[Transcriber's Notes: This eBook was prepared from a 1964 reprint
published by Dover Publications, Inc., New York, which in turn was
prepared from the two-volume 1922 English translation published by
Édition Russe de Musique, Paris.
Volume I contains the text of the work; Volume II contains the musical
examples referred to in Volume I. This plaintext version of the eBook
contains only Volume I and the front matter of Volume II. To see and
hear the musical examples in Volume II, see the HTML version.
The original uses boxed numbers to refer to sections of musical
scores. They are represented here in double square brackets, e.g.,
[[27]], [[B]]. See the footnote at the beginning of Chapter II for the
editor's explanation of the musical examples and the boxed rehearsal
numbers. The use of asterisks is explained in the Editor's Preface.
Obvious printer errors have been corrected without note. Other
apparent errors are noted with a [Transcriber's Note].
The original contains a number of tables of instrument distribution.
Those occurring in the middle of a line are rendered in a single line,
using forward slashes to indicate line breaks. For example, where the
following occurs in the middle of a line, in the original,
Vns I ]
Vns II ]
Vns III] 8
it is rendered in this eBook as
Vns I/Vns II/Vns III] 8.
This eBook uses the octave numbering system to describe the
single-note music examples. Under this system, for example, middle C
is C4, and the scale following would be D4, E4, etc.; the C below
middle C is rendered as C3, and the scale following would be D3, E3,
etc.; the C above middle C is rendered as C5, and the scale following
would be D5, E5, etc.
Sharp, flat, and natural symbols are rendered as [sharp], [flat], and
[natural], respectively. Other musical symbols are rendered as
[symbol: name].
Italics are surrounded by _underscores_. Boldface text is surrounded
by =equal signs=.]
NIKOLAY RIMSKY-KORSAKOV
_Principles of Orchestration_
_with musical examples
drawn from his own works_
Edited by
MAXIMILIAN STEINBERG
English translation by
EDWARD AGATE
[VOLUME I]
[Édition Russe de Musique, Paris, 1922]
CONTENTS
page
Editor's Preface VII--XII
Extract from the Author's preface (1891) 1
Extract from the Preface to the last edition 5
Chapter I.--General review of orchestral groups
A. Stringed instruments 6
B. Wind instruments:
Wood-wind 12
Brass 21
C. Instruments of little sustaining power:
Plucked strings 26
Pizzicato 27
Harp 27
Percussion instruments producing determinate sounds, keyed
instruments
Kettle-drums 29
Piano and Celesta 30
_Glockenspiel_, Bells, Xylophone 32
Percussion instruments producing indefinite sounds 32
Comparison of resonance in orchestral groups, and combination
of different tone qualities 33
Chapter II.--Melody
Melody in stringed instruments 36
Grouping in unison 39
Stringed instruments doubling in octaves 40
Melody in double octaves 44
Doubling in three and four octaves 45
Melody in thirds and sixths 45
Melody in the wood-wind 46
Combination in unison 47
Combination in octaves 49
Doubling in two, three and four octaves 51
Melody in thirds and sixths 52
Thirds and sixths together 53
Melody in the brass 53
Brass in unison, in octaves, thirds and sixths 55
Melody in different groups of instruments combined together 56
A. Combination of wind and brass in unison 56
B. Combination of wind and brass in octaves 57
C. Combination of strings and wind 58
D. Combination of strings and brass 61
E. Combination of the three groups 61
Chapter III.--Harmony
General observations 63
Number of harmonic parts--Duplication 64
Distribution of notes in chords 67
String harmony 69
Wood-wind harmony 71
Four-part and three-part harmony 72
Harmony in several parts 76
Duplication of timbres 77
Remarks 78
Harmony in the brass 82
Four-part writing 82
Three-part writing 84
Writing in several parts 84
Duplication in the brass 85
Harmony in combined groups 88
A. Combination of wind and brass 88
1. In unison 88
2. Overlaying, crossing, enclosure of parts 90
B. Combination of strings and wind 94
C. Combination of the three groups 95
Chapter IV.--Composition of the orchestra
Different ways of orchestrating the same music 97
Full _Tutti_ 101
_Tutti_ in the wind 103
_Tutti pizzicato_ 103
_Tutti_ in one, two and three parts 104
_Soli_ in the strings 104
Limits of orchestral range 106
Transference of passages and phrases 107
Chords of different tone quality used alternately 108
Amplification and elimination of tone qualities 109
Repetition of phrases, imitation, echo 110
_Sforzando-piano_ and _piano-sforzando_ chords 111
Method of emphasising certain notes and chords 111
_Crescendo_ and _diminuendo_ 112
Diverging and converging progressions 113
Tone quality as a harmonic force. Harmonic basis 114
Artificial effects 116
Use of percussion instruments for rhythm and colour 117
Economy in orchestral colour 118
Chapter V.--Combination of the human voice with orchestra.
The Stage band
Orchestral accompaniment of solo voices 119
General remarks 119
Transparence of accompaniment. Harmony 120
Doubling voices in the orchestra 122
Recitative and declamation 125
Orchestral accompaniment of the chorus 126
Solo voice with chorus 128
Instruments on the stage and in the wings 129
Chapter VI (Supplementary).--Voices
Technical terms 132
Soloists 133
Range and register 133
Vocalisation 134
Vowels 136
Flexibility 137
Colour and character of voices 137
Voices in combination 139
Duet 139
Trios, quartets etc. 141
Chorus 142
Range and register 142
Melody 144
A. Mixed chorus 145
Chorus in unison 145
Progression in octaves 145
Voices _divisi_; harmonic use of the mixed chorus 146
B. Men's chorus and Women's chorus 148
Editor's Preface.
Rimsky-Korsakov had long been engrossed in his treatise on
orchestration. We have in our possession a thick note book of some 200
pages in fine hand writing, dating from the years 1873-1874,
containing a monograph on the question of acoustics, a classification
of wind instruments and a detailed description of the construction and
fingering of the different kinds of flute, the oboe, clarinet and
horn.[1]
[Footnote 1: This manuscript was given to me by Alexander Glazounov;
if a Rimsky-Korsakov museum is ever founded it will be placed there.]
In his "Memoirs of my musical life" (1st edition, p. 120) the
following passage occurs: "I had planned to devote all my energies to
the compilation of a full treatise on orchestration. To this end I
made several rough copies, jotting down explanatory notes detailing
the technique of different instruments. What I intended to present to
the world on this subject, was to include _everything_. The writing of
this treatise, or, to be more exact, the sketch for it took up most of
my time in the years 1873 and 1874. After reading the works of Tyndall
and Helmholtz, I framed an introduction to my work, in which I
endeavoured to expound the laws of acoustics as applied to the
principles governing the construction of musical instruments. My
manual was to begin with a detailed list of instruments, classified in
groups and tabulated, including a description of the various systems
in use at the present day. I had not yet thought of the second part of
the book which was to be devoted to instruments in combination. But I
soon realised that I had gone too far. With wind instruments in
particular, the different systems were innumerable, and each
manufacturer favoured his own pet theory. By the addition of a certain
key the maker endowed his instrument with the possibility of a new
trill, and made some difficult passages more playable than on an
instrument of another kind.
"There was no end to such complications. In the brass, I found
instruments with three, four, and five valves, the mechanism varying
according to the make. Obviously, I could not hope to cover so large a
field; besides, of what value would such a treatise be to the student?
Such a mass of detailed description of the various systems, their
advantages and drawbacks, could not but fail to confuse the reader
only too eager to learn. Naturally he would wish to know what
instrument to employ, the extent of its capabilities etc., and getting
no satisfactory information he would throw my massive work aside. For
these reasons my interest in the book gradually waned, and finally I
gave up the task."
In 1891 Rimsky-Korsakov, now an artist of standing, the composer of
_Snegourotchka_, _Mlada_, and _Shéhérazade_, a master of the
orchestral technique he had been teaching for twenty years, returned
to his handbook on instrumentation. He would seem to have made notes
at different times from 1891 to 1893, during which period, after the
first performance of _Mlada_, he gave up composition for a while.
These notes, occasionally referred to in his _Memoirs_, are in three
volumes of manuscript-paper. They contain the unfinished preface of
1891, a paragraph full of clear, thoughtful writing, and reprinted in
this book.[2]
[Footnote 2: This preface had already been published in his _Notes and
Articles on Music_ (St. Petersburgh, 1911).]
As the author tells us in his _Memoirs_ (p. 297), the progress of his
work was hampered by certain troublesome events which were happening
at the time. Dissatisfied with his rough draft, he destroyed the
greater part of it, and once more abandoned his task.
In 1894 he composed _The Christmas Night_; this was the beginning of
his most fertile period. He became entirely engrossed in composition,
making plans for a fresh opera as soon as the one in hand was
completed. It was not until 1905 that his thoughts returned to the
treatise on orchestration, his musical output remaining in abeyance
through no fault of his own. Since 1891 the plan of the work had been
entirely remodelled, as proved by the rough drafts still extant. The
author had given up the idea of describing different instruments from
their technical standpoint, and was more anxious to dwell upon the
value of tone qualities and their various combinations.
