Rivers.
Outside the two great river systems of the Amazon and river Plate (Rio
de la Plata), which are treated under their respective titles, the
rivers of Brazil are limited to the numerous small streams and three
or four large rivers which flow eastward from the plateau regions
directly into the Atlantic. The Amazon system covers the entire
north-western part of the republic, the state of Amazonas, nearly the
whole of Para and the greater part of Matto Grosso being drained by
this great river and its tributaries. If the Tocantins-Araguaya basin
is included in the hydrographic system, the greater part of Goyaz and
a small part of Maranhao should be added to this drainage area. The
Tocantins is sometimes treated as a tributary of the Amazon because
its outlet, called the Rio Para, is connected with that great river by
a number of inland channels. It is an entirely separate river,
however, and the inland communication between them is due to the
slight elevation of the intervening country above their ordinary
levels and to the enormous volume of water brought down by the Amazon,
especially in the flood season. As the outlet of the Tocantins is so
near to that of the Amazon, and their lower valleys are conterminous,
it is convenient to treat them as parts of the same hydrographic
basin.
In the extreme north-east corner of the republic where the Brazilian
Guiana plateau slopes toward the Atlantic there is a small area lying
outside the drainage basin of the Amazon. Its rivers flow easterly
into the Atlantic and drain a triangular-shaped area of the plateau
lying between the northern frontier and the southern and western
watersheds of the Araguary, whose extreme limits are about 0 deg. 30'
N. lat. and 53 deg. 50' W. long. The more important of these rivers
are the Araguary, Amapa, Calcoene, Cassipore and Oyapok. The Araguary
rises in the Tumuc-Humac mountains, in about 2 deg. 30' N. lat., 52
deg. 10' W. long., and follows a tortuous course south and north-east
to the Atlantic. Its largest tributary, the Amapary, rises still
farther west. Little is known of the country through which it flows,
and its channel is broken by rapids and waterfalls where it descends
to the coastal plain. The Amapa is a short river rising on the eastern
slopes of the same range and flowing across a low, wooded plain,
filled with lagoons. The Calcoene and Cassipore enter the Atlantic
farther north and have a north-east course across the same plain. All
these small rivers are described as auriferous and have attracted
attention for this reason. The Oyapok, or Vicente Pinzon, is the
best-known of the group and forms the boundary line between Brazil and
French Guiana under the arbitration award of 1900. It rises in about 2
deg. 05' N., 53 deg. 48' W., and flows easterly and north-easterly to
the Atlantic. Its course is less tortuous than that of the Araguary.
The rivers of the great Brazilian plateau which flow directly to the
Atlantic coast may be divided into two classes: those of its northward
slope which flow in a northerly and north-easterly direction to the
north-east coast of the republic, and those which drain its eastern
slope and flow to the sea in an easterly direction. The former reach
the coastal plain over long and gradual descents, and are navigable
for considerable distances. The latter descend from the plateau much
nearer the coast, and are in most cases navigable for short distances
only. In both classes navigation is greatly impeded by sandbars at the
mouths of these rivers, while in the districts of periodical rainfall
it is greatly restricted in the dry season. The more important rivers
of the first division, which are described in more detail under the
titles of the Brazilian states through which they flow, are the
following: the Gurupy, Tury-assu, Mearim, Itapicuru and Balsas, in the
state of Maranhao; the Parnahyba and its tributaries in Piauhy;
Jaguaribe in Ceara; and the Apody and Piranhas in Rio Grande do Norte.
Of these the Parnahyba is the most important, having a total length of
about 900 m., broken at intervals by rapids and navigable in sections.
It receives only one important tributary from Maranhao--the Rio das
Balsas, 447 m. long--and five from Piauhy, the Urussuhy-assu,
Gurgueia, Caninde, Poty and Longa. Piauhy is wholly within its
drainage basin, although the river forms the boundary line between
that state and Maranhao throughout its entire length. All the rivers
in this division are influenced by the periodical character of the
rainfall, their navigable channels being greatly shortened in the dry
season (August-January). In Ceara the smaller rivers become dry
channels in the dry season, and in protracted droughts the larger ones
disappear also.
The rivers of the second division are included in a very great
extension of coast and are influenced by wide differences in climate.
Their character is also determined by the distance of the Serra do Mar
from the coast, the more southern rivers having short precipitous
courses. The more northern rivers are subject to periodical variations
in volume caused by wet and dry seasons, but the greater distance of
the coast range and the more gradual breaking down of the plateau
toward the sea, give them longer courses and a greater extent of
navigable water. North of the Sao Francisco the watershed projecting
from the plateau eastward toward Cape St Roque, known as the Serra da
Borborema in Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte where its direction
becomes north-east, leaves a triangular section of the easterly slope
in which the river courses are short and much broken by rapids. The
rainfall, also, is limited and uncertain. The largest of this group of
small rivers is the Parahyba do Norte, belonging to the state of
Parahyba, whose length is said to be less than 200 m., only 5 or 6 m.
of which are navigable for small steamers. The Sao Francisco, which
belongs to the inland plateau region, is the largest river of the
eastern coast of Brazil and exists by virtue of climatic conditions
wholly different from those of the coast where it enters the Atlantic.
The tributaries of the lower half of this great river, which belong to
the Atlantic coast region, are small and often dry, but the upper
river where the rainfall is heavier and more regular receives several
large affluents. The river is navigable up to the Paulo Affonso falls,
192 m. from the coast, and above the falls there is a much longer
stretch of navigable water.
From the Sao Francisco to Cape Frio there are many short rivers rising
on the slopes of the plateau and crossing the narrow coastal plain to
the sea. There are also a few of greater length which rise far back on
the plateau itself and flow down to the plain through deeply cut,
precipitous courses. The navigable channels of these rivers are
restricted to the coastal plain, except where a river has excavated
for itself a valley back into the plateau. The more important of these
rivers are the Itapicuru, Paraguassu, Contas or Jussiape, Pardo or
Patype, and Jequitinhonha, of Bahia; the Mucury, and Doce, of Espirito
Santo; and the Parahyba do Sul of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Of the
Bahia group, the Jequitinhonha, sometimes called the Belmonte on its
lower course, is the longest and most important, rising near Serro in
the state of Minas Geraes and flowing in a curving north-east
direction for a distance of about 500 m., 84 of which are navigable
inland from the sea. The Mucury and Doce also rise in Minas Geraes,
and are much broken in their descent to the lower plains, the former
having a navigable channel of 98 m. and the latter of 138 m. The
Parahyba, or Parahyba do Sul, which enters the sea about 30 m. north
of Cape S. Thome, is the largest and most important of the Atlantic
coast rivers south of the Sao Francisco. It rises on an elevated
tableland in the state of Sao Paulo and flows across the state of Rio
de Janeiro from west to east, through a broad fertile valley producing
coffee in its most elevated districts and sugar on its alluvial
bottom-lands nearer the sea. It has a total length of 658 m., 57 of
which are navigable between S. Fidelis and its mouth, and about 90 m.
of its upper course.
South of Cape Frio there are no large rivers along the coast because
of the proximity of the Serra do Mar--the coastal plain being very
narrow and in places disappearing altogether. There are many short
streams along this coast, fed by heavy rainfalls, but they have no
geographic importance and no economic value under existing conditions.
