Transcriber's Note:
Superscript text is indicated by caret signs (^), and italics by
_underscores_.
[Illustration: Engraved by Edw^d Finden.
VIEW OF BANKOK.]
THE
MISSION
TO
SIAM, AND HUÉ
THE
CAPITAL OF COCHIN CHINA,
IN
THE YEARS 1821-2.
FROM THE JOURNAL OF
THE LATE GEORGE FINLAYSON, ESQ.
ASSISTANT SURGEON OF HIS MAJESTY’S
8TH LIGHT DRAGOONS,
_SURGEON AND NATURALIST TO THE MISSION_.
WITH A
MEMOIR OF THE AUTHOR,
BY
SIR THOMAS STAMFORD RAFFLES, F.R.S.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
MDCCCXXVI.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES,
Northumberland-court.
DEDICATED
(BY PERMISSION)
TO THE
HONOURABLE THE COURT OF DIRECTORS
OF
THE EAST INDIA COMPANY;
THROUGH WHOSE LIBERALITY THE MISSION WAS PROVIDED
WITH THE MEANS OF PROSECUTING
OBJECTS OF SCIENCE,
BY THEIR MOST OBEDIENT
HUMBLE SERVANT,
THOMAS STAMFORD RAFFLES.
INTRODUCTION.
In the year 1821, a mission was sent by the Governor-General of Bengal
to the courts of Siam and Cochin-China, having for its object the
opening of a friendly intercourse between those countries and the
British possessions, and the establishment of free trade on both sides.
This mission it is well known was not attended with the success
expected; little or no positive advantage was gained to our trade, but
the foundation of a friendly intercourse was laid by the visit, and the
knowledge procured may prepare the way for a future attempt under more
favourable circumstances.
It at any rate afforded an opportunity for our obtaining much
valuable information respecting countries and people, hitherto almost
unknown to us, and in this respect the particulars contained in the
following pages may be deemed of sufficient interest to justify their
publication: they are transcribed nearly verbatim from the private
journal of the late Mr. George Finlayson, who was attached to the
Mission as Surgeon and naturalist, but who, unfortunately for his
friends and the cause of science, fell a sacrifice to his unwearied
exertions in the performance of the service intrusted to him, and did
not live to revise and arrange them himself, having died on his passage
to England.
The Journal in its unfinished and rough state, with the whole of the
valuable collections in natural history made by Mr. Finlayson during
the course of the Mission, having been deposited in the museum of the
East India company, and by the liberal arrangements of the court of
directors, laid open to the inspection of those who were interested
in the subject, it is now published, with the permission of Dr.
Somerville, and in the simplest form practicable, it being considered
that such a work can have no better recommendation than the certainty
of its genuineness and authenticity.
It does not profess to afford any account of the official proceedings
or conduct of the Mission, further than met the author’s observation
as a spectator in common with others who were present on the occasion;
its object is to throw light on the country, and on the character,
institutions, and habits of the people generally.
It would have been easy to have enlarged the work by the addition
of notes and explanatory remarks, and at one time it was proposed to
have annexed an appendix with plates, illustrative of the subjects in
natural history collected during the voyage, for which the materials
are considerable; but the publisher having objected to the increased
expense that would in this case have been incurred, the plan was
abandoned.
Partly also on this account, but more especially in consequence of its
being understood that Mr. Crawfurd, to whom the charge of the Mission
was intrusted, himself meditates a work on the subject, and as it would
be treading on ground more peculiarly belonging to that gentleman, it
has been deemed advisable not to enlarge, in this place, on the public
objects and results of the Mission, or to enter into any general review
of the state of the countries visited, or of the various interests
involved, which might otherwise have been expected.
It is necessary however to say a few words respecting the lamented
author.
GEORGE FINLAYSON was a native of Thurso, in Scotland, descended
from parents in a very humble sphere of life, but most respectable
in their station. He had two brothers who, like himself, died early
in the career of prosperity. The circumstances under which Donald,
the eldest, and subsequently George, were brought forward, were as
follows:--
During the late war, when the charge of the medical department of the
army in Scotland was committed to Dr. Somerville, he had occasion for
the assistance of a clerk, the nature of whose duties made it desirable
that he should have some knowledge of medicine, and it occurred to
him that the salary of the office might furnish the means to some
meritorious person of prosecuting his studies at the same time. In
order to find such a person he addressed himself to Dr. Thomson,
professor of surgery in the University of Edinburgh, well knowing the
competence of his judgment, and his disinterested zeal in advancing
modest merit; Dr. Thomson immediately named a young man who fulfilled
every condition, and whose slender means arose from hours of private
tuition. Donald Finlayson was accordingly sent and appointed. Assiduity
in the discharge of every duty, blended with an earnest desire to
please, were striking parts of his character. He was a good Greek,
Latin, and French scholar, and an excellent botanist, besides being a
good anatomist, and well versed in other branches of medical science.