Among the author's papers several forms of the book have been found,
each widely differing in detail from the other. At last, in the summer
of 1905 Rimsky-Korsakov brought his plans to a head, and outlined the
six chapters which form the foundation of the present volume. But the
work suffered a further interruption, and the sketches were once more
laid aside. In his _Memoirs_, Rimsky-Korsakov explains the fact by
lack of interest in the work and a general feeling of weariness: "The
treatise remained in abeyance. To start with, the form of the book was
not a success, and I awaited the production of _Kitesh_, in order to
give some examples from that work" (p. 360).
Then came the autumn of 1906. The composer experienced another rush of
creative energy; his opera, _The Golden Cockerel_ made rapid strides,
and kept him busy all that winter and the following summer. When it
was finished, in the autumn of 1907, his thoughts reverted to the
treatise on orchestration. But the work made little progress. The
author had his doubts as to the adequacy of the plan he had adopted,
and, in spite of the entreaties of his pupils and friends, he could
not bring himself to broach the latter part of the book. Towards the
end of 1907 Rimsky-Korsakov was constantly ailing in health, and this
materially affected his energy. He spent the greater part of his time
reading old notes and classifying examples. About the 20th of May
he set out for his summer residence in Lioubensk, and having just
recovered from a third severe attack of inflammation of the lungs,
began to work on the first chapter of the treatise in its present,
final form. This chapter was finished on June 7/20, about 4 o'clock in
the afternoon; the same night, the composer was seized with a fourth
attack which proved fatal.
The honour fell on me to prepare this last work of Rimsky-Korsakov for
publication. Now that _Principles of Orchestration_ has appeared in
print I think it necessary to devote a few words to the essential
features of the book, and to the labour imposed upon me in my capacity
as editor.
On the first point I will say but little. The reader will observe from
the Contents that the work differs from others, not merely by reason
of its musical examples, but more especially in the systematic
arrangement of material, not according to orchestral division in
groups (the method adopted by Gevaert for instance), but according to
_each constituent of the musical whole, considered separately_. The
orchestration of melodic and harmonic elements (Chapters II and III)
receives special attention, as does the question of orchestration in
general (Chapter IV). The last two chapters are devoted to operatic
music, and the sixth takes a supplementary form, having no direct
bearing on the previous matter.
Rimsky-Korsakov altered the title of his book several times, and his
final choice was never made. The title I have selected seems to me to
be the one most suitable to the contents of the work, "principles" in
the truest sense of the word. Some may expect to find the "secrets" of
the great orchestrator disclosed; but, as he himself reminds us in his
preface, "to orchestrate is to create, and this is something which
cannot be taught."
Yet, as invention, in all art, is closely allied to technique, this
book may reveal much to the student of instrumentation.
Rimsky-Korsakov has often repeated the axiom that _good orchestration
means proper handling of parts_. The simple use of tone-colours and
their combinations may also be taught, but there the science of
instruction ends. From these standpoints the present book will furnish
the pupil with nearly everything he requires. The author's death
prevented him from discussing a few questions, amongst which I would
include full polyphonic orchestration and the scoring of melodic and
harmonic designs. But these questions can be partly solved by the
principles laid down in Chapters II and III, and I have no wish to
overcrowd the first edition of this book with extra matter which can
be added later, if it is found to be necessary. I had first of all to
prepare and amplify the sketches made by Rimsky-Korsakov in 1905;
these form a connected summary throughout the whole six chapters.
Chapter I was completed by the author; it is published as it stands,
save for a few unimportant alterations in style. As regards the other
five chapters, I have tried to keep to the original drafts as far as
possible, and have only made a few changes in the order, and one or
two indispensable additions. The sketches made between 1891 and 1893
were too disconnected to be of much use, but, in point of fact, they
corresponded very closely to the final form of the work.
The musical examples are of greater importance. According to the
original scheme, as noted on the 1891 MS., they were to be drawn from
the works of Glinka and Tschaikovsky; those of Borodin and Glazounov
were to be added later. The idea of choosing examples solely from his
own works only came to Rimsky-Korsakov by degrees. The reasons for
this decision are partly explained in the unfinished preface of 1905,
but other motives may be mentioned. If Rimsky-Korsakov had chosen his
examples from the works of these four composers, he would have had to
give some account of their individual, and often strongly marked
peculiarities of style. This would have been a difficult undertaking,
and then, how to justify the exclusion of West-European composers,
Richard Wagner, for example, whose orchestration Rimsky-Korsakov so
greatly admired? Besides, the latter could hardly fail to realise that
his own compositions afforded sufficient material to illustrate every
conceivable manner of scoring, examples _emanating from one great
general principle_. This is not the place to criticise his method;
Rimsky-Korsakov's "school" is here displayed, each may examine it for
himself. The brilliant, highly-coloured orchestration of Russian
composers, and the scoring of the younger French musicians are largely
developments of the methods of Rimsky-Korsakov, who, in turn, looked
upon Glinka as his spiritual father.
The table of examples found among the author's papers was far from
complete; some portions were badly explained, others, not at all. The
composer had not mentioned which musical quotations were to be printed
in the second volume, and which examples were to indicate the study of
the full score; further, no limit was fixed to the length of
quotation. All this was therefore left to the editor's discretion. I
selected the examples only after much doubt and hesitation, finding it
difficult to keep to those stipulated by the composer, as every page
of the master's works abounds in appropriate instances of this or that
method of scoring.
I was guided by the following considerations which agreed with the
opinions of the author himself: in the first place the examples should
be as simple as possible, so as not to distract the student's
attention from the point under discussion; secondly, it was necessary
that one example should serve to illustrate several sections of the
book, and lastly, the majority of quotations should be those mentioned
by the author. These amount to 214, in the second volume; the
remaining 98 were added by me. They are drawn, as far as possible,
from Rimsky-Korsakov's dramatic music, since operatic full-scores are
less accessible than those of symphonic works.[3]
[Footnote 3: Recently the firm of Belaieff has published
Rimsky-Korsakov's symphonic works in miniature score, pocket-size.]
At the end of Vol. II I have added three tables showing different ways
of scoring full chords; all my additions to the text are marked with
asterisks. I consider that the careful study of the examples contained
in the second volume will be of the greatest use to the student
_without replacing_ the need for the study of other composers' scores.
Broadly speaking, the present work should be studied together with the
reading of full scores in general.
A few words remain to be said regarding Rimsky-Korsakov's intention to
point out the faulty passages in his orchestral works, an intention
expressed in his preface to the last edition. The composer often
referred to the instructional value of such examinations. His purpose
however was never achieved. It is not for me to select these examples,
and I shall only mention two which were pointed out by the composer
himself: 1. _The Legend of Tsar Saltan_ [[220]], 7th bar--the theme
in the brass is not sufficiently prominent the trombones being _tacet_
(a mistake easily rectified); 2. _The Golden Cockerel_ [[233]], bars
10-14, if the marks of expression are observed in the brass, the
counter-melody on the violas and violoncellos doubled by the wood-wind
will hardly be heard. Example 75 may also be mentioned, to which the
note on page 63, in the text, refers. I will confine myself to these
examples.
In conclusion I desire to express my deep gratitude to Madame
Rimsky-Korsakov for having entrusted me with the task of editing this
work, thereby providing me with the opportunity of performing a duty
sacred to the memory of a master, held so deeply in reverence.
_St. Petersburgh_, December 1912.
MAXIMILIAN STEINBERG.
Extract from the Author's Preface (1891).
Our epoch, the post-Wagnerian age, is the age of brilliance and
imaginative quality in orchestral tone colouring. Berlioz, Glinka,
Liszt, Wagner, modern French composers--Delibes, Bizet and others;
those of the new Russian school--Borodin, Balakirev, Glazounov and
Tschaikovsky--have brought this side of musical art to its zenith;
they have eclipsed, as colourists, their predecessors, Weber,
Meyerbeer and Mendelssohn, to whose genius, nevertheless, they are
indebted for their own progress. In writing this book my chief aim has
been to provide the well-informed reader with the fundamental
principles of modern orchestration from the standpoint of brilliance
and imagination, and I have devoted considerable space to the study of
tonal resonance and orchestral combination.
I have tried to show the student how to obtain a certain quality of
tone, how to acquire uniformity of structure and requisite power. I
have specified the character of certain melodic figures and designs
peculiar to each instrument or orchestral group, and reduced these
questions briefly and clearly to general principles; in short I have
endeavoured to furnish the pupil with matter and material as carefully
and minutely studied as possible. Nevertheless I do not claim to
instruct him as to how such information should be put to artistic use,
nor to establish my examples in their rightful place in the poetic
language of music. For, just as a handbook of harmony, counterpoint,
or form presents the student with harmonic or polyphonic matter,
principles of construction, formal arrangement, and sound technical
methods, but will never endow him with the talent for composition, so
a treatise on orchestration can demonstrate how to produce a
well-sounding chord of certain tone-quality, uniformly distributed,
how to detach a melody from its harmonic setting, correct progression
of parts, and solve all such problems, but will never be able to teach
the art of poetic orchestration. To orchestrate is to create, and this
is something which cannot be taught.