The largest of these and the only one of commercial value is the
Ribeira de Iguape, which has its source on the tablelands of Parana
and after receiving several affluents west of the Serra do Mar breaks
through a depression in that range and discharges into the Atlantic
some miles below Santos on the southern boundary of the state of Sao
Paulo. This river has a navigable channel of 118 m. below Xiririca,
and communicates with an inland canal or waterway extending for many
miles along this coast and known as the Iguape, or Mar Pequeno. In Rio
Grande do Sul the Atlantic coastal plain extends westward more than
half-way across the state, and is well watered by numerous streams
flowing eastward to the Lagoa dos Patos. Of these only two are of
large size--the Guayba and Camaquam. The first is formed by the
confluence of the Jacuhy, Cahy, Sinos and Gravatahy, and is known
under this name only from Porto Alegre to the Ponta de Itapua, where
it enters the Lagoa dos Patos. This river system drains a large part
of the northern mountainous region of the state, and has a
considerable extension of navigable channels between the plateau
margin and the lake. In the extreme southern part of the state, the
Lagoa Mirim empties into the Lagoa dos Patos through a navigable
channel 61-1/2 m. long, called the Rio Sao Goncalo.
The Brazilian rivers of the Rio de la Plata system are numerous and
important. Those of the Paraguay drain the south-western part of Matto
Grosso, and the tributaries of the Parana cover the western slopes of
the Serra do Mar from Rio Grande do Sul north to the south-west part
of Minas Geraes, and include the south-east part of Matto Grosso and
the south part of Goyaz within their drainage basin. This is one of
the most important fluvial systems of Brazil, but its economic value
is impaired by the great waterfalls of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and
Uribu-punga, and by the rapids and waterfalls in the majority of its
affluents near their junction with the main stream. Between the two
great waterfalls of the Parana there is an open channel of 276 m.,
passing through a rich and healthy country, and receiving large
tributaries from one of the most fertile regions of Brazil. Among the
larger of these are the great falls of the Iguassu, near the junction
of that river with the Parana. Though the Uruguay plays a less
important part, its relations to the country are similar to those of
the Parana, and its tributaries from the plateau region are similarly
broken by falls and rapids. The Paraguay is in great part a lowland
river, with a sluggish current, and is navigable by large river
steamers up to Corumba, and by smaller steamers to Cuyaba and the
mouth of the Jauru.
Lakes.
Compared with the number, length and volume of its rivers, Brazil has
very few lakes, only two of which are noticeable for their size. There
are a number of lakes in the lowland region of the Amazon valley, but
these are mainly overflow reservoirs whose areas expand and contract
with the rise and fall of the great river. The coastal plain is also
intersected by lagoons, lakes and inland channels formed by uplifted
beaches. These inland channels often afford many miles of sheltered
navigation. The lakes formed in this manner are generally shallow, and
are sometimes associated with extensive swamps, as in southern Bahia.
The lakes of the Alagoas coast, however, are long, narrow and deep,
occupying valleys which were deeply excavated when the land stood at a
higher level, and which were transformed into lakes by the elevation
of the coast. The largest of these are the Lagoa do Norte, on whose
margin stands the city of Maceio, and the Lagoa do Sul, a few miles
south of that city. Both have outlets to the sea, and the former is
salt There is a large number of these lakes along the coasts of
Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, some of them of considerable size.
The two largest lakes of this class are on the coast of Rio Grande do
Sul and are known as the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim. Both of
these lakes lie nearly parallel with the coast line, are separated
from the ocean by broad sand beaches filled with small lakes, and
communicate with the ocean through the same channel. The Lagoa dos
Patos is about 124 m. long with a maximum width of 37 m., and Lagoa
Mirim is 108 m. long with a maximum width of 15 m. Both are navigable,
though comparatively shallow and filled with sandbanks. So far as
known, there are no lakes of noteworthy size in the interior of the
country. There are a few small lakes in Maranhao and Piauhy, some in
Goyaz in the great valley of the Araguaya, and a considerable number
in Matto Grosso, especially in the Paraguay basin, where the sluggish
current of that river is unable to carry away the rainfall in the
rainy season.
Coast.
The coast of Brazil is indented with a number of almost landlocked
bays, forming spacious and accessible harbours. The larger and more
important of these are Todos os Santos, on which is located the city
of Sao Salvador or Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro or Guanabara, beside
which stands the capital of the republic. These two are freely
accessible to the largest ships afloat. The bays of Espirito Santo,
Paranagua and Sao Francisco have similar characteristics, but they are
smaller and more difficult of access. The first is the harbour for the
city of Victoria, and the other two for ports of the same name in
southern Brazil. The port of Pernambuco, or Recife, is formed by a
stone reef lying across the entrance to a shallow bay at the mouth of
two small rivers, Beberibe and Capibaribe, and is accessible to
steamers of medium draught. Santa Catharina and Maranhao have
well-sheltered harbours formed by an island lying in the mouth of a
large bay, but the latter is shallow and difficult of access. Para,
Parnahyba, Parahyba, Santos and Rio Grande do Sul are river ports
situated near the sea on rivers having the same name; but, with the
exception of Para and Santos, they are difficult of access and are of
secondary importance. There are still other bays along the coast which
are well adapted for commercial purposes but are used only in the
coasting trade. Many of the Atlantic coast rivers would afford
excellent port facilities if obstructions were removed from their
mouths.
_Geology._--Brazil is a region which has been free from violent
disturbances since an early geological period. It has, indeed, been
subject to oscillations, but the movements have been regional in
character and have not been accompanied by the formation of any
mountain chain or any belt of intense folding. From the Devonian
onwards the beds lie flat or dip at low angles. They are faulted but
not sharply folded. The mountain ranges of the east of Brazil, from
Cape St Roque to the mouth of the river Plate, are composed chiefly of
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Some of the metamorphic rocks may
belong to the older Palaeozoic period, but the greater part of the
series is probably Archaean. Similar rocks cover a large area in the
province of Goyaz and in the south of the Matto Grosso, and they form,
also, the hills which border the basin of the Amazon on the confines
of Venezuela and Guiana. They constitute, in fact, an incomplete rim
around the basin of sedimentary beds which occupies the Amazonian
depression. In a large part of this basin the covering of sedimentary
deposits is comparatively thin. The crystalline floor is exposed in
the valleys of the Madeira, Xingu, &c. Some of the rocks thus exposed
are, however, eruptive (e.g. in the Tapajoz), and probably do not
belong to the Archaean. The crystalline rocks are succeeded by beds
which have been referred to the Cambrian and Silurian systems. In the
valley of the Trombetas, one of the northern tributaries of the
Amazon, fossils have been found which indicate either the top of the
Ordovician or the bottom of the Silurian. In the Maecuru, another
northern affluent, graptolites of Ordovician age have been discovered,
and Silurian fossils are said to have been found in the Maraca.
