Fletcher’s Political Writings--‘A Discourse on Militias’--The
Affairs of Scotland--Supports Slavery as a cure for
Mendicancy--Attacks the Partition Treaty.
It was in 1698, while the fate of the Darien expedition was still
uncertain, that Fletcher first appeared as an author.
In their original form his writings may be described as short,
anonymous pamphlets, of duodecimo or small octavo size, and printed in
italics. They were republished, some years after Fletcher’s death, in
one volume, in 1732, under the title of _The Political Works of Andrew
Fletcher, Esq._, and since then there have been other editions.
These earlier works consisted of--(1) _A Discourse of Government with
relation to Militias_: Edin., 1698; (2) _Two Discourses concerning the
Affairs of Scotland, written in the year 1698_; (3) a work in Italian,
called _Discorso delle cose di Spagna, scritto nel mese di Luglio
1698_: Napoli, 1698; (4) _A Speech upon the State of the Nation_,
1701.
After the Peace of Ryswick there was a war of pamphlets on the
question of standing armies. William III. desired to maintain a force
sufficient to cope with France; but, as Burnet says, ‘the word
“standing army” had an odious sound in English ears’; and most
Englishmen thought that a thoroughly trained militia and a strong navy
would afford the best means for repelling an invasion from abroad, and
securing order at home.
Fletcher plunged into this controversy with his work upon militias.
His argument is that standing armies kept up in peace have changed the
governments of Europe from monarchies into tyrannies. ‘Nor,’ he says,
‘can the power of granting or refusing money, though vested in the
subject, be a sufficient security for liberty, when a standing
mercenary army is kept up in time of peace; for he that is armed is
always master of him that is unarmed. And not only that government is
tyrannical which is tyrannically exercised, but all governments are
tyrannical which have not in their constitution a sufficient security
against the arbitrary power of the Prince.’ Therefore no monarchy is
sufficiently limited unless the sword is in the hands of the subject.
A standing army tends to enslave a nation. It is composed of men whose
trade is war. To support them heavy taxes must be imposed; and it thus
becomes the interest of a large and formidable party in the state,
consisting of those families whose kinsmen are soldiers, to keep up
the army at the expense of their countrymen.
No standing armies, Fletcher points out, have ever yet been allowed in
this island. The Parliament of England has often declared them
contrary to law; and the Parliament of Scotland not only declared them
to be a grievance, but made his keeping of them up one of its reasons
for disowning King James. But, on the other hand, every free man
should have arms, which are ‘the only true badge of liberty.’ Military
service ought to be compulsory upon all classes; for ‘no bodies of
military men can be of any force or value unless many persons of
quality or education be among them.’ The only men who are fit to be
officers are gentlemen of property and position.
He has a plan all ready for organising the national militia. Four
camps should be formed, three in England and one in Scotland. All men,
on reaching their twenty-first birthday, must enter them, and serve
for two years, if rich enough to support themselves, and for one year,
if they must be maintained at the public expense. They are to be
taught ‘the use of all sorts of arms, with the necessary evolutions;
as also wrestling, leaping, swimming, and the like exercises.’ Every
man who can afford it should be forced to buy a horse, and be trained
to ride him. These camps were to remain for only eight days in one
place, moving from one heath to another, not only for the sake of
health and cleanliness, but to teach the men to march, to forage, to
fortify camps, and to carry their own tents and provisions. The food
of all, both officers and privates, was to be the same. ‘Their drink
should be water, sometimes tempered with a proportion of brandy, and
at other times with vinegar. Their cloaths should be plain, coarse,
and of a fashion fitted in everything for the fatigue of a camp.’
Each camp was to break up, at certain seasons, into two parties, and
spread over the mountains, marshes, and country roads, and practise
tactics by manœuvring against each other. No clergymen nor women
should be allowed to enter them; but ‘speeches exhorting to military
and virtuous actions should be often composed, and pronounced publicly
by such of the youth as were, by education and natural talents,
qualified for it.’ The strictest discipline was to be enforced. ‘The
punishments should be much more rigorous than those inflicted for the
same crimes by the law of the land. And there should be punishments
for some things not liable to any by the common law, immodest and
insolent words or actions, gaming, and the like.’
In this Spartan system Fletcher had the fullest confidence. ‘Such a
militia,’ he says, ‘might not only defend a people living in an
island, but even such as are placed in the midst of the most warlike
nations of the world.’ But the practical conclusion to which he comes
is that, in the meantime, the existing militia was sufficient. No
standing army was necessary. The sea was the only empire which
naturally belonged to Britain. Conquest could never be our interest,
still less to consume our people and our treasure in crusades
undertaken on behalf of other nations.
