The British, French and German Associations for the Advancement of
Science have held their annual meetings in the course of the past
month. In each of these countries and in most other European countries,
as well as in America, there are migratory scientific congresses of the
same general character. As these have grown up somewhat independently,
they evidently meet a common need. Science cannot be advanced by a
man working independently and in isolation. The printing press was
essential to the beginnings of modern science, while at the same time
it was usual for the scientific student to travel from place to place
that he might learn and teach. Then in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, as the cultivation of science became more general, royal
academies were founded. The Royal Society was established at London
in 1660 under the patronage of Charles II., the Academy of Sciences
at Paris in 1666 under Louis XIV., the Royal Academy at Berlin in
1700 under Frederick I., the Imperial Academy at St. Petersburg in
1724 under Peter the Great, and in other cities similar academies
were founded under similar auspices. Then in the first half of the
present century, as science continued to grow, the more democratic
organizations for the advancement of science were established. The
Society of German Scientific Men and Physicians was formed, chiefly
through the efforts of Humboldt, in 1822; the Swiss Association in
1829, and the British Association in 1831. Our own Association was
established in 1847, but was then the intergrowth of a society dating
from 1840. These associations are significant of the spread of science
among all the people. Science is no longer the concern of a few men
under royal patronage, but the two great movements of the present
century--the growth of democracy and the growth of science--have united
for their common good.
* * * * *
The British Association held its annual meeting at Bradford, beginning
on September 5, under the presidency of Sir William Turner, professor
of anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. We are able to publish,
from a copy received in advance of its delivery, his presidential
address, which traces the growth during the present century of
knowledge regarding fundamental biological problems. The addresses of
the presidents before the sections are usually written in a way that
can be readily understood by those who are not specialists, and are
consequently of greater interest to a general audience than some of the
corresponding addresses before the American Association. The addresses
at Bradford were: Before the section of mathematical and physical
science Dr. Joseph Larmor discussed recent developments of physics with
special reference to the extent to which explanation can be reduced
purely to description; before the section of chemistry Prof. H. W.
Perkin argued that radical changes should be made in the methods of
teaching inorganic chemistry; before the section of geology Prof. W. J.
Sollas spoke of the development of the earth, including the different
critical periods in its history; before the section of zoölogy Dr.
R. H. Traquair chose as his subject the bearing of fossil fishes on
the doctrine of descent; before the section of geography Sir George
Robertson considered certain geographical aspects of the British Empire
and the changes brought about by improved means of intercommunication;
before the section of economic science and statistics Major P. G.
Craigie spoke of the use of statistics in agriculture; before
the section of mechanical science Sir Alexander Binnie traced the
historical development of science; before the section of anthropology
Prof. John Rhys dealt with the ethnology of the British Isles, with
special reference to language and folk-lore; before the section of
botany Prof. Sidney H. Vines reviewed the development of botany during
the present century. In addition to these addresses, evening discourses
were given by Prof. Francis Gotch on ‘Animal Electricity,’ and by Prof.
W. Stroud on ‘Range Finders.’ The usual lecture to workingmen was given
by Prof. Sylvester P. Thompson, his subject being ‘Electricity in the
Industries.’
* * * * *
Bradford is situated in the coal regions, and is an industrial center
devoted especially to the manufacture of textiles. More attention was
paid to local interests than is usual at the meetings of the American
Association. An exhibit was arranged to show the development of the
elaborate fabrics from the unwashed fleeces, and another consisting
of a collection of carboniferous fossils found in the neighborhood.
A joint discussion was arranged between the sections of zoölogy and
botany on the conditions which existed during the growth of the forests
which supplied material for the coal, and there were a number of papers
devoted to the coal measures and the fossils which they contain.
Another subject connected with the place of meeting was the report of
the committee on the underground water system in the carboniferous
limestone. By the use of chemicals the course of the underground
waters has been traced, including their percolation through rock
fissures, and excursions were made to the site of the experiments. The
local industries received treatment from several sides. Among other
discussions of more than usual interest was that on ‘Ions’ before the
physical section and on ‘What is a Metal?’ before the chemical section.
Features of popular interest were accounts of adventures in Asia,
Africa and the Antarctic regions, by Captain Deasy, Captain George and
Mr. Borchgrevinck, respectively, and Major Ross’s paper on ‘Malaria and
Mosquitoes.’