Elsewhere the identification of the Silurian and older systems does
not rest on palaeontological evidence. Devonian beds cover a much more
extensive area. They crop out in a band some 25 to 50 m. north of the
lower Amazon and in another band at a still greater distance south of
that river. These bands are often concealed by more recent deposits,
but it is clear that in this region the Devonian beds form a basin or
synclinal with the Amazon for its axis. Devonian beds also lie upon
the older rocks in the Matto Grosso and other provinces in the
interior of Brazil, where they generally form plateaux of nearly
horizontal strata. Fossils have been found in many localities. They
belong to either the lower or the middle division of the Devonian
system. The fauna shows striking analogies with that of the Bokkeveld
beds of South Africa on the one hand and of the Hamilton group of
North America on the other. The Carboniferous system in Brazil
presents itself under two facies, the one marine and the other
terrestrial. In the basin of the Lower Amazon the Carboniferous beds
lie within the Devonian synclinal and crop out on both sides of the
river next to the Devonian bands. There is a lower series consisting
of sandstone and an upper series of limestone. The former appears to
be almost unfossiliferous, the latter has yielded a rich marine fauna,
which belongs to the top of the Carboniferous or to the
Permo-carboniferous. In southern Brazil, on the other hand, in Rio
Grande do Sul, Parana, &c., the beds of this period are of terrestrial
origin, containing coal seams and remains of plants. Some of the
plants are European forms, others belong to the Glossopteris flora
characteristic of India and South Africa. The beds are homotaxial with
the Karharbari series of India, and represent either the top of the
Carboniferous or the base of the Permian of Europe. The only Mesozoic
system which is represented in Brazil by marine beds is the
Cretaceous, and the marine facies, is restricted to the coasts and the
basin of the Amazon. In the province of Sergipe, on the east coast,
the beds are approximately on the horizon of the Cenomanian; in the
valley of the Amazon they belong to the highest parts of the
Cretaceous system, and the fauna shows Tertiary affinities. In the
interior of Brazil, the Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid by a
series of red sandstones, &c., which appear to be of continental
origin and of which the age is uncertain. Tertiary beds cover a
considerable area, especially in the Amazonian depression. They
consist chiefly of sands and clays of aeolian and freshwater origin.
Of the Pleistocene and recent deposits the most interesting are the
remains of extinct animals (_Glyptodon_, _Mylodon_, _Megatherium_,
&c.) in the caves of the Sao Francisco.
From the above account it will appear that, excepting near the coast
and in the basin of the Amazon, there is no evidence that any part of
Brazil has been under the sea since the close of the Devonian period.
During the Triassic and Jurassic periods even the basin of the Amazon
appears to have been dry land. Eruptive rocks occur in the Devonian
and Carboniferous beds, but there is no evidence of volcanic activity
since the Palaeozoic epoch. The remarkable "stone reefs" of the
north-east coast are ancient beaches hardened by the infiltration of
carbonate of lime. They are quite distinct in their formation from the
coral reefs of the same coast.
_Climate._--Brazil lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, less
than one-twelfth of its area lying south of the tropic of Capricorn.
In general terms, it is a tropical country, with sub-tropical and
temperate areas covering its three southern states and a great part of
the elevated central plateau. The forest-covered, lowland valley of
the Amazon is a region of high temperatures which vary little
throughout the year, and of heavy rainfall. There is no appreciable
change of seasons, except that produced by increased rainfall in the
rainy season. The average temperature according to Castelnau is about
78 deg.F., or 82.40 deg. to 84.20 deg. F. according to Agassiz. There
is an increase in the rainfall from August to October, and again from
November to March, the latter being the regular rainy season, but the
time varies considerably between the valley of the upper Amazon and
those of the upper Madeira and Negro. There is usually a short dry
season on the upper Amazon in January and February, which causes two
annual floods--that of November-December, and the great flood of
March-June. The subsidence of the latter usually lasts until October.
The average rainfall throughout the whole Amazon valley is estimated
by Reclus as "probably in excess of 2 metres" (78.7 in.), and the
maximum rise of the great flood is about 45 ft. The prevailing winds
in the Amazon valley are easterly and westerly (or south-westerly),
the former warm and charged with moisture, the latter dry and cold.
The easterly winds, which are deflections of the trade winds, blow
upstream with great regularity and force, more especially in the
winter or dry season, and are felt as far inland as the mouths of the
Madeira and Negro. Above these they are less regular and are attracted
northward by the heated _llanos_ of Venezuela in winter, or southward
by the heated _campos_ of Matto Grosso in summer. The cold
south-westerly winds are felt when the sun is north of the equator,
and are most severe, for a few days, in the month of May, when a
_tempo da friagem_ (cold period) causes much discomfort throughout the
upper Amazon region. There are winter winds from the Andes, but in the
summer season there are cold currents of air from up-river (_ventos da
cima_) which are usually followed by downpours of rain.
The coastal plain as far south as Santos is a region of high
temperatures and great humidity. The year is usually divided into a
winter (_inverno_) and summer (_verao_), corresponding approximately
to a dry and wet season. The "dry" season, however, is a season of
moderate rainfall, except on the north-east coast where arid
conditions prevail. Another exception is that of the Pernambuco coast,
where the rainy season comes between March and August, with the
heaviest rainfall from May to July, which is the time of the southern
winter. Going southward there is also a gradual decrease in the mean
annual temperature, the difference between Rio de Janeiro and the
Amazon being about 5 deg. The north-east coast, which is sandy and
barren, shows an average mean annual temperature (at Fortaleza) of
nearly 80 deg. F., which is slightly higher than those of Maranhao and
Para. At Pernambuco the mean summer temperature is 79.5 deg. and that
of winter 76.8 deg., which are about 3 deg. lower than the mean
temperature of Bahia in summer, and 5 deg. higher than the Bahia mean
in winter. South of Bahia there is a gradual increase in the rainfall,
that of Rio de Janeiro exceeding 43 in. per annum. At Santos the
rainfall is exceptionally heavy and the mean temperature high, but
below that point the climatic conditions are considerably modified,
the range in temperature being greater, the mean annual temperature
lower, and the rainfall more evenly distributed throughout the year.
The winds are more variable, and the seasons are more sharply defined.
In Rio Grande do Sul the range in temperature is from 26 deg. to 80
deg., the climate being similar to that of Uruguay. At Pelotas, a
sea-level port on Lagoa dos Patos, the mean annual temperature is
about 63 deg. and the annual rainfall about 42 in. Extreme variations
in temperature are often produced by cold south-west storms from the
Argentine pampas, which sweep across southern Brazil as far north as
Cape Frio, the fall in temperature sometimes being 22 deg. to 27 deg.
These storms usually last from two to three days and cause much
discomfort. Winter rains are more frequent in southern Brazil, and
violent storms prevail in August and September. At Blumenau, on the
Santa Catharina coast, the annual rainfall is 53 in.
