going through a pleasant but rather arid country, we reached the
oppressor’s stronghold, the “Kasr il Jebel,” as it is generally called,
although this part of the mountains bears the special name of Yefren. It
lies on the very edge of the steep rocky cliffs, and affords an
extensive view over the plain. But though standing in a commanding
position, it is itself commanded by a small eminence a few hundred yards
eastward, where there was once a large quadrangular structure, now in
ruins.
The castle, which at the time of our visit was the chief instrument in
the hands of the Turks for overawing the mountaineers, contained a
garrison of four hundred soldiers. It has only one bastion with three
guns, at the southern corner, and was found by Mr. Overweg to be 2150
feet above the level of the sea. The high cliffs inclosing the valley
are most beautifully and regularly stratified in layers of gypsum and
limestone; and a man may walk almost round the whole circumference of
the ravine on the same layer of the latter stone, which has been left
bare,—the gypsum, of frailer texture, having been carried away by the
torrents of rain which rush violently down the steep descent. From the
little eminence above mentioned, there is a commanding view over the
valleys and the high plain towards the south.
After our tent had been pitched, we received a visit from Haj Rashíd,
the Kaimakám or governor, who is reckoned the second person in the
Bashalík, and has the whole district from Zwára as far as Ghadámes
towards the S.W., and the Tarhóna towards the S.E., under his military
command. His salary is 4600 mahhbúbs annually, or about 720_l._ He had
previously been Basha of Adana, in Cilicia; and we indulged, to our
mutual gratification, in reminiscences of Asia Minor.
[Sidenote: Saturday, February 9th.]
Early in the morning I walked to a higher eminence at some distance
eastward from the castle, which had attracted my attention the day
before. This conspicuous hill also was formerly crowned with a tower or
small castle; but nothing but a solitary rustic dwelling now enlivens
the solitude. The view was very extensive, but the strong wind did not
allow of exact compass observations. While my companion remained near
the castle, engaged in his geological researches, I agreed with our
shoush and a Zintáni lad whom I accidentally met here, and who on our
journey to Fezzan proved very useful, to undertake a longer excursion
towards the west, in order to see something more of this interesting and
diversified slope of the plateau.
I was anxious to visit a place called Ta-gherbúst, situated on the north
side of the castle, along the slope of a ravine which runs westward into
the valley; accordingly, on leaving the site of our encampment, we
deviated at first a little northwards. Ta-gherbúst is said to have been
a rich and important place in former times. Some of its inhabitants
possessed as many as ten slaves; but at present it is a heap of ruins,
with scarcely twenty-five inhabited houses. From hence, turning
southward, we descended gradually along the steep slope, while above our
heads the cliffs rose in picturesque majesty, beautifully adorned by
scattered date-trees, which, at every level spot, sprung forth from the
rocky ground, and gave to the whole scene a very charming character. A
fountain which gushed out from a cavern on a little terrace at the foot
of the precipice, and fed a handsome group of date-trees, was one of the
most beautiful objects that can be imagined.
[Illustration]
The Turks, two years ago, made a small path leading directly down from
the castle to this fountain, which supplies them with water. After
sketching this beautiful spot while the animals were watering, we
followed a more gradual descent into the valley of el Ghasás, which here
with a rough level widens to a plain, while its upper or southern part,
called Wadi Rumíye, forms a very narrow and picturesque ravine. We then
continued our march in a westerly direction, having on our right the
plain extending, with slight undulations, towards the sea, and on our
left the majestic offshoots of the plateau jutting into the plain like
vast promontories, with a general elevation of two thousand feet. This
grand feature is evidently due to the waters which, in ancient times,
must have rushed down the slope of the plateau in mighty streams. At
present, the chief character of the country is aridity. On asking my
guide whether great torrents are not still occasionally formed along
those ravines strong enough to reach the sea, he replied, that once
only—forty-four years ago—such a torrent was formed, which, passing by
Zenzúr, gave a red colour to the sea as far as the Island of Jirbi. He
also informed me that, in general, all the waters from the ridge joined
the Wadi Haera.[10]
On our left, in the valley Khalaifa, a group of date-trees, fed by an
abundant spring called ʿAin el Wuaníye, forms a conspicuous and
interesting object; while, in general, these valleys or ravines exhibit,
besides small brushwood, only trees of the siddre, (_Rhamnus nabeca_),
jári, and batúm tribe. The batúm-tree (_Pistacia Atlantica_) produces
the fruit called gatúf, which is used by the Arabs for a great variety
of purposes. Small brushwood or gandul, also, and various sorts of
herbage, such as sebót, shedíde, and shʿade, enliven the ground.