It is a great mistake to say: this composer scores well, or, that
composition is well orchestrated, for orchestration is _part of the
very soul of the work_. A work is thought out in terms of the
orchestra, certain tone-colours being inseparable from it in the mind
of its creator and native to it from the hour of its birth. Could the
essence of Wagner's music be divorced from its orchestration? One
might as well say that a picture is well _drawn_ in colours.
More than one classical and modern composer has lacked the capacity to
orchestrate with imagination and power; the secret of colour has
remained outside the range of his creative faculty. Does it follow
that these composers do not _know how_ to orchestrate? Many among them
have had greater knowledge of the subject than the mere colourist. Was
Brahms ignorant of orchestration? And yet, nowhere in his works do we
find evidence of brilliant tone or picturesque fancy. The truth is
that his thoughts did not turn towards colour; his mind did not exact
it.
The power of subtle orchestration is a secret impossible to transmit,
and the composer who possesses this secret should value it highly, and
never debase it to the level of a mere collection of formulæ learned
by heart.
Here I may mention the case of works scored by others from the
composer's rough directions. He who undertakes such work should enter
as deeply as he may into the spirit of the composer, try to realise
his intentions, and develop them in all their essential features.
Though one's own personality be subordinate to that of another, such
orchestration is nevertheless creative work. But on the other hand, to
score a composition never intended for the orchestra, is an
undesirable practice. Many musicians have made this mistake and
persist in it.[4] In any case this is the lowest form of
instrumentation, akin to colour photography, though of course the
process may be well or badly done.
[Footnote 4: In the margin of the MS. a question mark is added here.
(Editor's note.)]
As regards orchestration it has been my good fortune to belong to a
first-rate school, and I have acquired the most varied experience. In
the first place I have had the opportunity of hearing all my works
performed by the excellent orchestra of the St. Petersburgh Opera.
Secondly, having experienced leanings towards different directions, I
have scored for orchestras of different sizes, beginning with simple
combinations (my opera _The May Night_ is written for natural horns
and trumpets), and ending with the most advanced. In the third place,
I conducted the choir of the Military Marine for several years and was
therefore able to study wind-instruments. Finally I formed an
orchestra of very young pupils, and succeeded in teaching them to
play, quite competently, the works of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Glinka,
etc. All this has enabled me to present this work to the public as the
result of long experience.
As a starting-point I lay down the following fundamental axioms:
I. _In the orchestra there is no such thing as ugly quality of tone._
II. _Orchestral writing should be easy to play_; a composer's work
stands the best chance when the parts are well written.[5]
[Footnote 5: A. Glazounov has well expressed the various degrees of
excellence in scoring, which he divides into three classes: 1. When
the orchestra sounds well, playing from sight; magnificent, after a
few rehearsals. 2. When effects cannot be brought off except with the
greatest care and attention on the part of conductor and players. 3.
When the orchestra never sounds well. Evidently the chief aim in
orchestration is to obtain the first of these results. (Author's
note.)]
III. _A work should be written for the size of orchestra that is to
perform it_, not for some imaginary body, as many composers persist in
doing, introducing brass instruments in unusual keys upon which the
music is impracticable because it is not played in the key the
composer intends.
It is difficult to devise any method of learning orchestration without
a master. As a general rule it is best to advance by degrees from the
simplest scoring to the most complicated.
The student will probably pass through the following phases: 1. the
phase during which he puts his entire faith in percussion
instruments, believing that beauty of sound emanates entirely from
this branch of the orchestra--this is the earliest stage; 2. the
period when he acquires a passion for the harp, using it in every
possible chord; 3. the stage during which he adores the wood-wind and
horns, using stopped notes in conjunction with strings, muted or
_pizzicato_; 4. the more advanced period, when he has come to
recognise that the string group is the richest and most expressive of
all. When the student works alone he must try to avoid the pitfalls of
the first three phases. The best plan is to study full-scores, and
listen to an orchestra, score in hand. But it is difficult to decide
what music should be studied and heard. Music of all ages, certainly,
but, principally, that which is fairly modern. Fairly modern music
will teach the student how to score--classical music will prove of
negative value to him. Weber, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer (_The Prophet_),
Berlioz, Glinka, Wagner, Liszt, and modern French and Russian
composers--these will prove his best guides. It is useless for a
Berlioz or a Gevaert to quote examples from the works of Gluck. The
musical idiom is too old-fashioned and strange to modern ears; such
examples are of no further use today. The same may be said of Mozart
and of Haydn (the father of modern orchestration).
The gigantic figure of Beethoven stands apart. His music abounds in
countless leonine leaps of orchestral imagination, but his technique,
viewed in detail, remains much inferior to his titanic conception. His
use of the trumpets, standing out above the rest of the orchestra, the
difficult and unhappy intervals he gives to the horns, the distinctive
features of the string parts and his often highly-coloured employment
of the wood-wind,--these features will combine causing the student of
Beethoven to stumble upon a thousand and one points in contradiction.
It is a mistake to think that the beginner will light upon no simple
and instructive examples in modern music, in that of Wagner and
others. On the contrary, clearer, and better examples are to be found
amongst modern composers than in what is called the range of classical
music.
Extract from the Preface to the last edition.
My aim in undertaking this work is to reveal the principles of modern
orchestration in a somewhat different light than that usually brought
to bear upon the subject. I have followed these principles in
orchestrating my own works, and, wishing to impart some of my ideas to
young composers, I have quoted examples from my own compositions, or
given references to them, endeavouring to show, in all sincerity, what
is successful and what is not. No one can know except the author
himself the purpose and motives which governed him during the
composition of a certain work, and the practice of explaining the
intentions of a composer, so prevalent amongst annotators, however
reverent and discreet, appears to me far from satisfactory. They will
attribute a too closely philosophic, or excessively poetic meaning to
a plain and simple fact. Sometimes the respect which great composers'
names command will cause inferior examples to be quoted as good; cases
of carelessness or ignorance, easily explained by the imperfections of
current technique, give rise to whole pages of laborious exposition,
in defence, or even in admiration of a faulty passage.
This book is written for those who have already studied
instrumentation from Gevaert's excellent treatise, or any other
well-known manual, and who have some knowledge of a number of
orchestral scores.
I shall therefore only just touch on such technical questions as
fingering, range, emission of sound etc.[6]
[Footnote 6: A short review of these various questions forms the first
chapter of the book. (Editor's note.)]
The present work deals with the combination of instruments in separate
groups and in the entire orchestral scheme; the different means of
producing strength of tone and unity of structure; the sub-division of
parts; variety of colour and expression in scoring,--the whole,
principally from the standpoint of dramatic music.
Chapter I.
GENERAL REVIEW OF ORCHESTRAL GROUPS.
A. Stringed Instruments.
The following is the formation of the string quartet and the number of
players required in present day orchestras, either in the theatre or
concert-room.
--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Full | Medium | Small |
| orchestra | orchestra | orchestra |
--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | | |
Violins I | 16 | 12 | 8 |
| | | |
" II | 14 | 10 | 6 |
| | | |
Violas | 12 | 8 | 4 |
| | | |
Violoncellos | 10 | 6 | 3 |
| | | |
Double basses | 8-10 | 4-6 | 2-3 |
--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
In larger orchestras, the number of first violins may amount to 20 and
even 24, the other strings being increased proportionately. But such a
great quantity of strings overpowers the customary wood-wind section,
and entails re-inforcing the latter. Sometimes orchestras contain less
than 8 first violins; this is a mistake, as the balance between
strings and wind is completely destroyed. In writing for the orchestra
it is advisable to rely on a medium-sized body of strings. Played by a
larger orchestra a work will be heard to greater advantage; played by
a smaller one, the harm done will be minimised.
Whenever a group of strings is written for more than five
parts--without taking double notes or chords into consideration--these
parts may be increased by dividing each one into two, three and four
sections, or even more (_divisi_). Generally, one or more of the
principal parts is split up, the first or second violins, violas or
violoncellos. The players are then divided by desks, numbers 1, 3, 5
etc. playing the upper part, and 2, 4, 6 etc., the lower; or else the
musician on the right-hand of each desk plays the top line, the one on
the left the bottom line. Dividing by threes is less easy, as the
number of players in one group is not always divisible by three, and
hence the difficulty of obtaining proper balance. Nevertheless there
are cases where the composer should not hesitate to employ this method
of dividing the strings, leaving it to the conductor to ensure
equality of tone. It is always as well to mark how the passage is to
be divided in the score; Vns I, 1, 2, 3 desks, 6 'Cellos div. à 3,
and so on. Division into four and more parts is rare, but may be used
in _piano_ passages, as it greatly reduces volume of tone in the group
of strings.
_Note._ In small orchestras passages sub-divided into many
parts are very hard to realise, and the effect obtained is
never the one required.
String parts may be divided thus:
_a_ {Vns I div. _b_ {Vns II div. _c_ {Violas div. _d_ {'Cellos div.
{Vns II div. {Violas div. {'Cellos div. {D. basses div.
Possible combinations less frequently used are:
_e_ {Vns I div. _f_ {Vns II div. _g_ {Violas div.
{Violas div. {'Cellos div. {D. basses div. etc.