The climatic conditions of the Brazilian plateau are widely different
from those of the coast in many respects. There is less uniformity in
temperature, and the elevated _chapadas_ are generally hotter during
the day and cooler at night than are localities of the same latitude
on the coast. The Brazilian Guiana plateau, lying immediately north of
the equator, is in great part a hot, stony desert. Geographically it
belongs to the Amazon basin, as its western and southern slopes are
drained by tributaries of that great river. Climatically, however, it
is a region apart. It lies in the north-east trade winds belt, but the
mountain chain on its northern frontier robs these winds of their
moisture and leaves the greater part of the Brazilian plateau
rainless. Its eastern and western extremities, however, receive more
rain, the former being well forested, while the latter is covered with
grassy _campos_. South of the Amazon valley and filling a great part
of the eastern projection of the continent, is another arid,
semi-barren plateau, lying within the south-east trade winds belt, and
extending from Piauhy southward to southern Bahia. It covers the state
of Piauhy and the western or inland parts of the states of Ceara, Rio
Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco and Bahia. The year is divided
into a dry and wet season, the first from June to December, when rain
rarely falls, the streams dry up and the _campos_ are burned bare, and
the second from January to May when the rains are sometimes heavy and
the _campos_ are covered with luxuriant verdure. The rains are neither
regular nor certain, however, and sometimes fail for a succession of
years, causing destructive _seccas_ (droughts). The interior districts
of Ceara, Pernambuco and Bahia have suffered severely from these
_seccas_. The sun temperature is high on these barren tablelands, but
the nights are cool and refreshing. The prevailing winds are the
south-east trades, which have lost some of their moisture in rising
from the coastal plain. In summer, becoming warmed by the heated
surface of the plateau, they sweep across it without a cloud or drop
of rain. In winter the plateau is less heated, and cold currents of
air from the west and south-west cause precipitation over a part if
not all of this region. South and south-west of this arid plateau lie
the inhabited tablelands of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Minas
Geraes, where the climate is greatly modified by a luxuriant
vegetation and southerly winds, as well as by the elevation. Minas
Geraes is forested along its water courses and along its southern
border only; its sun temperature, therefore, is high and the rainfall
in its northern districts is comparatively light. Sao Paulo is partly
covered by open _campos_, and these also serve to augment the maximum
temperature. In both of these states, however, the nights are cool,
and the mean annual temperature ranges from 68 deg. to 77 deg., the
northern districts of Minas Geraes being much warmer than the
southern. In Sao Paulo and southern Minas Geraes there are sometimes
frosts. In the Parahyba valley, which extends across the state of Rio
de Janeiro, the mean temperature is somewhat higher than it is in Sao
Paulo and Minas Geraes, and the nights are warmer, but the higher
valleys of the Serra do Mar enjoy a delightfully temperate climate.
The rainfall throughout this region is abundant, except in northern
Minas Geraes, where the climatic conditions are influenced to some
extent by the arid eastern plateau. South of Sao Paulo the tablelands
of Parana, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate
climate, with an abundant rainfall. There are occasional frosts, but
snow is never seen. Of Goyaz and Matto Grosso very little can be said.
The lower river valleys of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingu, Tapajos and
Paraguay are essentially tropical, their climate being hot and humid
like that of the Amazon. The higher valleys of the Parana and its
tributaries, and of the rivers which flow northward, are sub-tropical
in character, having high sun temperatures and cool nights. Above
these, the _chapadas_ lie open to the sun and wind and have a cool,
bracing atmosphere even where high sun temperatures prevail. The mean
annual temperature at Goyaz (city), according to a limited number of
observations, is about 77 deg. There is no absolutely dry season in
this part of the great Brazilian plateau, though the year is
customarily divided into a dry and wet season, the latter running
from September to April in Goyaz, and from November to April in Matto
Grosso. The prevailing winds are from the north-west in this region,
and westerly winds in the rainy season are usually accompanied by
rain.
_Fauna._--The indigenous fauna of Brazil is noteworthy not only for
the variety and number of its genera and species, but also for its
deficiency in the larger mammals. Of this, one of the best authorities
on the subject (H.W. Bates in _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_)
says: "Brazil, moreover, is throughout poor in terrestrial mammals,
and the species are of small size." It is noteworthy, also, for the
large number of species having arboreal habits, the density and extent
of the Amazon forests favouring their development rather than the
development of those of terrestrial habits. Of Quadrumana there are
about fifty species in Brazil, all arboreal, thirty-eight of which
inhabit the Amazon region. They belong mostly to the _Cebidae_ family,
and are provided with prehensile tails. The Carnivora are represented
by six species of the _Felidae_, the best known of which is the onca,
or jaguar (_F. onca, L_.), and the cougar, or puma (_F. concolor_);
three species of the _Canidae_, the South American wolf (_C.
jubatus_), and two small jackals (_C. brasiliensis_ and _C. vetulus_);
and a few species of the Mustelina including two of the otter, two
_Galictis_ and one _Mephitis_. Of the plantigrades, Brazil has no
bears, but has the related species of raccoon (_Nasua socialis_ and
_N. solitaria_), popularly called _coatis_. The opossum (_Didelphis_)
is represented by three or four species, two of which are so small
that they are generally called wood rats. The rodents are numerous and
include several peculiar species. Only one species of hare is found in
Brazil, the _Lepus brasiliensis_, and but one also of the squirrel
(_Scyurus_). Of the amphibious rodents, the prea (_Cavia aperea_),
moco (_C. rupestris_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_), cutia (_Dasyprocta
aguti_) and capybara (_Hydrochoerus capybara_) are noteworthy for
their size and extensive range. Their flesh is used as an article of
food, that of the paca being highly esteemed. Of the Muridae there are
several genera and a large number of species, some of them evidently
importations from the Old World. Brazil has three groups of animals
similar to the common rat--the _Capromydae_, _Loncheridae_ and
_Psammoryctidae_--the best known of which is the "tuco-tuco"
(_Clenomys brasiliensis_), a small burrowing animal of Rio Grande do
Sul which excavates long subterranean galleries and lives on roots and
bulbs. One of the characteristic orders of the Brazilian fauna is that
of the Edentata, which comprises the sloth, armadillo and ant-eater.
These animals are found only in the tropical regions of South America.
The range of the sloth is from the Guianas south into Minas Geraes,
the armadillo as far south as the Argentine pampas and the ant-eater
from the Amazon south to Paraguay, though it is found in the Amazon
region principally. The sloth (_Bradypus_) is an arboreal animal which
feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of the Cecropias. It includes
two recognized genera and half a dozen species, the best known of
which is _B. didactylus_. The common name in Brazil is _preguica_,
which is equivalent to its English name. Of armadillos, commonly
called _tatu_ in Brazil, the largest species is the _Dasypus gigas_,
but the best known is the _tatu-ete_ (_D. octocinctus_), which is
highly esteemed for its flesh. The ant-eaters (_Myrmecophaga_) are
divided into three or four species, one of which (_M. jubata_) is
exclusively terrestrial, and the others arboreal. The popular name for
the animal is _tamandua_. The _M. jubata_, or _tamandua bandeira_, is
sometimes found as far south as Paraguay. Of the ruminants, Brazil has
only four or five species of _Cervidae_, which are likewise common to
other countries of South America. The largest of these is the marsh
deer (_C. paludosus_), which in size resembles its European congeners.
The others are the _C. campestris_, _C. nemorivagus_, _C. rufus_ and a
small species or variety called _C. nanus_ by the Danish naturalist Dr
P.W. Lund. The pachyderms are represented by three species of the
peccary (_Dicotyles_) and two of the anta, or tapir (_Tapirus_). The
former are found over a wide range of country, extending into Bolivia
and Argentina, and are noted for their impetuous pugnacity. The tapir
also has an extensive range between the coast and the foothills of the
Andes, and from northern Argentina to south-eastern Colombia. It is
the largest of the Brazilian mammals, and inhabits densely forested
tracts near river courses. The two species are _T. americanus_, which
is the larger and best known, and the _anta chure_, found in Minas
Geraes, which is said to be identical with the _T. Roulini_ of
Colombia. Perhaps the most interesting mammal of Brazil is the
_manati_, or sea-cow (_Manatus americanus_), which inhabits the lower
Amazon and sometimes reaches a length of 15 to 20 ft. It is taken with
the harpoon and its oil is one of the commercial products of the
Amazon valley.