This _Discourse on Militias_, which was first printed in 1698, in the
form of a pamphlet, will be found in the various editions of his
_Works_ published in 1732, 1737, 1749, and 1798, and was also
reprinted in London in the year 1755.[3]
[3] _MS. Bibliography._ By Mr. Gordon Duff and Mr. R. A. S.
Macfie.
It appears, from internal evidence, that the _Two Discourses
concerning the Affairs of Scotland_ were written in the autumn of
1698. The Darien expedition had sailed at the end of July, and
Fletcher urges the necessity of providing supplies for the new colony.
The whole future of Scotland, he says, depends on the fate of this
enterprise. The condition of the country has become desperate. Partly
through the fault of Scotsmen themselves, and partly because the seat
of government has been removed to London, it is cruelly impoverished,
and has fallen so low ‘that now our motto may be inverted, and all may
not only provoke, but safely trample upon us.’ Commerce we have none.
No use has been made of our harbours. Nothing has been done for the
poor. Every year people are emigrating in search of work. We have no
trade and no manufactures. Everything depends on the colony at Darien.
Therefore the first business of Parliament should be to support the
Company of Scotland, for which he proposes that the Estates should
vote a large sum of money, and that three frigates which had lately
been built by Scotland should be employed to convoy the next fleet
that sailed for Darien.
He hopes that, after providing for the Darien colonists, the Scottish
Parliament will take steps to encourage trade at home. The war is at
an end. In that war Scotland has done great things. Seven or eight
thousand Scotsmen served in the English fleet, and two or three
thousand in that of Holland. ‘Besides,’ he says, ‘I am credibly
informed that every fifth man in the English forces was either of this
nation, or Scots-Irish, who are a people of the same blood with us.’
But there is now no reason for keeping up the standing forces in
Scotland. ‘There is no pretence for them, except only to keep a few
wretched Highlanders in order, which might easily be done by a due
execution of our old laws made for that purpose, without the help of
any fort or garrison.’ As to danger from the Jacobites, ‘the party of
the late King James was always insignificant, and is now become a
jest.’ Scotland is called upon to provide £84,000 a year for the army.
This is the same thing as if England had to find £2,500,000; and yet
all England provides is £350,000. Scotland is, therefore, unfairly
taxed; and for that reason, and also because the militia is
sufficient, the Estates should refuse to vote supplies for the army,
and devote the money to the improvement of trade and industry.
It is in the Second Discourse that Fletcher gives his well-known
account of the poverty-stricken condition of Scotland, and prescribes
domestic slavery as one remedy. No one who has minutely studied
Scottish history during the seventeenth and the first half of the
eighteenth centuries will think the picture overdrawn. The country was
barren, and the seasons were inclement. But Fletcher thought of
Holland, where he had seen field upon field rescued from the sea,
harbours and ships, wealthy towns, flourishing farmers, canals running
between rich pasturelands, or banks adorned by villas and gardens; and
all this had been the work of the sober and industrious people of a
free republic, who had worked out their own salvation. Then he looked
at Scotland, the country which he loved, and saw ‘many thousands of
our people who are at this day dying for want of bread,’ and asked,
‘How is this to be changed?’ He was under no illusions. He saw things
as they really were. The Trading Company might do much. If the
Parliament would spend money on the encouragement of industry instead
of on the army, Glasgow and Dundee might rise from petty seaports
into rich commercial cities, and agriculture might flourish in the
Lothians. But a great part of the population of Scotland consisted of
people who would do anything rather than work. These were the
descendants of the Border mosstroopers, the wild clansmen of the
Highlands, and a vast migratory horde of sturdy beggars who wandered,
in ragged hordes, over Lowlands and Highlands alike--starving,
pilfering, and incorrigibly idle. ‘How,’ he asked, ‘are we to deal
with these vagabonds?’ His answer was, ‘Force them to work.’ He
foresees that he will be accused of inconsistency, and must face the
question how he, the champion of liberty, can propose such a measure.
But he answers that he regards not names but things. ‘We are told,’ he
says, ‘there is not a slave in France; that when a slave sets his foot
upon French ground, he becomes immediately free; and I say there is
not a freeman in France, because the King takes away part of any man’s
property at his pleasure; and that, let him do what he will to any
man, there is no remedy.’ Public liberty may be complete in a country
where there is domestic slavery, and he only proposes that the idle,
sturdy beggar should be made a slave for the benefit of the country at
large.