_Note._ It is evident that the tone quality in _b_ and _e_
will be similar. Still _b_ is preferable since the number of
Vns II (14-10-6) and Violas (12-8-4) is practically the
same, the respective rôles of the two groups are more
closely allied, and from the fact that second violins
generally sit nearer to the violas than the first, thereby
guaranteeing greater unity in power and execution.
The reader will find all manner of divisions in the musical examples
given in Vol. II. Where necessary, some explanation as to the method
of dividing strings will follow in due course. I dwell on the subject
here in order to show how the usual composition of the string quartet
may be altered.
Stringed instruments possess more ways of producing sound than any
other orchestral group. They can pass, better than other instruments
from one shade of expression to another, the varieties being of an
infinite number. Species of bowing such as _legato_, detached,
_staccato_, _spiccato_, _portamento_, _martellato_, light _staccato_,
_saltando_, attack at the nut and at the point, [symbol: down bow] and
[symbol: up bow] (down bow and up bow), in every degree of tone,
_fortissimo_, _pianissimo_, _crescendo_, _diminuendo_, _sforzando_,
_morendo_--all this belongs to the natural realm of the string
quartet.
The fact that these instruments are capable of playing double notes
and full chords across three and four strings--to say nothing of
sub-division of parts--renders them not only melodic but also harmonic
in character.[7]
[Footnote 7: To give a list of easy three and four-note chords, or to
explain the different methods of bowing does not come within the scope
of the present book.]
From the point of view of activity and flexibility the violin takes
pride of place among stringed instruments, then, in order, come the
viola, 'cello and double bass. In practice the notes of extreme limit
in the string quartet should be fixed as follows:
for violins: [Music: A7], for violas: [Music: A5],
for 'cellos: [Music: A4], for double basses: [Music: G4].
Higher notes given in Table A, should only be used with caution, that
is to say when they are of long value, in _tremolando_, slow, flowing
melodies, in not too rapid sequence of scales, and in passages of
repeated notes. Skips should always be avoided.
_Note._ In quick passages for stringed instruments long
chromatic figures are never suitable; they are difficult to
play and sound indistinct and muddled. Such passages are
better allotted to the wood-wind.
A limit should be set to the use of a high note on any one of the
three lower strings on violins, violas and 'cellos. This note should
be the one in the fourth position, either the octave note or the ninth
of the open string.
Nobility, warmth, and equality of tone from one end of the scale to
the other are qualities common to all stringed instruments, and render
them essentially superior to instruments of other groups. Further,
each string has a distinctive character of its own, difficult to
define in words. The top string on the violin (_E_) is brilliant in
character, that of the viola (_A_) is more biting in quality and
slightly nasal; the highest string on the 'cello (_A_) is bright and
possesses a "chest-voice" timbre. The _A_ and _D_ strings on the
violin and the _D_ string on the violas and 'cellos are somewhat
sweeter and weaker in tone than the others. Covered strings (_G_), on
the violin (_G_ and _C_), on the viola and 'cello are rather harsh.
Speaking generally, the double bass is equally resonant throughout,
slightly duller on the two lower strings (_E_ and _A_), and more
penetrating on the upper ones (_D_ and _G_).
_Note._ Except in the case of pedal notes, the double bass
rarely plays an independent part, usually moving in octaves
or in unison with the 'cellos, or else doubling the
bassoons. The quality of the double bass tone is therefore
seldom heard by itself and the character of its different
strings is not so noticeable.
The rare ability to connect sounds, or a series of sounds, the
vibration of stopped strings combined with their above-named
qualities--warmth and nobility of tone--renders this group of
instruments far and away the best orchestral medium of melodic
expression. At the same time, that portion of their range situated
beyond the limits of the human voice, e.g. notes on the violin higher
than the extreme top note of the soprano voice, from
[Music: E6]
upwards, and notes on the double bass below the range of the bass
voice, descending from
[Music: D3] (written sound)
lose in expression and warmth of tone. Open strings are clearer and
more powerful but less expressive than stopped strings.
Comparing the range of each stringed instrument with that of the human
voice, we may assign: to the violin, the soprano and contralto voice
plus a much higher range; to the viola, the contralto and tenor voice
plus a much higher register; to the 'cello, the tenor and bass voices
plus a higher register; to the double bass, the bass voice plus a
lower range.
The use of harmonics, the mute, and some special devices in bowing
produce great difference in the resonance and tone quality of all
these instruments.
Harmonics, frequently used today, alter the timbre of a stringed
instrument to a very appreciable extent. Cold and transparent in soft
passages, cold and brilliant in loud ones, and offering but little
chance for expression, they form no fundamental part of orchestral
writing, and are used simply for ornament. Owing to their lack of
resonant power they should be used sparingly, and, when employed,
should never be overpowered by other instruments. As a rule harmonics
are employed on sustained notes, _tremolando_, or here and there for
brilliant effects; they are rarely used in extremely simple melodies.
Owing to a certain tonal affinity with the flute they may be said to
form a kind of link between string and wood-wind instruments.
Another radical change is effected by the use of mutes. When muted,
the clear, singing tone of the strings becomes dull in soft passages,
turns to a slight hiss or whistle in loud ones, and the volume of tone
is always greatly reduced.
The position of the bow on the string will affect the resonance of an
instrument. Playing with the bow close to the bridge (_sul
ponticello_), chiefly used _tremolando_, produces a metallic sound;
playing on the finger-board (_sul tasto_, _flautando_) creates a dull,
veiled effect.
_Note._ Another absolutely different sound results from
playing with the back or wood of the bow (_col legno_). This
produces a sound like a xylophone or a hollow _pizzicato_.
It is discussed under the heading of instruments of little
sustaining power.
Table A. String group.
(These instruments give all chromatic intervals.)
Violin.
(I. II.)
Viola.
Violoncello.
Double bass.
[Music]
Black lines on each string denote the general range in orchestral
writing, the dotted lines give the registers, low, medium, high, very
high.
The five sets of strings with number of players given above produce a
fairly even balance of tone. If there is any surplus of strength it
must be on the side of the first violins, as they must be heard
distinctly on account of the important part they play in the harmonic
scheme. Besides this, an extra desk of first violins is usual in all
orchestras, and as a general rule they possess a more powerful tone
than second violins. The latter, with the violas, play a secondary
part, and do not stand out so prominently. The 'cellos and double
basses are heard more distinctly, and in the majority of cases form
the bass in octaves.
In conclusion it may be said that the group of strings, as a melodic
element, is able to perform all manner of passages, rapid and
interrupted phrases of every description, diatonic or chromatic in
character. Capable of sustaining notes without difficulty, of playing
chords of three and four notes; adapted to the infinite variety of
shades of expression, and easily divisible into numerous sundry parts,
the string group in an orchestra may be considered as an harmonic
element particularly rich in resource.
B. Wind instruments.
Wood-wind.
Apart from the varying number of players, the formation of the string
group, with its five constituent parts remains constant, satisfying
the demands of any orchestral full score. On the other hand the group
of wood-wind instruments varies both as regards number of parts and
the volume of tone at its command, and here the composer may choose at
will. The group may be divided into three general classes: wood-wind
instruments in pair's, in three's and in four's, (see table on page
13).
Arabic numerals denote the number of players on each instrument; roman
figures, the parts (1st, 2nd etc.). Instruments which do not
require additional players, but are taken over by one or the other
executant in place of his usual instrument, are enclosed in brackets.
As a rule the first flute, first oboe, first clarinet and first
bassoon never change instruments; considering the importance of their
parts it is not advisable for them to turn from one mouth-piece to
another. The parts written for piccolo, bass flute, English horn,
small clarinet, bass clarinet and double bassoon are taken by the
second and third players in each group, who are more accustomed to
using these instruments of a special nature.
---------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------+
Wood-wind | Wood-wind | Wood-wind |
in pair's | in three's | in four's |
---------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------+
| | |
(II--Piccolo). | (III--Piccolo). | 1 Piccolo (IV). |
| | |
2 Flutes I. II. | 3 Flutes I. II. III. | 3 Flutes I. II. III. |
| | |
| (II--Bass flute). | (III--Bass flute). |
| | |
2 Oboes I. II. | 2 Oboes I. II. | 3 Oboes I. II. III. |
| | |
(II--Eng. horn). | 1 Eng. horn (III). | 1 Eng. horn (IV). |
| | |
| (II--Small clarinet). | (II--Small clarinet). |
| | |
2 Clarinets I. II. | 3 Clarinets I. II. III. | 3 Clarinets I. II. III. |
| | |
(II--Bass clarinet). | (III--Bass clarinet). | 1 Bass clarinet (IV). |
| | |
2 Bassoons I. II. | 2 Bassoons I. II. | 3 Bassoons I. II. III. |
| | |
| 1 Double bassoon (III). | 1 Double bassoon (IV). |
---------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------+
The formation of the first class may be altered by the permanent
addition of a piccolo part. Sometimes a composer writes for two
piccolos or two Eng. horns etc. without increasing the original number
of players required (in three's or four's).