The avifauna of Brazil is rich in genera, species and individuals,
especially in species with brilliantly-coloured plumage. It is
estimated that more than half the birds of Brazil are insectivorous,
and that more than one-eighth are climbers. The range in size is a
wide one--from the tiny humming-bird to the ema, rhea, or American
ostrich. Although the order which includes song-birds is numerous in
species and individuals, it is noticeably poor in really good
songsters. On the other hand it is exceptionally rich in species
having strident voices and peculiar unmusical calls, like the _paco_
(_Coracina scuttata_) and the _araponga_ (_Chasmorhynchus
nudicollis_). Two species of vultures, twenty-three of falcons and
eight of owls represent the birds of prey. The best known vulture is
the common _urubu_ (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig), which is the
universal scavenger of the tropics. The climbers comprise a large
number of species, some of which, like those of the parrot
(_Psittacidae_) and woodpecker (_Picus_), are particularly noticeable
in every wooded region of the country. One of the most striking
species of the former is the brilliantly-coloured _arara_
(_Macrocercus_, L.), which is common throughout northern Brazil.
Another interesting species is the toucan (_Ramphastos_), whose
enormous beak, awkward flight and raucous voice make it a conspicuous
object in the great forests of northern Brazil. In strong contrast to
the ungainly toucan is the tiny humming-bird, whose beautiful plumage,
swiftness of flight and power of wing are sources of constant wonder
and admiration. Of this smallest of birds there are fifty-nine
well-known species, divided into two groups, the _Phaethorninae_,
which prefer the forest shade and live on insects, and the
_Trochilinae_, which frequent open sunny places where flowers are to
be found. One of the Brazilian birds whose habits have attracted much
interest is the _Joao de Barro_ (Clay John) or oven bird (_Furnarius
rufus_), which builds a house of reddish clay for its nest and
attaches it to the branch of a tree, usually in a fork. The thrush is
represented by a number of species, one of which, the _sabia_
(_Mimus_), has become the popular song-bird of Brazil through a poem
written by Goncalves Dias. The dove and pigeon have also a number of
native species, one of which, the _pomba jurity_ (_Peristera
frontalis_), is a highly-appreciated table luxury. The gallinaceous
birds are well represented, especially in game birds. The most
numerous of these are the _perdiz_ (partridge), the best known of
which is the _Tinamus maculosa_ which frequents the _campos_ of the
south, the _inhambu_ (_Crypturus_), _capoeira_ (_Odontophorus_), and
several species of the penelope family popularly known as the
_jacutinga, jacu_ and _jacu-assu_. The common domesticated fowl is not
indigenous. Among the wading and running birds, of which the _ema_ is
the largest representative, there are many species of both
descriptions. In the Amazon lowlands are white herons (_Ardea
candidissima_), egrets (_A. egretta_), bitterns (_A. exilis_), blue
herons (_A. herodias_) scarlet ibises (_Ibis rubra_), roseate
spoonbills (_Platalea ajaja_); on higher ground the beautiful peacock
heron (_A. helias_) which is easily domesticated; and on the dry
elevated _campos_ the _ceriema_ (_Dicholophus cristatus_) which is
prized for its flesh, and the _jacamin_ (_Psophia crepitans_) which is
frequently domesticated. Prominent among the storks is the great
black-headed white crane, called the _jaburu_ (_Mycteria americana_),
which is found along the Amazon and down the coast and grows to a
height of 4-1/2 ft. Of the swimmers, the number of species is smaller,
but some of them are widely distributed and numerous in individuals.
There are but few species of ducks, and they are apparently more
numerous in southern Brazil than on the Amazon.
The reptilian fauna exhibits an exceptionally large number of
interesting genera and species. A great part of the river systems of
the country with their flooded areas are highly favourable to the
development of reptilian life. Most prominent among these is the
American alligator, of which there are, according to Netterer, two
genera and eight species in Brazil. They are very numerous in the
Amazon and its tributaries and in the Paraguay, and are found in all
the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Three of the Brazilian species are
voracious and dangerous. The largest of the Amazon species are the
_jacare-assu_ (_Caiman niger_), _jacare_ (_C. fissipes_) and
_jacare-tinga_ (_C. sclerops_). The Amazon is also the home of one of
the largest fresh-water turtles known, the _Emys amazonica_, locally
called the _jurara-assu_ or _tartaruga grande_. These turtles are so
numerous that their flesh and eggs have long been a principal food
supply for the Indian population of that region. Another Amazon
species, the _E. tracaxa_, is still more highly esteemed for its
flesh, but it is smaller and deposits fewer eggs in the sandy river
beaches. Lagartos (_Iguanas_) and lizards are common everywhere. The
ophidians are also numerous, especially in the wooded lowlands
valleys, and the poisonous species, though less numerous than others,
include some of the most dangerous known--the rattlesnake _surucucu_
(_Lachesis rhombeatus_), and _jararaca_ (_Bothrops_). The Amazon
region is frequented by the _giboia_ (boa constrictor), and the
central plateau by the _sucuriu_ (_Eunectes murinus_), both
distinguished for their enormous size. The batrachians include a very
large number of genera and species, especially in the Amazon valley.
The fauna of the rivers and coast of Brazil is richer in species and
individuals than that of the land. All the rivers are richly stocked,
and valuable fishing grounds are to be found along the coast,
especially that of southern Bahia and Espirito Santo where the
_garoupa_ (_Serranus_) is found in large numbers. Some of the small
fish along the coast are highly esteemed for their flavour. Whales
were once numerous between Capes St Roque and Frio, but are now rarely
seen. Of the edible river fish, the best known is the _pirarucu_
(_Sudis gigas_), a large fish of the Amazon which is salted and dried
for market during the low-water season. Fish is a staple food of the
Indian tribes of the Amazon region, and their fishing season is during
the period of low water. The visit of Professor Louis Agassiz to the
Amazon in 1865 resulted in a list of 1143 species, but it is believed
that no less than 1800 to 2000 species are to be found in that great
river and its tributaries.
In strong contrast to the poverty of Brazil in the larger mammals is
the astonishing profusion of insect life in every part of the country.
The Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are especially numerous, both in
species and individuals. A striking illustration of this extraordinary
profusion was given by the English naturalist H.W. Bates, who found
7000 species of insects in the vicinity of only one of his collecting
places on the Amazon (Ega), of which 550 species were of butterflies.