[Illustration: Drawn by J. M. Bernatz, from a Sketch by Dr. Barth.
M. & N. Hanhart, lith. et impt.
WADI WÉLAD ʿALI.
Feby. 9th. 1850.]
As we advanced, we changed our direction gradually to the south-west,
and entered the mountainous region. On our right there extended far into
the plain a steep narrow promontory, which had served as a natural
fortress to the mountaineers in the last war with the Turks; but no
water being found near it, its occupants were soon reduced to
extremities. Having gone round the last promontory on our left, we
entered the picturesque valley “Welád ʿAli,” once adorned with orchards
and groves of date-trees, but at present reduced to a desolate
wilderness, only a few neglected fig-trees and scattered palms still
remaining to prove how different the condition of this spot might be.
After we had commenced our ascent along the side of the ravine, in order
to return upon the level of the plateau, we made a short halt near a
cluster of about eighty date-trees, where I made the sketch of the
accompanying view. But the ascent became extremely steep, especially
near the middle of the slope, where the water, rushing down in cascades,
has laid bare the limestone rock, and formed a sort of terrace. Here, on
the east side of the cascade, is a spring in a well, called ʿAin el
Gatár mtʿa Welád ʿAli. On both of the summits overlooking the slope are
two villages of the Riaina, the eastern one a little larger than the
other, but at present not containing more than about thirty stone-built
cottages. In both we tried in vain to buy a little barley for our
cattle, as we knew not whether, at our halting-place for the night, we
might be able to obtain any; but we got plenty of dried figs for
ourselves. This slope, with its ravines and valleys, might certainly
produce a very considerable quantity of fruit; and in this respect it
resembles in character that of the so-called Kabylia in Algiers. The
rearing of fruit-trees seems to be a favourite occupation of the Berber
race, even in the more favoured spots of the Great Desert.
Continuing our march on the summit of the plateau, we reached the
village Kasr Shellūf, which exhibited far greater opulence, as it had
escaped being ransacked by the Turks in the last war. Most probably in
consequence of this circumstance, its inhabitants are more hospitably
disposed than those of Riaina: but the cave or cellar in which they
wanted to lodge me, had nothing very attractive for a night’s quarters,
so that I urged my two companions onward. Having continued our south-
westerly direction for awhile, and passed another village, we thought it
safer to turn our steps eastwards, and took the direction of the zawíya
or convent situated on the summit of the promontory; but when we reached
it, just after dusk, the masters or teachers of the young men, who are
sent to this holy place for education, refused to admit us for the
night, so that we were obliged to go on and try to reach one of the five
villages of Khalaifa. At length, after a very difficult descent down the
steep rocky slope in the dark, we succeeded in reaching the principal
village, and, after some negotiation, occasioned by the absence of the
Kaid Bel Kasem, who is chief of the Khalaifa as well as of the Wuërje,
we at length obtained admission, and even something to eat, my
companions (rather against my will) representing me as a Turk.
[Sidenote: Sunday, February 10th.]
Our route on leaving the village was very pleasant, winding round the
sloping sides of several ravines, among which that formed by the rivulet
Wuaniye, and adorned with date-trees, was the most beautiful. Ascending
gradually, we reached again the level of the plateau, and obtained an
extensive prospect, with the remarkable monument Enshéd e’ Sufét as a
conspicuous and attractive landmark in the distance. The elevated level
had a slight undulation, and was clothed with halfa (_Cynosurus durus_)
and gedím. However, we did not long continue on it, but descended into
the well-irrigated valley Rumíye, which is extremely fertile, but also
extremely unhealthy, and notorious for its fevers. The beauty of the
scenery, enlivened as it is by a considerable torrent foaming along the
ravine, and feeding luxuriant clusters of palm, pomegranate, fig, and
apricot trees, surpassed my expectation.