_Note I._ Composers using the first class in the course of a
big work (oratorio, opera, symphony, etc.) may introduce
special instruments, called _extras_, for a long or short
period of time; each of these instruments involves an extra
player not required throughout the entire work. Meyerbeer
was fond of doing this, but other composers, Glinka for
example, refrain from increasing the number of performers by
employing _extras_ (Eng. horn part in _Rousslân_). Wagner
uses all three classes in the above table (in pair's:
_Tannhäuser_--in three's: _Tristan_--in four's: _The Ring_).
_Note II._ _Mlada_ is the only work of mine involving
formation by four's. _Ivan the Terrible_, _Sadko_, _The
Legend of Tsar Saltan_, _The Legend of the Invisible City of
Kitesh_ and _The Golden Cockerel_ all belong to the second
class, and in my other works, wood-wind in pair's is used
with a varying number of extras. _The Christmas Night_, with
its two oboes, and two bassoons, three flutes and three
clarinets, forms an intermediate class.
Considering the instruments it comprises, the string group offers a
fair variety of colour, and contrast in compass, but this diversity of
range and timbre is subtle and not easily discerned. In the wood-wind
department, however, the difference in register and quality of flutes,
oboes, clarinets and bassoons is striking to a degree. As a rule,
wood-wind instruments are less flexible than strings; they lack the
vitality and power, and are less capable of different shade of
expression.
In each wind instrument I have defined the _scope of greatest
expression_, that is to say the range in which the instrument is best
qualified to achieve the various grades of tone, (_forte_, _piano_,
_cresc._, _dim._, _sforzando_, _morendo_, etc.)--the register which
admits of the most _expressive_ playing, in the truest sense of the
word. Outside this range, a wind instrument is more notable for
richness of colour than for expression. I am probably the originator
of the term "scope of greatest expression". It does not apply to the
piccolo and double bassoon which represent the two extremes of the
orchestral compass. They do not possess such a register and belong to
the body of highly-coloured but non-expressive instruments.
The four kinds of wind instruments: flutes, oboes, clarinets and
bassoons may be generally considered to be of equal power. The same
cannot be said of instruments which fulfil a special purpose: piccolo,
bass flute, Eng. horn, small clarinet, bass clarinet and double
bassoon. Each of these instruments has four registers: low, middle,
high and extremely high, each of which is characterised by certain
differences of quality and power. It is difficult to define the exact
limits of each register; adjacent registers almost blend together and
the passage from one to another is scarcely noticeable. But when the
instrument jumps from one register to another the difference in power
and quality of tone is very striking.
The four families of wind instruments may be divided into two classes:
a) instruments of nasal quality and dark resonance--oboes and bassoons
(Eng. horn and double bassoon); and b) instruments of "chest-voice"
quality and bright tone--flutes and clarinets (piccolo, bass flute,
small clarinet, bass clarinet).
These characteristics of colour and resonance--expressed in too simple
and rudimentary a form--are specially noticeable in the middle and
upper registers. The lower register of the oboes and bassoons is thick
and rough, yet still nasal in quality; the very high compass is
shrill, hard and dry. The clear resonance of the flutes and clarinets
acquires something nasal and dark in the lower compass; in the very
high register it becomes somewhat piercing.
Note to Table B.
In the following Table B the top note in each register
serves as the bottom note in the next, as the limits to each
register are not defined absolutely. The note _G_ fixes the
register of flutes and oboes, _C_ for the clarinets and
bassoons. In the very high compass those notes are only
given which can really be used; anything higher and not
printed as actual notes are either too difficult to produce
or of no artistic value. The number of sounds obtainable in
the highest compass is indefinite, and depends, partly on
the quality of the instrument itself, partly on the position
and application of the lips. The signs [music symbol:
decrescendo] [music symbol: crescendo] are not to be
mistaken for _crescendo_ and _diminuendo_; they indicate how
the resonance of an instrument increases or diminishes in
relation to the characteristic quality of its timbre. The
scope of greatest expression for each typical instrument is
marked thus, [symbol: horizontal bracket] under the notes; the
range is the same in each instrument of the same type.
Table B. Wind group.
These instruments give all chromatic intervals.
Piccolo.
Flute.
Bass Flute
Alto Fl. _F_, _G_).
Oboe.
English Horn
(Cor anglais, alto oboe _F_).
Small Clarinet
(_E[flat]-D_).
Clarinet
(_B[flat]-A_).
Bass Clarinet
(_B[flat]-A_).
Bassoon
(Fagotto).
Double bassoon
(Contra-fagotto).
[Music]
_Note._ It is a difficult matter to define tone quality in
words; we must encroach upon the domain of sight, feeling,
and even taste. Though borrowed from these senses, I have no
doubt as to the appropriateness of my comparisons, but, as a
general rule definitions drawn from other sources are too
elementary to be applied to music. No condemnatory meaning
however should be attached to my descriptions, for in using
the terms thick, piercing, shrill, dry, etc. my object is to
express _artistic_ fitness in words, rather than material
exactitude. Instrumental sounds which have no musical
meaning are classed by me in the category of _useless
sounds_, and I refer to them as such, giving my reasons.
With the exception of these, the reader is advised to
consider all other orchestral timbres beautiful from an
artistic point of view, although it is necessary, at times,
to put them to other uses.
Further on, a table of wind instruments is appended,
outlining the approximate limit of range, defining different
qualities of tone and indicating the scope of greatest
expression (the piccolo and double bassoon excepted).
Flutes and clarinets are the most flexible wood-wind instruments (the
flutes in particular), but for expressive power and subtlety in
_nuances_ the clarinet supersedes them; this instrument can reduce
volume of tone to a mere breath. The nasal instruments, oboe and
bassoon, are less mobile and supple; this is accounted for by their
double reed, but, having to effect all sorts of scales and rapid
passages in common with the flutes and clarinets, oboes and bassoons
may be considered melodic instruments in the real sense of the word,
only of a more _cantabile_ and peaceful character. In very quick
passages they often double the flutes, clarinets or strings.
The four families are equally capable of _legato_ and _staccato_
playing and changing from one to the other in different ways, but
distinct and penetrating _staccato_ passages are better suited to the
oboes and bassoons, while the flutes and clarinets excel in
well-sustained _legato_ phrases. Composite _legato_ passages should be
allotted to the first two instruments, composite _staccato_ passages
to the latter pair, but these general directions should not deter the
orchestrator from adopting the opposite plan.
In comparing the technical individualities of the wood-wind the
following fundamental differences should be noted:
a) The rapid repetition of a single note by single tonguing is common
to all wind instruments; repetition of a single note by means of
double tonguing is only possible on the flute, a reedless instrument.
b) On account of its construction the clarinet is not well adapted to
sudden leaps from one octave to another; these skips are easier on
flutes, oboes and bassoons.
c) _Arpeggios_ and rapid alternation of two intervals _legato_ sound
well on flutes and clarinets, but not on oboes and bassoons.
Wood-wind players cannot manage extremely long sustained passages, as
they are compelled to take breath; care must be taken therefore to
give them a little rest from time to time. This is unnecessary in the
case of string players.
In the endeavour to characterise the timbre of each instrument typical
of the four families, from a psychological point of view, I do not
hesitate to make the following general remarks which apply generally
to the middle and upper registers of each instrument:
a) Flute.--Cold in quality, specially suitable, in the major key, to
melodies of light and graceful character; in the minor key, to slight
touches of transient sorrow.
b) Oboe.--Artless and gay in the major, pathetic and sad in the minor.
c) Clarinet.--Pliable and expressive, suitable, in the major, to
melodies of a joyful or contemplative character, or to outbursts of
mirth; in the minor, to sad and reflective melodies or impassioned and
dramatic passages.
d) Bassoon.--In the major, an atmosphere of senile mockery; a sad,
ailing quality in the minor.
In the extreme registers these instruments convey the following
impressions to my mind:
_Low register_ _Very high register_
a) Flute-- Dull, cold Brilliant
b) Oboe-- Wild Hard, dry
c) Clarinet-- Ringing, threatening Piercing
d) Bassoon-- Sinister Tense.
_Note._ It is true that no mood or frame of mind, whether it
be joyful or sad, meditative or lively, careless or
reflective, mocking or distressed can be aroused by one
single isolated timbre; it depends more upon the general
melodic line, the harmony, rhythm, and dynamic shades of
expression, upon the whole formation of a given piece of
music. The choice of instruments and timbre to be adopted
depends on the position which melody and harmony occupy in
the seven-octave scale of the orchestra; for example, a
melody of light character in the tenor register could not be
given to the flutes, or a sad, plaintive phrase in the high
soprano register confided to the bassoons. But the ease with
which tone colour can be adapted to expression must not be
forgotten, and in the first of these two cases it may be
conceded that the mocking character of the bassoon could
easily and quite naturally assume a light-hearted aspect,
and in the second case, that the slightly melancholy timbre
of the flute is somewhat related to the feeling of sorrow
and distress with which the passage is to be permeated. The
case of a melody coinciding in character with the instrument
on which it is played is of special importance, as the
effect produced cannot fail to be successful. There are also
moments when a composer's artistic feeling prompts him to
employ instruments, the character of which is at variance
with the written melody (for eccentric, grotesque effects,
etc.).