Within an hour's walk of Para are to be found, he says, about 700
species of butterflies, "whilst the total number found in the British
Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports only
321." (H.W. Bates, _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_.) One of the
rare species of the Amazon _Morphos_ (_M. hecuba_) measures 8 to 9 in.
across its expanded wings. Dipterous insects are also very numerous in
species, especially in those of sanguinary habits, such as the
mosquito, _pium_, _maroim_, _carapana_, _borochudo_, &c. In some
places these insects constitute a veritable plague, and the infested
regions are practically uninhabitable. The related species of the
_Oestridae_ family, which include the widely disseminated _chigoe_ or
_bicho do pe_ (_Pulex penetrans_), and the equally troublesome _berne_
(_Cutiterebra noxialis_), which is so injurious to animals, are
equally numerous. The most numerous of all, however, and perhaps the
most harmful to civilized man, are the termites and ants, which are
found everywhere in the uninhabited campo and forest regions, as well
as in the cultivated districts. Nature has provided several species of
animals, birds and reptiles, to feed upon these insects, and various
poisonous and suffocating compounds are used to destroy them, but with
no great degree of success. It is not uncommon to find once cultivated
fields abandoned because of their ravages and to see large _campos_
completely covered with enormous ant-hills. The termites, or "white
ants," are exceptionally destructive because of their habit of
tunnelling through the softer woods of habitations and furniture,
while some species of ants, like the _sauba_, are equally destructive
to plantations because of the rapidity with which they strip a tree of
its foliage. Spiders are represented by a very large number of
species, some of which are beautifully coloured. The largest of these
is the _Mygale_ with a body 2 in. in length and outstretched legs
covering 7 in., a monster strong enough to capture and kill small
birds. A large _Mygale_ found on the island of Siriba, of the Abrolhos
group, feeds upon lizards, and has been known to attack and kill young
chickens. One of the most troublesome pests of the interior is a
minute degenerate spider of the genus _Ixodes_, called _carrapato_, or
bush-tick, which breeds on the ground and then creeps up the grass
blades and bushes where it waits for some passing man or beast. Its
habit is to bury its head in its victim's skin and remain there until
gorged with blood, when it drops off. Scorpions are common, but are
considered less poisonous than some European species.
_Flora._--Brazil not only is marvellously rich in botanical species,
but included at the beginning of the 20th century the largest area of
virgin forest on the surface of the earth. The flora falls naturally
into three great divisions: that of the Amazon basin where exceptional
conditions of heat and moisture prevail; that of the coast where heat,
varying rainfall, oceanic influences and changing seasons have greatly
modified the general character of the vegetation; and that of the
elevated interior, or _sertao_, where dryer conditions, rocky
surfaces, higher sun temperatures and large open spaces produce a
vegetation widely different from those of the other two regions.
Besides these, the flora of the Paraguay basin varies widely from that
of the inland plateau, and that of the Brazilian Guiana region is
essentially distinct from the Amazon. The latter region is densely
forested from the Atlantic to the Andes, but with a varying width of
about 200 m. on the coast to about 900 m. between the Bolivian and
Venezuelan _llanos_, and thus far civilization has made only a very
slight impression upon it. Even where settlements have been located,
constant effort is required to keep the vegetation down. Along the
coast, much of the virgin forest has been cut away, not only for the
creation of cultivated plantations, but to meet the commercial demand
for Brazil-wood and furniture woods.
The chief characteristic of the Amazonian forest, aside from its
magnitude, is the great diversity of genera and species. In the
northern temperate zone we find forests of a single species, others of
three or four species; in this great tropical forest the habit of
growth is solitary and an acre of ground will contain hundreds of
species--palms, myrtles, acacias, mimosas, cecropias, euphorbias,
malvaceas, laurels, cedrellas, bignonias, bombaceas, apocyneas,
malpigias, lecythises, swartzias, &c. The vegetation of the lower
river-margins, which are periodically flooded, differs in some
particulars from that of the higher ground, and the same variation is
to be found between the forests of the upper and lower Amazon, and
between the Amazon and its principal tributaries. The density of the
forest is greatly augmented by the _cipos_, or lianas, which overgrow
the largest trees to their tops, and by a profusion of epiphytes which
cover the highest branches. As a rule the trees of the Amazon forest
are not conspicuously high, a few species rarely reaching a height of
200 ft. The average is probably less than one-half that height. This
is especially true of the flood plains where the annual inundations
prevent the formation of humus and retard forest growth. The largest
of the Amazon forest trees are the _massaranduba_ (_Mimusops elata_),
called the cow-tree because of its milky sap, the _samauma_
(_Eriodendron samauma_) or silk-cotton tree, the _pau d' arco_
(_Tecoma speciosa_), _pau d' alho_ (_Catraeva tapia_), _bacori_
(_Symphonea coccinea_), _sapucaia_ (_Lecythis ollaria_), and
_castanheira_ or brazil-nut tree (_Bertholletia excelsa_). The Amazon
region has a comparatively narrow frontage on the Atlantic. In
Maranhao, which belongs to the coast region, open spaces or _campos_
appear, though the state is well wooded and its forests have the
general characteristics of the lower Amazon. South-east of the
Parnahyba the coast region becomes dryer and more sandy and the
forests disappear. The coast and tide-water rivers are fringed with
mangrove, and the sandy plain reaching back to the margin of the
inland plateau is generally bare of vegetation, though the carnahuba
palm (_Copernicia cerifera_) and some species of low-growing trees are
to be found in many places. The higher levels of this plain are
covered with shrubs and small trees, principally mimosas. The slopes
of the plateau, which receive a better rainfall, are more heavily
forested, some districts being covered with deciduous trees, forming
_catingas_ in local parlance. This dry, thinly-wooded region extends
south to the states of Parahyba, where a more regular rainfall favours
forest growth nearer the coast. Between Parahyba and southern Bahia
forests and open plains are intermingled; thence southward the narrow
coastal plain and bordering mountain slopes are heavily forested. The
sea-coast, bays and tide-water rivers are still fringed with mangrove,
and on the sandy shores above Cape Frio grow large numbers of the
exotic cocoa-nut palm. Many species of indigenous palms abound, and in
places the forests are indescribably luxuriant. These are made up, as
Prince Max zu Neuwied found in southern Bahia in 1817, "of the genera
_Cocos_, _Melastoma_, _Bignonia_, _Rhexia_, _Mimosa_, _Inga_,
_Bombax_, _Ilex_, _Laurus_, _Myrthus_, _Eugenia_, _Jacaranda_,
_Jatropha_, _Visinia_, _Lecythis_, _Ficus_, and a thousand other, for
the most part, unknown species of trees." Further inland the higher
country becomes more open and the forests are less luxuriant. Giant
cacti and spiny scrub abound. Then come the _catinga_ tracts, and,
beyond these, the open _campos_ of the elevated plateau, dotted with
clumps of low growing bushes and broken by tracts of _carrasco_, a
thick, matted, bushy growth 10 to 12 ft. in height. Formerly this
coast region furnished large quantities of Brazil-wood (_Caesalpinia
echinata_), and the river valleys have long been the principal source
of Brazil's best cabinet-wood--rosewood (_Dalbergia nigra_), jacaranda
(_Machaeriumfirmum_, Benth.), vinhatico (_Plathymenia foliosa_,
Benth.), peroba (_Aspidosperma peroba_), cedro, &c. The exotic
_mangabeira_ (mango) is found everywhere along the coast, together
with the bamboo, orange, lemon, banana, cashew, &c.