Having kept awhile along this picturesque ravine, we ascended its
eastern side, and then followed the very edge of the steep, directly for
the castle; but before reaching our tent we were obliged to cross a deep
branch of the ravine. There was some little activity to-day about the
castle, it being the market-day; but the market was really miserable,
and the Turkish troops, exercising outside the castle, could ill supply
the want of national welfare and prosperity. If a just and humane
treatment were guaranteed to these tribes, even under a foreign rule,
the country might still enjoy plenty and happiness. Most of the tribes
westward from the Riaina—namely, the Zintán, who formerly were very
powerful, and even at present hold some possessions as far as Fezzan,
the Rujbán, the Fissátu, the Welád Shebel, the Selemát, the Arhebát, the
Harába, the Génafíd, the Kabáw, and, the Nalúd, belong to the Berber
race. With regard to the westernmost of these tribes, M. Prax on his way
to Tuggúrt, has obtained some new information.
After a friendly parting from the Kaimakám, we broke up our encampment
near the kasr, in the afternoon, in order to continue our tour eastward
along the varied border of the plateau, under the guidance of a faithful
black servant of the governor, whose name was Barka. Having passed
several smaller villages, we reached Um e’ Zerzán, a considerable
village, situated on a round hill in the midst of a valley, ornamented
with fine olive-trees, and surrounded by fine orchards. Um e’ Zerzán is
well known among the mountaineers as a centre of rebellion. The whole
neighbourhood is full of reminiscences of the late war, and about two
miles in the rear of the village are the remains of strong walls called
el Matarís, behind which the Arabs made some stand against the Turks.
Having passed a solitary rustic dwelling surrounded with a thriving
olive-plantation, we reached the ruins of a castle or village from which
the Roman sepulchre, known among the Arabs by the name Enshéd e’ Sufét,
burst suddenly upon our view.
[Sidenote: Monday, February 11th.]
After an extremely cold night on this high rocky ground, the thermometer
in the morning indicating only 5° above freezing-point, with the dawn of
day I mounted the hill opposite to the monument, commanding an extensive
view.[11] It was a level tableland, uninterrupted by any higher
eminence; but the landscape seemed to me highly characteristic, and I
made a sketch of it.
Upon this hill there was formerly a castle built of hewn stone. The
foundation-walls, which are still traceable, show that it faced the
east, the eastern and the western sides measuring each 57 ft. 8 in., the
northern and southern, not more than 54 ft. On the eastern side there
was a strong outwork protecting the gate, and measuring 16 ft. 11 in. on
the north and south sides, and 12 ft. 1 in. on the east side, where
there was a large gate 9 ft. 1 in. wide. This outwork juts off from the
castle at 17 ft. 6 in. from the south corner. It was evidently a Roman
castle; but after the dominion of the Romans and Byzantines had passed
away, the Berbers appear to have strengthened it by adding another
outwork on the west side, not, however, in the same grand style as the
Romans, but with small irregular stones, putting bastions to the
corners, and surrounding the whole castle with considerable outworks on
the slope of the hill.
[Illustration]
The Roman castle has been swept away; but the Roman sepulchre is still
preserved, with almost all its architectural finery, and is still
regarded by the surrounding tribes with a certain awe and reverence.[12]
It was most probably the sepulchre of a Roman commander of the castle in
the time of the Antonines; hence, in my opinion, the name Sufét, by
which the natives have distinguished it. It is certainly not a Punic
monument, though it is well known that the Punic language was generally
spoken in several towns of this region much later than the second
century after Christ. The style of its architecture testifies that it
belongs to the second century; but no inscription remains to tell its
story.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
This interesting monument is situated on an eminence a little less
elevated than that on which the castle is built, and south-westward from
it. Its whole height is about 36 ft. The base or pedestal measures 16
ft. 8¾ in. on the W. and E., and 16 ft. N. and S. Its elevation varies
greatly from E. to W., on account of the sloping ground, the eastern
side measuring 3 ft. 2 in., the western 5 ft. 7 in. In the interior of
this base is the sepulchral chamber, measuring 7 ft. 1 in. from N. to
S., and 6 ft. 6 in. from E. to W., and remarkable for the peculiar
construction of the roof. Upon this lowest part of the base rises a
second one 15 ft. 9 in. W. and E., 14 ft. 3¾ in. N. and S., and 2 ft. 1
in. high; and on this a third one, measuring 14 ft. 7½ in. W. and E., 13
ft. 10¼ in. N. and S., and 1 ft. 7 in. in height. Upon this base rose
the principal part of the monument, 13 ft. 7 in. high, and measuring at
its foot 13 ft. 11½ in. W. and E., decorated at the corners with
pilasters, the feet of which measure 1 ft. 1¾ in., and the shaft 9¾ in.