The following remarks illustrate the characteristics, timbre, and
employment of special instruments:
The duty of the piccolo and small clarinet is, principally, to extend
the range of the ordinary flute and clarinet in the high register. The
whistling, piercing quality of the piccolo in its highest compass is
extraordinarily powerful, but does not lend itself to more moderate
shades of expression. The small clarinet in its highest register is
more penetrating than the ordinary clarinet. The low and middle range
of the piccolo and small clarinet correspond to the same register in
the normal flute and clarinet, but the tone is so much weaker that it
is of little service in those regions. The double bassoon extends the
range of the ordinary bassoon in the low register. The characteristics
of the bassoon's low compass are still further accentuated in the
corresponding range of the double bassoon, but the middle and upper
registers of the latter are by no means so useful. The very deep notes
of the double bassoon are remarkably thick and dense in quality, very
powerful in _piano_ passages.
_Note._ Nowadays, when the limits of the orchestral scale
are considerably extended (up to the high _C_ of the 7th
octave, and down to the low _C_, 16 ft. contra octave), the
piccolo forms an indispensable constituent of the
wind-group; similarly, it is recognised that the double
bassoon is capable of supplying valuable assistance. The
small clarinet is rarely employed and only for colour
effects.
The English horn, or alto oboe (oboe in _F_) is similar in tone to the
ordinary oboe, the listless, dreamy quality of its timbre being sweet
in the extreme. In the low register it is fairly penetrating. The bass
clarinet, though strongly resembling the ordinary clarinet, is of
darker colour in the low register and lacks the silvery quality in the
upper notes; it is incapable of joyful expression. The bass flute is
an instrument seldom used even today; it possesses the same features
as the flute, but it is colder in colour, and crystalline in the
middle and high regions. These three particular instruments, apart
from extending the low registers of the instruments to which they
belong, have their own distinctive peculiarities of timbre, and are
often used in the orchestra, as solo instruments, clearly exposed.
_Note._ Of the six special instruments referred to above,
the piccolo and double bassoon were the first to be used in
the orchestra; the latter, however, was neglected after
Beethoven's death and did not reappear until towards the end
of the 19th century. The Eng. horn and bass clarinet were
employed initially during the first half of the same century
by Berlioz, Meyerbeer, and others, and for some time
retained their position as _extras_, to become, later on,
permanent orchestral factors, first in the theatre, then in
the concert room. Very few attempts have been made to
introduce the small clarinet into the orchestra (Berlioz
etc.); this instrument together with the bass flute is used
in my opera-ballet _Mlada_ (1892), and also in my most
recent compositions, _The Christmas Night_, and _Sadko_; the
bass flute will also be found in _The Legend of the
Invisible City of Kitesh_, and in the revised version of
"_Ivan the Terrible_".
Of late years the habit of muting the wood-wind has come into fashion.
This is done by inserting a soft pad, or a piece of rolled-up cloth
into the bell of the instrument. Mutes deaden the tone of oboes, Eng.
horns, and bassoons to such an extent that it is possible for these
instruments to attain the extreme limit of _pianissimo_ playing. The
muting of clarinets is unnecessary, as they can play quite softly
enough without artificial means. It has not yet been discovered how to
mute the flutes; such a discovery would render great service to the
piccolo. The lowest notes on the bassoon,
[Music: B1] and on the oboe and Eng. horn [Music: B3]
are impossible when the instruments are muted. Mutes have no effect in
the highest register of wind instruments.
Brass.
The formation of the group of brass instruments, like that of the
wood-wind is not absolutely uniform, and varies in different scores.
The brass group may be divided into three general classes
corresponding to those of the wood-wind (in pair's, in three's, and in
four's).
----------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
Group corresponding | Group corresponding | Group corresponding |
to the wood-wind | to the wood-wind | to the wood-wind |
in pair's | in three's | in four's |
----------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------|
| | (II--Small trumpet). |
2 Trumpets I, II. | 3 Trumpets I, II, III. | 3 Trumpets I, II, III. |
| (III--Alto trumpet | (III--Alto trumpet or |
| or: | Bass trumpet.) |
| {2 Cornets I, II. | |
| {2 Trumpets I, II.) | |
| | |
4 Horns I, II, | 4 Horns I, II, III, IV. | 6 or 8 Horns I, II, |
III, IV. | | III, IV, V, |
| | VI, VII, VIII. |
| | |
3 Trombones. | 3 Trombones I, II, III. | 3 Trombones I, II, III. |
| | |
1 Tuba. | 1 Tuba[8]. | 1 Tuba. |
----------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
[Footnote 8: Of late years sometimes two tubas are employed, by
Glazounov for instance in his Finnish Fantasia. (Editor's note.)]
The directions are the same as in the preceding table for wood-wind.
It is evident that in all three classes the formation may vary as the
composer wishes. In music for the theatre or concert room page after
page may be written without the use of trumpets, trombones and tuba,
or some instrument may be introduced, temporarily as an _extra_. In
the above table I have given the most typical formations, and those
which are the most common at the present day.
_Note I._ Besides the instruments given above, Richard
Wagner used some others in _The Ring_, notably the quartet
of tenor and bass tubas, and a contrabass trombone.
Sometimes these additions weigh too heavily on the other
groups, and at other times they render the rest of the brass
ineffective. For this reason composers have doubtless
refrained from employing such instruments, and Wagner
himself did not include them in the score of _Parsifal_.
Some present-day composers (Richard Strauss, Scriabine)
write for as many as five trumpets.
_Note II._ From the middle of the 19th century onward the
natural brass disappeared from the orchestra, giving place
to valve instruments. In my second opera, _The May Night_ I
used natural horns and trumpets, changing the keys, and
writing the best notes "stopped"; this was purposely done
for practise.
Though far less flexible than the wood-wind, brass instruments
heighten the effect of other orchestral groups by their powerful
resonance. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are about equal in
strength; cornets have not quite the same force; horns, in _forte_
passages, are about one half as strong, but _piano_, they have the
same weight as other brass instruments played softly. To obtain an
equal balance, therefore, the marks of expression in the horns should
be one degree stronger than in the rest of the brass; if the trumpets
and trombones play _pp_, the horns should be marked _p_. On the other
hand, to obtain a proper balance in _forte_ passages, two horns are
needed to one trumpet or one trombone.
Brass instruments are so similar in range and timbre that the
discussion of register is unnecessary. As a general rule quality
becomes more brilliant as the higher register is approached, and _vice
versa_, with a decrease in tone. Played _pp_ the resonance is sweet;
played _ff_ the tone is hard and "crackling". Brass instruments
possess a remarkable capacity for swelling from _pianissimo_ to
_fortissimo_, and reducing the tone inversely, the _sf_ [music symbol:
decrescendo] _p_ effect being excellent.
The following remarks as to character and tone quality may be added:
a) 1. _Trumpets_ (_B[flat]-A_). Clear and fairly penetrating in tone,
stirring and rousing in _forte_ passages; in _piano_ phrases the high
notes are full and silvery, the low notes troubled, as though
threatening danger.
2. _Alto trumpet_ (in _F_). An instrument of my own invention, first
used by me in the opera-ballet _Mlada_. In the deep register (notes 2
to 3 in the trumpet scale) it possesses a fuller, clearer, and finer
tone. Two ordinary trumpets with an alto trumpet produce greater
smoothness and equality in resonance than three ordinary trumpets.
Satisfied with the beauty and usefulness of the alto trumpet, I have
consistently written for it in my later works, combined with wood-wind
in three's.
_Note._ To obviate the difficulty of using the alto trumpet
in ordinary theatres and some concert rooms, I have not
brought into play the last four notes of its lowest register
or their neighbouring chromatics; by this means the alto
trumpet part may be played by an ordinary trumpet in _B[flat]_
or _A_.
3. _Small trumpet_ (in _E[flat]-D_). Invented by me and used for the
first time in _Mlada_ to realise the very high trumpet notes without
difficulty. In tonality and range the instrument is similar to the
soprano cornet in a military band.
_Note._ The small trumpet, (_B[flat]-A_) sounding an octave
higher than the ordinary trumpet has not yet appeared in
musical literature.
b) _Cornets_ (in _B[flat]-A_). Possessing a quality of tone similar to
the trumpet, but softer and weaker. It is a beautiful instrument
though rarely employed today in theatre or concert room. Expert
players can imitate the cornet tone on the trumpet, and _vice versa_.
c) _Horn_ (in _F_). The tone of this instrument is soft, poetical, and
full of beauty. In the lower register it is dark and brilliant; round
and full in the upper. The middle notes resemble those of the bassoon
and the two instruments blend well together. The horn, therefore,
serves as a link between the brass and wood-wind. In spite of valves
the horn has but little mobility and would seem to produce its tone in
a languid and lazy manner.
d) _Trombone._ Dark and threatening in the deepest register, brilliant
and triumphant in the high compass. The _piano_ is full but somewhat
heavy, the _forte_ powerful and sonorous. Valve trombones are more
mobile than slide trombones, but the latter are certainly to be
preferred as regards nobility and equality of sound, the more so from
the fact that these instruments are rarely required to perform quick
passages, owing to the special character of their tone.
e) _Tuba._ Thick and rough in quality, less characteristic than the
trombone, but valuable for the strength and beauty of its low notes.