* * * * *
The French Association met at Paris in the month of August, with the
numerous other congresses. General Sebert, in his presidential address,
reviewed the progress of the mechanical industries during the century
and devoted the last third of his time to a discussion of international
bibliography, but without mentioning the International Catalogue which
now seems to be an accomplished fact. The secretary of the Association,
in his review of the year, devoted special attention to the joint
meetings of the British and French associations last summer at Dover
and Calais. The treasurer was able to make a report that the treasurers
of other national associations will envy. The capital is over $250,000,
and the income from all sources about $17,000, of which about $3,000
was awarded for the prosecution of research and to defray the cost of
publication of scientific monographs. The national association for
the advancement of science of Germany--the ‘Gesellschaft deutscher
Naturforscher und Aerzte’--held its annual meeting at Aachen toward the
middle of September. An account of the proceedings has not yet reached
us, but the congresses are always largely attended and the combination
of addresses of general interest, of special papers before the numerous
sections and of social functions, is perhaps more effective than in
any other society. It also appears to be a considerable advantage for
medical men and scientific men to meet together.
* * * * *
While from the scientific point of view the present century has
been notable for the development of national associations for the
advancement of science, its latter decades have witnessed a growth
of international scientific meetings which may be expected to become
dominant in the twentieth century. There are at least one hundred
congresses, having more or less reference to science, meeting at Paris
during the present summer. Perhaps the most noteworthy of these, from
the point of view of the organization of science, is the International
Association of Academies, which was established last year at a
conference held at Wiesbaden. In this Association eighteen of the great
academies of the world, including our own National Academy of Sciences,
have been united to promote the interests of science. Literature is
also included--of the eighteen academies, twelve include in their scope
both science and literature, four are devoted to science only and two
to literature only. It is planned to have a general meeting every three
years, to which each academy will send as many delegates as it regards
as desirable, though each academy will have but one vote. In the
interval between the general meetings, the business of the Association
is to be directed by a committee, on which each academy is represented.
The object of the Association is to plan and promote scientific work of
international interest which may be proposed by one of the constituent
academies, and generally to promote scientific relations between
different countries. The Royal Society has proposed the measurement, by
international coöperation, of an extended arc of the meridian in the
interior of Africa.
* * * * *
The International Congress of Physics marked an advance owing to the
fact that it met for the first time this year, and it appears that
the proceedings were of unusual interest. This was in a large measure
due to the arrangements of the French Physical Society, which did not
simply make up a programme from a mass of heterogeneous researches,
but secured some eighty reports on the present condition of physical
science. These were prepared by many of the leading physicists of
the world and when published--as they are about to be in three
volumes--will set forth the condition of the science with completeness
and authority. There were in all seven sections. In the first, which
was concerned with measurement, in addition to numerous reports
several propositions were brought forward in regard to units, which,
being international in character, are specially fitted for discussion
at such a congress. As the members, however, were not in most cases
delegates from governments and scientific bodies, no definite action
was taken, though some recommendations were made. The decimalization
of time was not recommended, nor was the proposal to give a name to
units of velocity and acceleration. It was, however, decided that the
‘Barrie’ be adopted as the unit of pressure. The other sections were
for mechanical physics, for optics, for electricity, for magneto-optics
and radio-activity, for cosmical physics and for biological physics.
Among the reports and papers of commanding interest only two can be
mentioned--the introductory address by M. Poincaré, discussing the
relations between experimental and mathematical physics, and one by
Lord Kelvin on the waves produced in an elastic solid traversed by
a body acting on it by attraction or repulsion, in which, from a
strictly mathematical point of view, he advanced the hypothesis of a
movable atom surrounded by an immovable ether. In addition to various
receptions, a session was held at the Sorbonne, where Messrs. Becquerel
and Curie gave demonstrations with radio-active substances, and one at
the Ecole Polytechnique, where President Cornu showed apparatus which
had been used in the determination of the velocity of light. At the
close of the congress the foreign secretaries placed a crown on the
tomb of Fresnel.
* * * * *
While a physical congress was meeting at Paris this year for the
first time, the Geological Congress, which was one of the first
international congresses to be organized, held its eighth session,
beginning on August 16. America, in spite of the number and importance
of the inventions it has given to the world, has not as yet done
its share for the advancement of physical science, but in geology
it occupies a foremost place. It was natural, therefore, that while
American physicists were scarcely represented on the programme of the
Physical Congress, they occupied a prominent place on the programme
of geological papers. Among the three hundred members present, the
representation from America included Messrs. Stevenson, Hague, Osborn,
Ward, Willis, White, Cross, Scott, Todd, Kunz, Choquette, Adams, Mathew
and Rice, and they presented a number of the more important papers. M.
Karpinsky, the retiring president, gave the opening address, which was
followed by an address of welcome by M. Gaudry, the president of the
congress. A geological congress can offer special attractions in the
way of excursions, and these were admirably arranged on the present
occasion--both the shorter excursions to the classic horizons in the
neighborhood of Paris and the more extended ones that followed the
close of the meeting. The guide for the twenty long excursions and
numerous shorter trips, prepared by the leading French geologists, was
an elaborately illustrated volume representing the present condition of
our knowledge of French geology. The ninth geological congress will be
held at Vienna three years hence.