The moulding is handsomely decorated. Upon this principal body of the
monument is constructed the upper story, about 10 feet high, decorated
with pilasters of the Corinthian order. On the south and west sides the
walls are plain; but on the east side they are ornamented with a bow
window enclosed with pilasters of the same order, and on the north side
with a plain window running up the whole height of the body. Inside of
this chamber stood, probably, the statue of the person in whose honour
the monument was erected. The upper compartment has a plain moulding
about four feet high, and surmounted by a cornice.
The material of this interesting monument is a very fine limestone,
which under the influence of the atmosphere has received a vivid
brownish colour, almost like that of travertine. It was taken from a
quarry, which extends all round the monument, and is full of caverns now
used by shepherds as resting-places when they tend their flocks
hereabouts.
Our camels had already gone on some time before we parted from this
solitary memorial of Roman greatness; and after a little distance we
passed the ruins of another Roman fort called Hanshír Hámed. The country
hereabouts, forming a sort of bowl or hollow, and absorbing a great deal
of moisture, is very fertile, and is also tolerably well cultivated; but
after a while it becomes stony. Having here passed a village, we reached
a beautiful little valley, the head of the Wadi Sheikh, which is
irrigated by two springs, that feed a splendid little orchard with all
sorts of fruit. Here lies Swédna, a considerable village spreading over
the whole eminence, and known on account of the murder of Mohammed
Efendi. As the valley divides into two branches, we followed the main
wadi, and afterwards crossed it, where it formed a pretty brook of
running water. We then wound along a narrow valley overgrown with halfa
and sidr, and, changing our direction, took the road to Kikla. The
valley soon became decked with olives, which gradually formed a fine
plantation. This is the chief branch of industry of the inhabitants, the
ground being rather stony, and not so fit for grain. The district of
Kikla contains numerous villages, all of which suffered much from the
last war, when a great number of people were slaughtered, and their
dwellings ransacked, by the Turks.[13] Several of these villages lay in
small hollows, or on the slope of ravines, and exhibited rather a
melancholy appearance. After some delay, we resumed our easterly
direction towards Rabda, and soon came to the spot where the elevated
ground descends abruptly into the deep and broad valley called Wadi
Rabda, over which we obtained an interesting view. To the left the slope
broke into a variety of cones and small mounts, among which the
Tarhóna—“the mill,” so called from a mill that stood formerly on its
summit—is remarkable for its handsome shape; while in front of us rose
an almost perpendicular cliff of limestone, on a turn of which, in a
very commanding position, lies the village Jáfet, enclosed, and
naturally defended, on every side by a deep ravine. Here we commenced
our descent, which took us a whole hour; on the middle of the slope we
passed a kiln for preparing gypsum. At length we reached the side
valley, which joins the main wadi on the west. It was ornamented with a
few solitary date-trees, and the beautifully shaped slopes and cones of
the Tarhóna were just illuminated by a striking variety of light and
shade. The soil, a fertile marl, remained uncultivated. Gradually we
entered the main valley, a grand chasm of about four miles and a half in
width, which has been formed by the mighty rushing of the waters
down[14] the slope of the plateau. In its upper part it is called Wadi
Kérdemín, in its lower part Wadi Sert. The industry of man might convert
it into a beautiful spot; but at present it is a desolate waste, the
monotonous halfa being the only clothing of the ground.
The eastern border presents a perpendicular rocky cliff about 1500 feet
high, on the brink of which lies the village Misga. The western border
consists of a cluster of detached mounts and rocks. Among these a black
cone, which attracted Mr. Overweg’s attention, was found on examination
to be pure basalt, with certain indications of former volcanic action.