That Fletcher was favourable to domestic slavery, as a social
institution, is clear. He argues that the clergy are to blame for the
‘multitude of beggars who now oppress the world.’ His view is that
churchmen, ‘never failing to confound things spiritual with temporal,
and consequently all good order and good government, either through
mistake or design,’ recommended masters, when Christianity was
established, to set at liberty such of their slaves as would become
Christians; and the result of this advice was that thousands of
persons, who had been well clothed, well fed, and well housed as
slaves, were thrown loose upon the world, which has ever since been
overrun by a ragged army of idle freemen who live on alms.
He therefore urges that in Scotland stern measures should be taken,
especially with the Highlanders, for whom he has a profound contempt.
‘Nor indeed,’ he says, ‘can there be any thorough reformation in this
affair, so long as the one-half of our country, in extent of ground,
is possessed by a people who are all gentlemen only because they will
not work, and who in everything are more contemptible than the vilest
slaves, except that they always carry arms, because for the most part
they live upon robbery.’ His proposals are that hospitals should be
provided for such beggars as are old and feeble; but as for the rest,
he would divide them into two classes. The harmless beggars should be
employed as domestic slaves. The dangerous ruffians should be sent to
Venice, to ‘serve in the galleys against the common enemy of
Christendom.’
Such were the means by which Fletcher would have put an end to
idleness and mendicancy in Scotland; and his well-known description of
the state of things may be once more quoted, as an explanation of how
he came to hold such views. ‘In all times there have been about a
hundred thousand of those vagabonds who have lived without any regard
or subjection to the laws of the land, or even those of God and
nature.... Many murders have been discovered among them, and they are
not only a most unspeakable oppression to poor tenants (who, if they
give not bread or some kind of provision to perhaps forty such
villains in one day, are sure to be insulted by them), but they rob
many poor people who live in houses distant from any neighbourhood. At
country weddings, markets, burials, and other the like occasions, they
are to be seen--both men and women--perpetually drunk, cursing,
blaspheming, and fighting together.’
Apart from this evil of a large pauper population, for which he had
the courage to propose the remedy of slavery, Fletcher thought that
much of the poverty in Scotland was caused by high rents. These, he
says, are so excessive that they make ‘the tenant even poorer than his
servant, whose wages he cannot pay,’ and this affects not only the day
labourer, but the village tradesmen, and the merchants of the county
towns. Rents must therefore be reduced; and not only so, but an Act
of Parliament should be passed, forbidding any man to possess more
land than he can cultivate by his own servants. By this means more
labour would be employed, the soil would be better cultivated, and the
wealth of the country vastly increased. ‘In a few years,’ says
Fletcher, ‘the country will be everywhere enclosed and improved to the
greatest height, the plough being everywhere in the hand of the
possessor.’
He also suggested, as a cure for the depressed state of agriculture,
the crude remedy that lending money on interest should be forbidden.
By this means, he says, ‘men who have small sums at interest will be
obliged to employ it in trade or the improvement of land.’
Proposals such as these, which nowadays some will say were in advance
of his time, and others will regard as impracticable and absurd, were
not taken seriously at the time he made them. ‘Mr. Fletcher’s
schemes,’ says Sir John Clerk, a commonplace man, but a shrewd and
cautious observer, ‘had but very little credit, because he himself was
often for changing them; though, in other respects, a very worthy man.
It used to be said of him, that it would be easy to hang by his own
schemes of government; for, if they had taken place, he would have
been the first man that would have attempted an alteration.’[4]
[4] MS. note on Lockhart, quoted in Somerville, p. 204.
The Italian essay on the affairs of Spain was apparently suggested by
the Partition Treaty of 1698. In the editions of Fletcher’s collected
works there is an ‘Auviso,’ or advertisement, prefixed to this
pamphlet, in which the author explains that he has written the
discourse in order to show how easily any prince who succeeds to the
throne of Spain may acquire the empire of the world; and in the
_Speech upon the State of the Nation_, he deals with the same topic.
The letter of the Treaty, he urges, speaks of keeping the peace of
Europe by breaking up the Spanish monarchy, but the spirit of it
throws that monarchy into the hands of the Bourbons. The result will
be that the balance of power will be upset, a war will follow, civil
and religious liberty will be endangered. William III., he hints, may
offer to support the Spanish policy of France, if Louis will assist
him to become an absolute monarch in England and Holland. ‘This
treaty,’ he says, ‘is like an alarum-bell rung over all Europe. Pray
God it may not prove to you a passing-bell.’[5]
[5] The 1749 edition of Fletcher’s _Works_ contains an English
translation of the _Discorso di Spagna_.
This manifesto, though described as a speech, was probably never
delivered. But it may be regarded as an election address; for on the
dissolution of the Convention Parliament, Fletcher was returned, at
the general election, for the county of Haddington, with Adam Cockburn
of Ormiston as his colleague.