Of the great inland region, which includes the arid campos of the
north, the partially-wooded plateaus of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and Matto
Grosso, the temperate highlands of the south, and the tropical
lowlands of the Paraguay basin, no adequate description can be given
without taking each section in detail, which can be done to better
advantage in describing the individual states. In general, the
_carrasco_ growth extends over the whole central plateau, and heavy
forests are found only in the deep river valleys. Those opening
northward have the characteristic flora of the Amazon basin. The
Paraguay basin is covered with extensive marshy tracts and open
woodlands, the palms being the conspicuous feature. The vegetation is
similar to that of Paraguay and the Chaco, and aquatic plants are
specially numerous and luxuriant. On the temperate uplands of the
southern states there are imposing forests of South American pine
(_Araucaria brasiliensis_), whose bare trunks and umbrella-like tops
give to them the appearance of open woodland. These forests extend
from Parana into Rio Grande do Sul and smaller tracts are also found
in Minas Geraes. Large tracts of _Ilex paraguayensis_, from which
_mate_, or Paraguay-tea, is gathered, are found in this same region.
The economic plants of Brazil, both indigenous and exotic, are
noticeably numerous. Coffee naturally occupies first place, and is
grown wherever frosts are not severe from the Amazon south to Parana.
The states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes are the
largest producers, but it is also grown for export in Espirito Santo,
Bahia and Ceara. The export in 1905 was 10,820,604 bags of 132 lb.
each, with an official valuation of L21,420,330. Sugar cane, another
exotic, has an equally wide distribution, and cotton is grown along
the coast from Maranhao to Sao Paulo. Other economic plants and fruits
having a wide distribution are tobacco, maize, rice, beans, sweet
potatoes, bananas, cacao (_Theobroma cacao_), mandioca or cassava
(_Manihot utilitissima_), _aipim_ or sweet mandioca (_M. aipi_),
guavas (_Psidium guayava_, Raddi), oranges, lemons, limes, grapes,
pineapples, _mamao_ (_Carica papaya_), bread-fruit (_Artocarpus
incisa_), jack fruit (_A. integrifolia_), and many others less known
outside the tropics. Among the palms there are several of great
economic value, not only as food producers but also for various
domestic uses. The fruit of the _pupunha_ or peach palm (_Guilielma
speciosa_) is an important food among the Indians of the Amazon
valley, where the tree was cultivated by them long before the
discovery of America. Humboldt found it among the native tribes of the
Orinoco valley, where it is called _pirijao_. The ita palm,
_Mauritia_, _flexuosa_ (a fan-leaf palm) provides an edible fruit,
medullary meal, drink, fibre, roofing and timber, but is less used on
the Amazon than it is on the lower Orinoco. The _assai_ (_Euterpe
oleracea_) is another highly-prized palm because of a beverage made
from its fruit along the lower Amazon. A closely-related species or
variety (_Euterpe edulis_) is the well-known palmito or cabbage palm
found over the greater part of Brazil, whose terminal phylophore is
cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Another highly useful palm is the
_carnauba_ or _carnahuba_ (_Copernicia cerifera_) which supplies
fruit, medullary meal, food for cattle, boards and timber, fibre, wax
and medicine. The fibre of the _piassava (Leopoldinia piassava_, or
_Attalea funifera_) is widely used for cordage, brushes and brooms.
There are many other palms whose fruit, fibre and wood enter largely
into the domestic economy of the natives, but the list given shows how
important a service these trees rendered to the aboriginal inhabitants
of tropical America, and likewise how useful they still are to the
people of tropical Brazil. Another vegetable product of the Amazon
region is made from the fruit of the _Paullinia sorbilis_, Mart., and
is known by the name of _guarana_. It is largely consumed in Bolivia
and Matto Grosso, where it is used in the preparation of a beverage
which has excellent medicinal properties. The Brazilian flora is also
rich in medicinal and aromatic plants, dye-woods, and a wide range of
gum and resin-producing shrubs and trees. The best known of these are
sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha, cinchona, jaborandi and copaiba; vanilla,
tonka beans and cloves; Brazil-wood and anatto (_Bixa orellana_);
india-rubber and balata. India-rubber is derived principally from the
_Hevea guayanensis_, sometimes called the _Siphonia elastica_, which
is found on the Amazon and its tributaries as far inland as the
foothills of the Andes. Other rubber-producing trees are the
_manicoba_ (_Jatropha Glasiovii_) of Ceara, and the _mangabeira_
(_Hancornia speciosa_), of the central upland regions.
_Population._--The first explorers of Brazil reported a numerous Indian
population, but, as the sea-coast afforded a larger and more easily
acquired food supply than did the interior, the Indian population was
probably numerous only in a comparatively small part of this immense
territory, along the sea-coast. Modern explorations have shown that the
unsettled inland regions of Brazil are populated by Indians only where
the conditions are favourable. They are to be found in wooded districts
near rivers, and are rarely found on the elevated _campos_. The
immediate result of European colonization was the enslavement and
extermination of the Indians along the coast and in all those favoured
inland localities where the whites came into contact with them. The
southern districts and the Amazon and its tributaries were often raided
by slave-hunting expeditions, and their Indian populations were either
decimated, or driven farther into the inaccessible forests. But there is
no record that the inland districts of western and north-western Brazil
were treated in this manner, and their present population may be assumed
to represent approximately what it was when the Europeans first came.
According to the census of 1890 the Indian population was 1,295,796, but
so far as the migratory tribes are concerned the figures are only
guesswork. A considerable number of these Indians have been gathered
together in _aldeas_ under the charge of government tutors, but the
larger part still live in their own villages or as nomads.
Down to the beginning of the 19th century the white colonists were
almost exclusively Portuguese. The immigration from countries other than
Portugal during the first half of that century was small, but before its
close it increased rapidly, particularly from Italy. Fully nine-tenths
of these immigrants, including those from the mother country, were of
the Latin race. The introduction of African slaves followed closely upon
the development of agricultural industries, and continued nominally
until 1850, actually until 1854, and according to some authors until
1860. About 1826 it was estimated that the negro population numbered
2,500,000 or three times the white population of that period. The
unrestricted intermixture of these three races forms the principal basis
of the Brazilian population at the beginning of the 20th century. Brazil
has never had a "colour line," and there has never been any popular
prejudice against race mixtures. According to the census of 1872 the
total population was 9,930,478, of which 1,510,806 were slaves; the race
enumeration gave 3,787,289 whites, 1,959,452 Africans, 386,955 Indians,
and 3,801,782 mixed bloods. The Indian population certainly exceeded the
total given, and the white population must have included many of mixed
blood, the habit of so describing themselves being common among the
better classes of South American mestizos. The census of 1890 increased
the total population to 14,333,915, which, according to an unofficial
analysis (_Statesman's Year Book_, 1905), was made up of 6,302,198
whites, 4,638,495 mixed bloods, 2,097,426 Africans, and 1,295,796
Indians. This analysis, if correct, indicates that the vegetative
increase of the whites has been greater than that of the Africans and
mixed races. This is not the conclusion of many observers, but it may
be due to the excessive infant mortality among the lower classes, where
an observance of the simplest sanitary laws is practically unknown. The
census of the 31st of December 1900 was strikingly defective; it was
wholly discarded for the city of Rio de Janeiro, and had to be completed
by office computations in the returns from several states. The
compilation of the returns was not completed and published until May
1908, according to which the total population was 17,318,556, of which
8,825,636 were males and 8,492,920 females. Not including the city of
Rio de Janeiro, whose population was estimated at 691,565 in conformity
with a special municipal census of 1906, the total population was
16,626,991, of which 15,572,671 were Roman Catholics, 177,727
Protestants, 876,593 of other faiths. The returns also show a total of
3,038,500 domiciles outside the federal capital, which gives an average
of 5.472 to the domicile. These returns will serve to correct the
exaggerated estimate of 22,315,000 for 1900 which was published in
Brazil and accepted by many foreign publications.