* * * * *
The International Congress of Mathematics met for the second time at
Paris, though there had been a preliminary meeting on the occasion of
the Chicago Exposition. There were about two hundred and twenty-five
mathematicians in attendance, including seventeen from the United
States. M. Poincaré presided, and the vice-presidents, some of whom
were not present, were Messrs. Czuber, Gordon, Greenhill, Lindelöf,
Lindemann, Mittag-Leffler, Moore, Tikhomandritzky, Volterra, Zeuthen
and Geiser. The sections and their presiding officers were as follows:
(1) Arithmetic and Algebra: Hilbert; (2) Analysis: Painlevé; (3)
Geometry: Darboux; (4) Mechanics and Mathematical Physics: Larmor;
(5) Bibliography and History: Prince Roland Bonaparte; (6) Teaching
and Methods: Cantor. Valuable papers were presented by M. Cantor
on works and methods concerned with the history of mathematics,
by Professor Hilbert on the future problems of mathematics and by
Professor Mittag-Leffler on an episode in the life of Weierstrass,
but the programme appears to have been not very full nor particularly
interesting. Time was found for a half-day’s discussion of a universal
language, but not to carry into effect the plans begun at Zurich three
years ago for a mathematical bibliography. The next congress will meet
four years hence in Germany, probably at Baden-Baden.
* * * * *
The untimely death of James Edward Keeler, director of the Lick
Observatory, is a serious blow to astronomy and to science. Born at
La Salle, Ill., forty-three years ago, he was educated at the Johns
Hopkins University and in Germany. When only twenty-one years old he
observed the solar eclipse of 1878, and drew up an excellent report.
Three years later he was a member of the expedition to Mt. Whitney
under Professor Langley, whose assistant he had become at the Allegheny
Observatory, and whose bolometric investigations owe much to him. He
became astronomer at the Lick Observatory while it was in course of
erection, and in 1891 he succeeded Professor Langley as director of the
Allegheny Observatory. He was called to the directorship of the great
Lick Observatory in 1898. Keeler’s work in astrophysics, including
his photographs of the spectra of the red stars and his spectroscopic
proof of the meteoric constitution of Saturn’s rings, demonstrated what
he could accomplish at a small observatory unfavorably situated. At
Mt. Hamilton he was able in the course of only two years to organize
thoroughly the work of the Observatory, and to adapt the Crossley
reflector for his purpose, taking photographs of the nebulæ that have
never been equalled. His discovery that most nebulæ have a spiral
structure is of fundamental importance. It is not easy to overestimate
what might have been accomplished by Keeler in the next twenty or
thirty years, both by his own researches and by his rare executive
ability, for it must be remembered that his genius as an investigator
was rivaled by personal qualities which made his associates and
acquaintances his friends.
* * * * *
Henry Sidgwick, late Knightbridge professor of moral philosophy at
Cambridge, died on August 28, at the age of sixty-two years. There
are usually not many events to record in the life of a university
professor, but Sidgwick had an opportunity to prove his character
when he resigned a fellowship in Trinity College because holding it
implied the acceptance of certain theological dogmas. Liberalizing
influences, however, were at work, of which he himself was an important
part, and he was later elected honorary fellow of the same college,
and in 1883 became professor of moral philosophy in the University.
Sidgwick published three large works--‘Methods of Ethics’ (1874),
‘Principles of Political Economy’ (1883) and ‘Elements of Politics’
(1891)--in addition to a great number of separate articles. All these
works, especially the ‘Ethics,’ show an intellect to a rare degree both
subtle and scientific. There was a distinction and a personal quality
in what he wrote that made each book or essay a work of art, as well
as a contribution to knowledge. Those who knew Professor Sidgwick--and
the writer of the present note regards it as one of the fortunate
circumstances of his life that he was for several years a student
under him--realize that the qualities of the man were even more rare
than those of the author. His hesitating utterance, always ending in
exactly the right word, but represented the caution and correctness of
his thought. Subtlety, sincerity, kindliness and humor were as happily
combined in his daily conversation as in his writings. It is said that
he was never ‘entrapped into answering a question by yes or no,’ but
his deeds and his influence were positive without qualification or
limitation.
* * * * *
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, who died on almost the same day as
Sidgwick, was also a writer on ethics and once a university professor,
but the life and writings of the two men present a strange contrast.
Where Sidgwick’s touch was light as an angel’s, Nietzsche trampled like
a bull; the one was the embodiment of reason, caution, consideration
and kindliness, the other represented paradox, recklessness, violence
and brute force. Still Nietzsche deserves mention here, as his ethical
views, based on the Darwinian theory of the survival of the fit, are
not unlikely to be urged hereafter by saner men, and to become an
integral part of ethics when ethics becomes a science. As a matter
of fact, after resigning his professorship at Zurich, and even while
writing his remarkable books, Nietzsche suffered from brain disease,
and during the past eleven years his reason was completely lost.