Like the double bass and double bassoon, the tuba is eminently useful
for doubling, an octave lower, the bass of the group to which it
belongs. Thanks to its valves, the tuba is fairly flexible.
Table C. Brass group.
These instruments give all chromatic intervals.
Trumpet, Cornet.
(_B[flat]-A, alto in F_).[A]
Horn
(_F, E_).
Trombone
(tenor-bass).[B]
Tuba
(_C_-bass).
[Music]
Natural sounds are given in white notes. The upper lines indicate the
scope of greatest expression.
[Footnote A: The 7th natural harmonic is everywhere omitted as
useless; the same in the horns, the notes 11, 13, 14 and 15.]
[Footnote B: The _b[natural]_ of the octave -1 does not exist on the
trombones.]
The group of brass instruments, though uniform in resonance throughout
its constituent parts, is not so well adapted to expressive playing
(in the exact sense of the word) as the wood-wind group. Nevertheless,
a scope of greatest expression may be distinguished in the middle
registers. In company with the piccolo and double bassoon it is not
given to the small trumpet (_E[flat]-D_) and tuba to play with any great
amount of expression. The rapid and rhythmical repetition of a note by
single tonguing is possible to all members of the brass, but double
tonguing can only be done on instruments with a small mouth-piece,
trumpets and cornets. These two instruments can execute rapid
_tremolando_ without difficulty. The remarks on breathing, in the
section devoted to the wood-wind, apply with equal force to the brass.
The use of stopped notes and mutes alters the character of brass tone.
Stopped notes can only be employed on trumpets, cornets and horns; the
shape of trombones and tubas prevents the hand from being inserted
into the bell. Though mutes are applied indiscriminately to all brass
instruments in the orchestra, tubas rarely possess them. Stopped and
muted notes are similar in quality. On the trumpet, muting a note
produces a better tone than stopping it.
In the horn both methods are employed; single notes are stopped in
short phrases, muted in longer ones. I do not propose to describe the
difference between the two operations in detail, and will leave the
reader to acquire the knowledge for himself, and to form an opinion as
to its importance from his own personal observation. Sufficient to say
that the tone is deadened by both methods, assuming a wild "crackling"
character in _forte_ passages, tender and dull in _piano_. Resonance
is greatly reduced, the silvery tone of the instrument so lost and a
timbre resembling that of the oboe and Eng. horn is approached.
Stopped notes (_con sordino_) are marked [music symbol: mute]
underneath the note, sometimes followed by [music symbol: no mute],
denoting the resumption of open sounds, _senza sordini_. Brass
instruments, when muted, produce an effect of distance.
C. Instruments of little sustaining power.
Plucked strings.
When the usual orchestral string quartet (Vns I, Vns II, Violas,
'Cellos, D. basses) does not make use of the bow, but plucks the
strings with the finger, it becomes to my mind a new and independent
group with its own particular quality of tone. Associated with the
harp, which produces sound in a similar manner, I consider it
separately under the heading of plucked strings.
_Note._ In this group may be classed the guitar, zither,
balalaïka; instruments plucked with a quill, such as the
domra,[9] the mandoline etc., all of which may be used in an
orchestra, but have no place in the scope of the present
book.
[Footnote 9: A Russian instrument which, like the balalaïka, is better
known abroad. (Translator's note.)]
Pizzicato.
Although capable of every degree of power from _ff_ to _pp_,
_pizzicato_ playing has but small range of expression, and is used
chiefly as a colour effect. On open strings it is resonant and heavy,
on stopped strings shorter and duller; in the high positions it is
rather dry and hard.
Table D on page 31 indicates the range in which _pizzicato_ may be
used on each stringed instrument.
In the orchestra, _pizzicato_ comes into operation in two distinct
ways: a) on single notes, b) on double notes and chords. The fingers
of the right hand playing _pizz._ are far less agile than the bow;
_pizz._ passages therefore can never be performed as quickly as those
played _arco_. Moreover, the speed of _pizzicato_ playing depends upon
the thickness of the strings; on the double basses, for instance, it
must always be much slower than on the violins.
In _pizzicato_ chords it is better to avoid open strings, which
produce a more brilliant tone than of covered strings. Chords of four
notes allow of greater freedom and vigour of attack, as there is no
danger of accidentally touching a wrong note. Natural harmonics played
_pizz._ create a charming effect; the tone is weak however, and they
are chiefly successful on the violoncello.
Harp.
In the orchestra, the harp is almost entirely an harmonic or
accompanying instrument. The majority of scores require only one harp
part, but in recent times composers have written for two or even three
harps, which are sometimes compressed into the one part.
_Note._ Full orchestras should include three or even four
harps. My operas _Sadko_, _The Legend of the Invisible City
of Kitesh_, and _The Golden Cockerel_ are designed for two
harps, _Mlada_ for three.
The special function of the harp lies in the execution of chords, and
the florid figures springing from them. As only four notes at the most
can be played by each hand, the notes of a chord should be written
close together, with not too great a space between one hand and the
other. The chords must always be broken (_arpeggiato_); should the
composer wish otherwise he should notify it (_non arpeggiato_). In the
middle and lower octaves the resonance of the strings is slightly
prolonged, and dies away gradually. In changes of harmony the player
stops the vibration of the strings with his hands, but, in quick
modulations, this method is not feasible, and the mixture of one chord
with another produces a discordant effect. It follows that more or
less rapid figures can only be realised clearly and neatly in the
upper register of the harp, where the strings are shorter and harder
in tone.
As a general rule, in the whole range of the harp:
[Music: C1[flat]-F7[sharp]]
only the notes of the first to the fourth octave are used; the extreme
notes in both compasses may be employed in special circumstances, and
for doubling in octaves.
The harp is essentially a diatonic instrument, since all chromatic
passages depend on the manipulation of the pedals. For this reason the
harp does not lend itself to rapid modulation, and the orchestrator is
advised to bear this fact in mind. But the difficulty may be obviated
by using two harps alternately.[10]
[Footnote 10: A chromatic harp without pedals has now been invented in
France (Lyon's system), on which the most abrupt modulations are
possible. (Translator's note.)]
_Note._ I would remind the reader that the harp is not
capable of double sharps or double flats. For this reason,
certain modulations from one key to another one, adjacent to
it can only be accomplished enharmonically. For instance,
the transition from _C_ flat, _G_ flat or _D_ flat, major to
their minor subdominant chords or keys is not possible owing
to double flats. It is therefore necessary to start
enharmonically from the keys of _B_, _F_ sharp or _C_ sharp,
major. Similarly, on account of double sharps, it is
impossible to change from _A_ sharp, _D_ sharp or _G_ sharp,
minor to their respective dominant major chords or keys; _B_
flat, _E_ flat and _A_ flat, minor must be the
starting-points.
The technical operation known as _glissando_ is peculiar to the harp
alone. Taking for granted that the reader is conversant with the
methods of acquiring different scales by means of double-notched
pedals, it will be sufficient to remark that _glissando_ scales
produce a discordant medley of sound owing to the length of time the
strings continue to vibrate, and therefore, as a _purely musical_
effect, _glissando_ can only be used in the upper octaves, quite
_piano_, where the sound of the strings is sufficiently clear, yet not
too prolonged. _Forte glissando_ scales, entailing the use of the
lower and middle strings are only permissible as embellishments.
Glissando passages in chords of the seventh and ninth, enharmonically
obtained, are much more common, and as the above reservations do not
apply, every dynamic shade of tone is possible. Chords in harmonics
can only consist of three notes written close together, two for the
left hand and one for the right.
The tender poetic quality of the harp is adapted to every dynamic
shade, but it is never a very powerful instrument, and the
orchestrator should treat it with respect.
At least three, if not four harps in unison are necessary, if they are
to be heard against a full orchestra playing _forte_. The more rapidly
a _glissando_ passage is played, the louder it will sound. Harmonic
notes on the harp have great charm but little resonance, and are only
possible played quite softly. Speaking generally, the harp, like the
string quartet, _pizzicato_, is more an instrument of colour than
expression.
Percussion instruments producing determinate sounds, keyed
instruments.
Kettle-drums.
Kettle-drums, indispensable to every theatre and concert orchestra
occupy the most important place in the group of percussion
instruments. A pair of kettle-drums (_Timpani_), in the tonic and
dominant keys, was the necessary attribute of an orchestra up to, and
including Beethoven's time, but, from the middle of the 19th
century onward, in western Europe and in Russia, an ever-increasing
need was felt for the presence of three or even four kettle-drums,
during the whole course or part of a work. If the expensive chromatic
drum, permitting instant tuning is rarely met with, still, in the
majority of good orchestras, three screw drums are generally to be
found. The composer can therefore take it for granted that a good
timpanist, having three kettle-drums at his command, will be able to
tune at least one of them during a pause of some length.
