animals were common, the designation “wolf-people” (see the
sign-language of the plains) was bestowed especially on the
Pawnees, because, as we have seen, they best imitated wolves.
In Europe, where, of the larger animals, the wolf alone was
universally common, the designation “wolf-people” (or if we
choose, later, werewolves) was not restricted to any one
locality or people, but was bestowed in general on those who
assumed the manner of wolves, and because of their crimes
became outcasts like the wolves. They best imitate wolves, and
no doubt, to escape detection, disguised themselves as wolves
(see note 102), and for this reason the _warg_ or outlaw came
to be called a _wolf_ (see close of note 112). Thus Golther,
Mythologie, p. 102, says: “Wird ein Werwolf verwundet oder
getötet, so findet man einen wunden oder toten Menschen.” The
werewolves, as we have seen (ante p. 25), keep to the _woods_
and the _dark_, of course in many cases to avoid detection.
Similarly witches, Ethn. Rep. 1901-02, p. 393: “They say that
witches love the _night_ and lurk in _shadows and darkness_.
Witches are believed to be able to assume the shape of beasts.”
Sigmund and Sinfjötli dwelt as wolves in the _woods_. Also the
progenitor of the Mýramenn in Iceland at _night_ could leave
his house in wolf’s form. Another Norwegian account reports
how earlier many people were able to take on wolf’s form, then
dwelt in _grove_ and _woods_, where they tore people to pieces,
etc. See Paul, Grundriss, III. 272 fol.; also note 113.
[111] Names. See note 31. The development in the case of names
was perhaps the same as in the case of masks (note 57), and of
the werewolf superstition itself (ante p. 15, fol.); namely, a)
protection against outside agencies was sought; b) growth of
supernaturalism; c) element of humor.
a) See Encyc. Brit. under Lycanthropy: “Children are often
named _wolf_, are disguised as a wolf to cheat their
supernatural foes” (for similar assumption of characteristics
or the nature of animals for personal advantage see note 33).
See also Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, III. 1139: “The escort of
_wolf_ or _raven_ augured victory;” and in the note: “A name
of happiest augury for a hero must have been the O. H. G.
_Wolf-hraban_ (Wolfram), to whom the two animals jointly
promised victory. Old names are no product of pure chance.
Servian mothers name a son they have longed for, _Vuk_,
_Wolf_: then the witches can’t eat him up. O. H. G. _Wolfbizo_
was a lucky name, i. e., one bitten by the wolf and thereby
protected,” like our modern curing of like by like in medicine.
b) With growth of supernaturalism came probably the development
mentioned by Meringer, Indog. Forsch., 1904, XVI. 165, about
the conferring of secret names, since one could harm a person
by his name alone, and could summon a foe merely by mentioning
his name: “Wenn man den Wolf nennt, kommt er g’rennt.” Again
in XXI. 313 fol.: It was dangerous to name _bear_ or _wolf_
in regions infested by these animals, so people, out of fear,
avoided calling the name of such animals; called the bear for
example _honey-eater_, etc.
c) Finally, when man could better cope with animal foes, his
fear of them disappeared, the elements of fearlessness and
humor enter in, and such names arise as are mentioned in note
53; and such stories as that of Romulus and Remus, suckled by a
wolf.
[112] Outlaws. The notion of werewolves (see Grimm, Teutonic
Mythology, III. 1095) also gets mixed up with that of outlaws
who have fled to the woods. A notable instance is that of
Sigmund and Sinfjötli in the Völsungasaga. In regard to this W.
Golther, Handbuch der germanischen mythologie, Leipzig 1895,
p. 102, says: “Die Sage mag auf einem alten Misverständniss
beruhen. _Warg_, _Wolf_ hiess der Geächtete in der germanischen
Rechtssprache. _Warg_ wurde wörtlich als _Wolf_ verstanden,
und so bildete sich die Werwolfsgeschichte.” Golther again, p.