The racial character of the people is not uniform throughout the
republic, the whites predominating in the southern states, the Indians
in Amazonas and, probably, Matto Grosso, and the mixed races in the
central and northern coast states. The excess of whites over the
coloured races in the southern states is due to their smaller slave
population and to the large number of immigrants attracted to them.
Slavery was not abolished until the 13th of May 1888, but a number of
successful colonies had already been founded in these states. Other
colonies were founded in Bahia, Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro during
the same period, but they were unsuccessful, partly because of the
competition of slave labour. Since the abolition of slavery immigration
has poured a large number of labourers into the coffee-producing states,
and with beneficial results. This strengthening of the white population
of the South with fresh European blood must eventually divide Brazil
into two distinct sections: the white states of the south, and the mixed
or coloured states of the north. The introduction of European immigrants
dates from 1818 when a Swiss colony was located at Nova Friburgo, near
Rio de Janeiro, and it was continued under the direction and with the
aid of the imperial government down to the creation of the republic.
Since then the state governments have assumed charge of immigration, and
some of them are spending large sums in the acquisition of labourers.
The old system of locating immigrants in colonies, or colonial nuclei,
which involved an enormous outlay of money with but slight benefit to
the country, has been superseded by a system of locating the immigrants
on the large plantations under formal contracts. In some of the coffee
districts these contracts have resulted very profitably to the Italian
labourers. The total number of colonists and immigrants entering Brazil
between 1804 and 1902, inclusive, according to official returns, was
2,208,353. The arrivals fluctuate greatly in number from year to year,
influenced by the prevailing economic conditions in the country. At
first the Portuguese outnumbered all other nationalities in the
immigration returns, but since the abolition of slavery the Italians
have passed all competitors and number more than one-half the total
arrivals. Of the 700,211 immigrants located in the state of Sao Paulo
from 1827 to the end of 1896, no less than 493,535 were Italians, and
their aggregate throughout the republic was estimated in 1906 at more
than 1,100,000. The German immigration, of which so much has been
written for political ends, has been greatly over-estimated; trustworthy
estimates in 1906 made the German contingent in the population vary from
350,000 to 500,000. They are settled chiefly in colonies in the southern
states, and form a most desirable body of settlers.
_Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into twenty states and
one federal district, which are the same as the provinces and "municipio
neutro" of the empire. Their names also remain unchanged, except that of
the federalized district in which the national capital is located, which
is called the "districto federal." The republic has no territories,
although Amazonas, Matto Grosso, Para and Goyaz cover an immense region
of uninhabited and only partially explored territory. The states are
subdivided into _comarcas_, or judicial districts, and into
_municipios_, or townships, which is the smallest autonomous division.
The constitution provides for the autonomy of the municipalities in
order to safeguard the permanence of representative institutions. The
_parochia_, or parish, an ecclesiastical division, is often used for
administrative purposes, but it has no political organization. The
names, areas, and populations of the states, together with the names and
populations of their capitals, are as follows:--
+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+-----------------------+--------+
| |Area,[1] | Population[2] | |Popula- |
| States. | Sq. +-----------+-----------+ State Capitals. |tion,[3]|
| | miles. | Census | Census | | Census |
| | | 1890. | 1900. | | 1890. |
+--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+
| Alagoas | 22,584 | 511,440 | 649,273 | Maceio | 31,498 |
| Amazonas | 742,123 | 147,915 | 249,756 | Manaos | 38,720 |
| Bahia | 164,650 | 1,919,802 | 2,117,956 | Sao Salvador[4] |174,412 |
| Ceara | 40,253 | 805,687 | 849,127 | Fortaleza | 40,902 |
| Espirito Santo | 17,313 | 135,997 | 209,783 | Victoria | 16,887 |
| Federal District | 538 | 522,651 | 691,565 | Rio de Janeiro |522,651 |
| Goyaz | 288,549 | 227,572 | 255,284 | Goyaz[4] | 17,181 |
| Maranhao | 177,569 | 430,854 | 499,308 | S. Luiz do Maranhao[4]| 29,308 |
| Matto Grosso | 532,370 | 92,827 | 118,025 | Cuyaba | 17,815 |
| Minas Geraes | 221,961 | 3,184,099 | 3,594,471 | Ouro Preto[5] | 59,249 |
| Para | 443,922 | 328,455 | 445,356 | Belem[4] | 50,064 |
| Parahyba | 28,855 | 457,232 | 490,784 | Parahyba | 18,645 |
| Parana | 85,455 | 249,491 | 327,136 | Curityba | 24,553 |
| Pernambuco | 49,575 | 1,030,224 | 1,178,150 | Recife[4] |111,556 |
| Piauhy | 116,529 | 267,609 | 334,328 | Therezina | 31,523 |
| Rio de Janeiro | 26,635 | 276,884 | 274,317 | Nictheroy | 34,269 |
| Rio Grande do Norte| 22,196 | 268,273 | 1,149,070 | Natal | 13,725 |
| Rio Grande do Sul | 91,337 | 897,455 | 926,035 | Porto Alegre | 52,421 |
| Santa Catharina | 28,633 | 283,769 | 320,289 | Desterro[6] | 30,637 |
| Sao Paulo | 112,312 | 1,384,753 | 2,282,279 | Sao Paulo | 64,934 |
| Sergipe | 15,093 | 310,926 | 356,264 | Araraju | 16,336 |
| +---------+-----------+-----------+ | |
| Brazil |3,228,452|14,333,915 |17,318,556 | | |
+--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+
_Communications._--Railway construction in Brazil dates from 1852,
when work was initiated on the Maua railway running from the head of
the bay of Rio de Janeiro to the foot of the Serra where Petropolis is
situated. The road is 10 m. long, and its first section was opened to
traffic on April 30, 1854, and its second December 16, 1856. The
mountain section, 5-1/2 m. long, which uses the Riggenbach system from
the terminal to Petropolis, was constructed between 1881 and 1883. The
development of railway construction in Brazil has been impeded to a
great extent by two unfavourable conditions--by the chain of mountains
or plateau escarpments which follow the coast line and obstruct
communication with the interior, and by the detached positions of the
settlements along the Atlantic, which compel the building of lines
from many widely separated points on the coast into a sparsely
populated hinterland. A majority of the ports, from which these roads
are built, are small and difficult of access, and the coasting trade
is restricted to vessels carrying the Brazilian flag. The only ports
having a rich and well-populated country behind them are Rio de
Janeiro and Santos, and these are the terminals of long lines of
railway which are being slowly extended farther into the interior.
The total mileage under traffic at the beginning of 1905 was 10,600
m., divided into 94 separate lines. There were also 745 m. under
construction, 1740 m. under survey, and about 1600 m. projected. Of
the 94 lines under traffic, 45 were operating by virtue of national
and 49 by provincial and state concessions. They were grouped in the
official reports of 1905 as follows:--
Government lines (21):-- Miles.
Administered by the state (6) 2228
Leased to private parties (15) 2174
----- 4402
Private lines (24)--
With national interest guarantees (12) 1290
Without such guarantees (12) 815
----- 2105
Private and state lines operated by
virtue of state concessions, with and
without interest guarantees (49) 4093
------
10,600
======