The limits of possible change in Beethoven's time was considered to
be:
Big kettle-drum: [Music: F2-C3 (chromatically)]
Small kettle-drum: [Music: B[flat]2-F3 (chromatically)]
In these days it is difficult to define the precise extent of high
compass in the kettle-drums, as this depends entirely on the size and
quality of the smallest one, of which there are many kinds, but I
advise the composer to select:
[Music: E2-G[sharp]3 (chromatically)]
_Note._ A magnificent kettle-drum of very small size was
made for my opera-ballet _Mlada_; this instrument gave the
_D[flat]_ of the fourth octave.
Kettle-drums are capable of every dynamic shade of tone, from
thundering _fortissimo_ to a barely perceptible _pianissimo_. In
_tremolando_ they can execute the most gradual _crescendo_,
_diminuendo_, the _sfp_ and _morendo_.
To deaden the sound, a piece of cloth is generally placed on the skin
of the drum, according to the instruction: _timpani coperti_ (muffled
drums).
Table D.
Pizzicato.
Violin.
Viola.
Violoncello.
Double bass.
[Music]
The black notes are dry and hard, without resonance, and should only
be used when doubled with the wood-wind.
* Table E.
Glockenspiel, celesta, xylophone.
Glockenspiel
(with keyboard).
Glockenspiel
(ordinary).
Celesta.
Xylophone.
[Music]
Piano and Celesta.
The use of a piano in the orchestra (apart from pianoforte concertos)
belongs almost entirely to the Russian school.[11] The object is
two-fold: the quality of tone, either alone, or combined with that
of the harp, is made to imitate a popular instrument, the guzli, (as
in Glinka), or a soft peal of bells. When the piano forms part of an
orchestra, not as a solo instrument, an upright is preferable to a
grand, but today the piano is gradually being superseded by the
celesta, first used by Tschaikovsky. In the celesta, small steel
plates take the place of strings, and the hammers falling on them
produce a delightful sound, very similar to the _glockenspiel_. The
celesta is only found in full orchestras; when it is not available it
should be replaced by an upright piano, and not the _glockenspiel_.
[Footnote 11: Rimsky-Korsakov's opera _Sadko_ and Moussorgsky's _Boris
Godounov_ are particularly interesting in this respect. (Translator's
note.)]
Glockenspiel, Bells, Xylophone.
The _glockenspiel_ (_campanelli_) may be made of steel bars, or played
with a keyboard. The first type is the more satisfactory and possesses
greater resonance. The use of the _glockenspiel_ is similar to the
celesta, but its tone is more brilliant and penetrating. Big bells in
the shape of hollow discs or metal tubes,[12] or real church bells of
moderate size may be considered more as theatrical properties than
orchestral instruments.
[Footnote 12: Recently, bells have been made of suspended metal plates
possessing the rare quality of a fairly pure tone, and which are
sufficiently portable to be used on the concert platform. (Editor's
note.)]
The xylophone is a species of harmonica composed of strips or
cylinders of wood, struck with two little hammers. It produces a
clattering sound, both powerful and piercing.
To complete this catalogue of sounds mention should be made of the
strings playing _col legno_, that is with the wood or back of the bow.
The sound produced is similar to the xylophone, and gains in quality
as the number of players is increased.
A table is appended showing the range of the celesta, _glockenspiel_
and xylophone.
Percussion instruments producing indefinite sounds.
Instruments in this group, such as triangle, castanets, little bells,
tambourine, switch or rod (_Rute._ Ger.), side or military drum,
cymbals, bass drum, and Chinese gong do not take any harmonic or
melodic part in the orchestra, and can only be considered as
ornamental instruments pure and simple. They have no intrinsic
musical meaning, and are just mentioned by the way. The first three
may be considered as _high_, the four following as _medium_, and the
last _two_ as deep instruments. This may serve as a guide to their use
with percussion instruments of determinate sounds, playing in
corresponding registers.
Comparison of resonance in orchestral groups and combination of
different tone qualities.
In comparing the resonance of the respective groups of
sound-sustaining instruments we arrive at the following approximate
conclusions:
In the most resonant group, the brass, the strongest instruments are
the trumpets, trombones and tuba. In loud passages the horns are only
one-half as strong, 1 Trumpet = 1 Trombone = 1 Tuba = 2 Horns.
Wood-wind instruments, in _forte_ passages, are twice as weak as the
horns, 1 Horn = 2 Clarinets = 2 Oboes = 2 Flutes = 2 Bassoons; but, in
_piano_ passages, all wind-instruments, wood or brass are of fairly
equal balance.
It is more difficult to establish a comparison in resonance between
wood-wind and strings, as everything depends on the number of the
latter, but, in an orchestra of medium formation, it may be taken for
granted that in _piano_ passages, the whole of one department (_all_
1st Violins or _all_ 2nd Violins etc.) is equivalent in strength
to one wind instrument, (Violins I = 1 Flute etc.), and, in _forte_
passages, to two wind instruments, (Violins I = 2 Flutes = 1 Oboe + 1
Clarinet, etc.).
It is still harder to form a comparison with instruments of little
sustaining power, for too great a diversity in production and emission
of sound exists. The combined force of groups of sustained resonance
easily overpowers the strings played _pizz._ or _col legno_, the piano
played softly, or the celesta. As regards the _glockenspiel_, bells,
and xylophone, their emphatic tone will easily prevail over other
groups in combination. The same may be said of the kettle-drums with
their ringing, resounding quality, and also of other subsidiary
instruments.
The influence of the timbre of one group on another is noticeable when
the groups are doubled; for instance, when the wood-wind timbre is
closely allied to the strings on the one hand, and to the brass on the
other. Re-inforcing both, the wind _thickens_ the strings and
_softens_ the brass. The strings do not blend so well with the brass,
and when the two groups are placed side by side, each is heard too
distinctly. The combination of the three different timbres in unison
produces a rich, mellow and coherent tone.
All, or several wind instruments in combination will absorb one
department of added strings:
2 Fl. + 2 Ob. + Vns I,
or: 2 Ob. + 2 Cl. + Violas,
or: 2 Cl. + 2 Fag. + 'Cellos.
One department of strings added to the wood-wind in unison produces a
sweet coherent quality, the wood-wind timbre still predominating; but
the addition of one wind instrument to all or part of the strings in
unison, only thickens the resonance of the latter, the wood-wind
timbre being lost in the process:
Vns I + Vns II + 1 Ob.,
or: Violas + 'Cellos + 1 Cl.
or: 'Cellos + D. basses + 1 Fag.
Muted strings do not combine so well with wood-wind, as the two tone
qualities remain distinct and separate. Uniting plucked strings and
percussion with instruments of sustained resonance results in the
following: wind instruments, wood and brass, strengthen and clarify
_pizzicato_ strings, harp, kettle-drums and percussion generally, the
latter lending a touch of relief to the tone of the wood-wind. Uniting
plucked strings and percussion with bowed instruments does not produce
such a satisfactory blend, both qualities being heard independently.
The combination of plucked strings with percussion alone, is
excellent; the two blend perfectly, and the consequent increase in
resonance yields an admirable effect.
The relationship which exists between string harmonics and the flute
or piccolo constitutes a link between the two groups in the upper
range of the orchestra. Moreover, the timbre of the viola may be
vaguely compared to the middle register of the bassoon and the lowest
compass of the clarinet; hence, in the medium orchestral range, a
point of contact is established between the quartet of strings and the
wood-wind.
The bassoon and horn provide the connection between wood-wind and
brass, these two instruments being somewhat analogous in character
when played _piano_ or _mezzo-forte_; the flute also, in its lowest
register, recalls the _pianissimo_ trumpet tone. Stopped and muted
notes in horns and trumpets are similar in quality to the oboe and
Eng. horn, and blend tolerably well with the latter instrument.
Concluding this survey of orchestral groups I add a few remarks which
seem to me of special importance.
The principal part in music is undertaken by three instrumental groups
of sustained resonance, representing the three primary elements,
melody, harmony and rhythm. Instruments of little sustaining power,
though sometimes used independently, are chiefly employed for ornament
and colour; instruments producing indeterminate sounds play no melodic
or harmonic part, their functions being purely rhythmical.
By glancing at the order in which the six orchestral groups are
placed, strings, wood-wind, brass, plucked strings, percussion
producing definite, and those producing indefinite sounds, the reader
will be able to determine the part played by each in the art of
orchestration, from the secondary standpoint of colour and expression.
As regards expression, the strings come first, and the expressive
capacity of the other groups diminishes in the above order, colour
being the only attribute of the last group of percussion instruments.
The same order obtains from the standpoint of general effect in
orchestration. We can listen to strings for an almost indefinite
period of time without getting tired, so varied are their
characteristics (_vide_ the number of string quartets, suites,
serenades etc. written for strings alone). The addition of a single
group of strings will add lustre to a passage for wind instruments. On
the other hand, the quality of wind instruments soon becomes
wearisome; the same may be said of plucked strings, and also
percussion of every kind which should only be employed at reasonable
intervals in orchestral composition.
It cannot be denied that the constant use of compound timbres, in
pair's, in three's etc. eliminates characteristics of tone, and
produces a dull, neutral texture, whereas the employment of simple,
elementary combinations gives infinitely greater scope for variety in
colour.
7 (20) June 1908.