424:—“Gefesselt wurde Loki als Ächter in den Wald getrieben,
er wurde “_Warg_”, d. h. _Wolf_. _Wölfe_ heissen die friedlosen
Waldgänger.” As to _warg_, Schade in his altdeutsches
Wörterbuch defines it as a räuberisch würgendes wütendes Wesen,
Mensch von roher verbrecherischer Denk- und Handlungsweise,
geächteter Verbrecher, ausgestossener Missetäter; _warg_ ist
Benennung des Wolfes, in der Rechtssprache ein treu- und
vertragbrüchiger Mensch, vogelfreier Mann, der den Frieden
durch Mord gebrochen und landflüchtig geworden, oder nun im
wilden Walde gleich dem Raubtiere haust und wie der Wolf
ungestraft erlegt werden darf; im jetzigen Gebrauche auf Island
Bezeichnung einer gewalttätigen Person. Similarly, J. Grimm,
Gesch. d. d. Spr. p. 233. For customs amongst the American
Indians relating to the outlaw see Ethn. Rep. 1879-80, p. 67
fol.: An outlaw is one who by his crimes has placed himself
without the protection of his clan, is not defended in case he
is injured by another. When the sentence of outlawry has been
declared, for example among the Wyandots, it is the duty of
the chief of the Wolf clan to make known the decision of the
council.... In outlawry of the highest degree it is the duty
of any member of the tribe who may meet the offender to kill
him like an animal. Page 60 fol.: “The chief of the Wolf gens
is the herald and the sheriff of the tribe” (see also Ethn.
Rep. 1893-94, p. cxiv). Criminals kept to the _woods_ and the
_dark_. Many of them lived like animals, dressed in animal
skins, and to terrorize others assumed the role of werewolves.
Since therefore so many outlaws lived, dressed (note 22 close)
and acted like wolves, to all intents and purposes became
wolves, _wolf_ and outlaw became synonymous terms.
[113] The widespread custom of keeping windows closed at night
in Germany is perhaps a relic of heathen days, when people
believed that werewolves, etc., entered houses at night. In
place of the earlier harmful werewolf is now the “harmful”
night air.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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BEHAGHEL, OTTO. Die deutsche sprache. Leipzig, 1902.
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BROCKHAUS, F. A. Konversations-lexikon. Leipzig, 1901 fol.
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DILTHEY, WILHELM. Erlebnis und dichtung. Leipzig, 1906.
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. New York, 1883, etc.
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INDEX
[The pages are in roman numerals, the notes in italic.]
Abipones, _9, 66._
Abyssinia, _9._
Africa, 5, 23; _9, 47, 65._
Alligator, _9._
America, 5; _9, 85._
American Indians, 5, 14, 21, 23, 27; _9, 27, 66, 110._
Anglo-Saxons, _9._
Animals, _42._
Animal fable, _15._
Arabia, _9._
Arawaks, _9._
Arcadia, _9, 15._
Asia, 5; _9, 12, 16._
Assyrians, _15._
Bear, 5; _9, 15, 16, 38, 102, 109, 111._
Belgium, _12._
Benignant, _4, 38._
Berserkr, 1; _102._
Bird, 5.
Bison, _12, 27, 31, 32, 73, 74._
Bohemia, _9._
Borneo, _9._
Bretons, _9._
Bulgaria, _9._
Burchard von Worms, _9._
Burmah, _12._
Celebrations, _21._
Ceylon, _12._
Charms, 10, 16.
Clothing, 8, 9, 11, 16, 28.
Coyote, 13.
Dancing, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16; _32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 57._
Dante, _24._
Death, _22._
Decoy, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 28; _29, 30, 31._
Denmark, _9._
Dog, 5, 21, 27; _19, 64, 73, 74._
Dreams, 21; _67._
Edda, _15._
Enemy, 8, 12, 14, 21, 26, 29; _48, 60, 65, 102, 111._
English, _9, 109._
Eskimo, _30, 31, 67._
Europe, 5, 7; _9, 12, 16, 110._
Fenrisûlfr, _9, 51._
Finns, _5._
Fish, _5._
Fisherman, _29._
Food, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 28, 29; _27, 29._
Forest, 25; _22, 65, 102, 107, 110, 112._
Fox, 5, 12; _9, 15, 21._
French, _9, 12._
Germany, 2, 4, 5; _9, 22._
Greece, 1, 7; _9, 15, 22._
Greenland, _12, 69._
Harmful, 1, 11, 13; _42, 51._
Herds, _9, 12, 20._
Herodotus, 1; _15._
Hindoos, _9._
Homer, _24._
Hunter, 7, 8; _15, 31, 52, 53, 64, 95._
Hyena, 5, 23; _9._
Iceland, _9, 110._
India, 5; _9, 12._
Indogermanic, 7; _9, 20, 42._
Insanity, 21, 22, 24; _24, 73, 85, 102._
Iranians, _9._
Ireland, _9._
Italians, _9._
Jackal, _12._
Jaguar, _9._
Japan, _9._
Kadiak, _29._
Kelts, 7; _9._
Knut, _9._
Lapps, 5.
