrine contained in
this work, will see that neither of these terms can be taken as
ultimate. He will see that though the relation of subject and object
renders necessary to us these antithetical conceptions of Spirit and
Matter; the one is no less than the other to be regarded as but a sign
of the Unknown Reality which underlies both.
THE END.
JOHN CHILDS AND SON, PRINTERS.
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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Changed “which takes place” to “which take place” on p. 315.
2. Duplicated the large spaces in the original text.
3. Silently corrected typographical errors.
4. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
5. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.