From beyond this remarkable cone, a mount was visible crowned with a
castle. As we proceeded, the valley became enlivened by two small Arab
encampments. Here we gradually obtained a view of the date-grove of
Rabda, which, from the foot of the steep eastern cliffs, slopes down
into the bottom of the valley, and is overtopped, in the distance, by
the handsome bifurcated Mount Manterús. But Rabda was too far off to be
reached before sunset; and we encamped in the wadi, near a group of five
tents inhabited by Lasāba or el Asāba Arabs, whose chief paid us a visit
and treated us with bazín, but declined tasting our coffee, probably
thinking, with his fellow-chief the other day, that we were in the
service of the Turks, and wanted to poison him. All the people of these
regions regard strangers with suspicion.
[Sidenote: Tuesday, February 12th.]
Soon after we had started we entered upon cultivated ground,—the first
trace of industry we had seen in this spacious valley. The eastern
cliffs formed here a wide chasm, through which a lateral valley joined
the Wadi Sert. On the southern slope of this valley lies the Kasr
Lasába, from which a torrent that came forth from it, and crossed our
route, presented a refreshing spectacle. Emerging gradually from the
valley, we obtained an extensive view over the plain called el Gatīs.
Westward, as far as the well called Bír el Ghánem, little was to be seen
which could gladden the eye of the husbandman. Towards the north-east
the level is interrupted by a small range of hills, the culminating
points of which, called el Guleát and Mʿanmúra rise to a great
elevation. Beyond this range the plain is called Shefána, the country of
the Ur-shefána.
At nine o’clock we reached the fine date-grove of the westernmost
village of Rabda. It is fed by a copious spring, which arrested our
attention. Following it up to trace its source, we were greatly
surprised to find, in the heart of some date-trees, a basin fifty feet
in length, and about thirty in breadth, in which the water was
continually bubbling up and sending forth a considerable stream to
spread life and cheerfulness around. The water gushed up at a
temperature of 72° Fahrenheit, while that of the air was only 52°.
Besides dates, a large quantity of onions is produced in this fertile
spot. The village itself was in former times the residence of Hamíd, a
powerful Arab chieftain, who at one time ruled the whole mountainous
district, but was obliged to yield to the Turks, and lives at present
about Beni-Ulíd, where I had to deal with him on my home-journey in
1855.
The groves of the two villages of Rabda are not far apart. On the north-
eastern side of the village are seven holy chapels called el Hararát.
The eastern village lies upon a hill, over a hollow, in which spreads a
date-grove, likewise fed by a spring called ʿAin Rabda e’ sherkíyeh. On
crossing a brook we obtained a view of the Jebel Shehésh, which,
attached to the Tahōna, stretches a long way westward, and even el Gunna
was seen faintly in the distance. Thus we approached gradually the
interesting bicorn of the dark-coloured Jebel Manterús, which we were
bent on ascending. Alighting at the foot of the mount, near the border
of a deep channel, we sent the camels on, but kept the shoush and our
guide back to wait for us. It took me twenty-five minutes to reach the
eastern and higher summit, on which there is the tomb of a merábet, a
holy shepherd called Sidi Bu-Mʿaza; but I was disappointed in my
expectation of obtaining a great extent of view, the cone of Mount Tekút
and other mountains intervening. Towards the south only, a peep into the
Wadi el Ugla, bordered by high cliffs, slightly rewarded me for my
trouble; and the mount itself is interesting, as it exhibits evident
traces of volcanic action.
I had reached the western lower cone in descending, when I met my
companion in his ascent, and, being anxious to overtake the camels, I
started in advance of him, accompanied by the guide, along the Wadi el
Ugla. But my companions did not seem to agree as to the path to be
pursued; and my guide, overlooking on the rocky ground the footsteps of
the camels, which had taken the direct path to the Kasr Ghurián, wanted
to take me by the wadi, and, instead of ascending the eastern cliffs of
the ravine, kept along it, where, from being narrow and rocky—the mere
bed of a torrent,—it widens to a pleasant, cultivated, open valley, with
rich marly soil, and adorned with an olive-grove. On a hill in the
centre lies the first village of the district Ghurián.