Leopard, 5; _9, 65._
Leubuscher, 6; _9, 20._
Lion, 5; _9, 45, 65._
Lithuanians, _9._
Loki, 14; _9, 112._
Lycanthropy, 2; _9, 19, 20, 22, 74, 102._
Lykaon, _9, 15._
Magic, 23, 24; _22, 37, 60, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 81, 83, 84, 107._
Malignant, 24; _4, 84, 102, 109, 113._
Mask, 8, 11, 15; _29, 37, 42, 57, 64, 67, 107, 111._
Mastodon, _20._
Medicinemen (Shamans), 20; _52, 63, 66, 67, 74, 81, 83, 85, 90,
107._
Mexico, _12, 67._
Middle Ages, 22; _9, 74, 102._
Murder, 24; _20, 22, 52, 102, 112._
Myths, 7, 27; _24, 95, 102._
Names, _42, 53, 109, 111._
Netherlands, _9._
Neurians, 1; _15._
Night, 1, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25; _63, 65, 66, 69, 74, 84, 102, 110,
112, 113._
North America, _12._
Norway, _9._
Odin, _15._
Island Oesel, _9._
Otter, _29._
Outlaw, 24, 26; _84, 110, 112._
Owl, 5, 30; _64._
Pawnees, 12, 13, 23; _110._
Persia, _9._
Plants, _42, 95._
Poles, _9, 14._
Portuguese, _9._
Posen, _14._
Priests, _22, 67, 69, 83._
Professionals, 22, 23, 24, 25; _74, 81, 83, 86._
Provencal, _9._
Prussia, _14._
Reindeer, 5.
Religion, _22, 24, 57._
Revenge, 14, 17, 24, 28; _52, 69._
Robber, 12, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28; _15, 20, 44, 53, 65,
112._
Romans, 7; _9, 27._
Russia, 2; _9, 12, 16._
Scandinavia, _9._
Scout, 12, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28, 29; _47, 48, 60._
Scythians, _6._
Seal, _29, 31, 69._
Serpent, 5; _9._
Servia, _9._
Shepherds, _15, 20._
Siam, _12, 69._
Sinfjötli, _15, 64, 110._
Song, 9, 10, 15; _33, 64._
Skins (or dress) of animals, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22,
23, 25, 28, 29, 30; _21, 22, 31, 34, 52, 53, 57, 60, 63, 64,
65, 66, 67, 74, 102, 107, 108, 110, 112._
South America, 5; _12._
Speech (animals), 7.
Stories, 21, 22, 27, 28, 29; _9, 27, 60, 69, 102, 111._
Supernaturalism, 10, 17, 18; _57, 65, 102, 111._
Superstition, 1, 4, 5, 14, 23; _20, 64._
Sweden, _9._
Tiger, 5; _9, 45, 69, 90._
Totemism, 2; _47, 102._
Transformation, 5, 15, 21; _9, 11, 19, 22, 52, 64, 65, 66, 69,
107._
Traps, 8; _31._
Tschechs, _9._
Turkey, 5; _108._
Volhynia, 2; _9, 16._
Völsungasaga, _15, 112._
Wales, _9._
Warfare, 12, 13, 16; _60._
Weapons, 7, 8, 9.
Werewolf, 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30; _9, 15, 20, 22, 45,
64, 84, 86, 91, 102, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113._
Wiener Hundesegen, _15._
Witches, 11, 19, 23; _65, 66, 67, 74, 83, 84, 91, 102, 109, 110,
111._
Transcriber’s note
Words in italics were surrounded with _underscores_, and small capitals
changed to all capitals.
Anchors for notes 37 and 42 were missing in the original, they were
added. Notes 111, 112 and 113 also had no anchors in the original, they
were referred to in other notes. The notes were moved to directly after
the paragraph with the corresponding anchor.
“Völsungasaga” and “Sinfjötli” were in the original mostly written with
a little c under the o, and a few times with a plain o. For reader’s
convenience this has been changed and standardised to the more common
spelling with ö.
Some punctuation was corrected and a few missing spaces added. In note
12 “and” was changed to “und” (seltener in Frankreich und Belgien).
Otherwise the original was preserved, including possible errors and
missing capitalisation in quotes from German sources, and inconsistent
spelling, for example the word Berserkr, Berserker or Berserkir.