He showed an ardour in acquiring information on every subject which
excited an interest in those from whom he sought it. He had enjoyed
fewer opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of the world than of most
subjects, and was conscious of the awkwardness resulting from this
deficiency, and most anxious to remove the cause of it, in which his
success was only to be explained by the thankfulness with which he
received a hint upon the subject.
On completing the course of his academical studies, Dr. Somerville
thought him equal to a higher situation, and advised him to go into the
army, assuring him that he had been so satisfied with his services,
that he should be glad if he had a brother that he might appoint to
be his successor. He said his brother George, whom he had taken great
pains to educate, was in every respect a more able man than he was, and
therefore strongly recommended him.
George was accordingly appointed to the situation. He in every respect
verified the account of his partial friend; and became so great a
favourite, that he was a constant inmate in Dr. Somerville’s family,
and beloved by all who knew him. When his studies were finished, Dr.
Somerville sent him also into the army, and it was no less gratifying
to the generous feelings of that gentleman, than creditable to his
discernment, to learn, that both brothers distinguished themselves
by their attention to their duty and their humanity to the sick and
wounded. Donald had been actively employed in the harassing engagements
that preceded the battle of Waterloo, as assistant-surgeon of the
33d regiment, and also on that memorable day. On the march to Paris
with his regiment, he disappeared, and it seems probable that he
fell a victim to marauders then abounding in the country, from the
disorganized state of the retreating army. George got leave of absence
to endeavour to learn the fate of his unfortunate brother, but his
efforts were unavailing as he could only hear that he had been seen
exploring a cave near St. Quinten. He was so affected by this severe
loss of a brother to whom he owed so much, that it was an act of
humanity to get him removed from the scene of his sorrows. Sir James
Macgregor, who is never wanting on such occasions, kindly and promptly
acceded to Dr. Somerville’s request to attach George Finlayson to
the medical-staff about to proceed to Ceylon, under the direction
of Dr. Farrel, than whom no one was more capable of discerning and
appreciating his worth and talents.
In Ceylon Mr. Finlayson was indefatigable in the pursuit of botany
and other branches of natural history, to which he devoted all the
time that his laborious professional duties allowed. After a residence
of some years in this island, he was removed to Bengal, having been
appointed assistant-surgeon of His Majesty’s 8th regiment of Light
Dragoons, by the kindness of Sir James. He rejoiced to find that his
regiment was doing duty near the Himalayan Mountains, as his journey
would afford him an opportunity of exploring such an extent of new
ground; while his residence there held out every temptation that could
fascinate a mind ardent in the pursuit of natural history.
The following extract from a letter written by him to his friend
and patron. Dr. Somerville, on his quitting Ceylon, explains his
circumstances and prospects at that period, and throws some light on
his general character and feeling.
_Kandy, 6th July, 1819._
I have heard of my being appointed assistant-surgeon to the
8th Dragoons.... I have received a very polite note from the
director-general on the subject, to whom I am very grateful for
the appointment. I could not help entertaining apprehensions lest
I should revert to the rank of hospital assistant, and if I have
not done so, I am persuaded it is through the representations and
intercessions of yourself and Mr. Reid. I have had much reason
to be satisfied with my situation in this island, and it is not
without regret that I shall leave it. Through the kindness of Dr.
Favell, my situation and duties have always been such as to render
me perfectly contented. I have not been inattentive to your advice
on a former occasion, and already, through the good management
of my friends, I find myself possessed of several hundred pounds,
a sum much beyond my expectations. I doubt, therefore, if my
circumstances will be benefited by removing to India, where, though
the pay is much greater, the mode of living is more expensive, and
as second assistant I cannot expect to have the charge of the sick.
However, there are other circumstances attending the change, which
are of a pleasing nature. My regiment is stationed at Merut, on the
frontier of the upper provinces of the Bengal Government, so that
from Calcutta I shall have a journey of several thousand miles to
perform, a circumstance which of itself would outweigh a host of
difficulties. I am delighted with the prospect of seeing so large a
portion of the globe; the journey cannot but prove interesting and,
I hope, useful to me.
On the return of his regiment to Europe, he was detained for the
purpose of attending the Mission to Siam and Cochin China, as medical
officer and naturalist, during which his health was sacrificed at an
early period by the active and severe exertions which his zeal in the
pursuit of natural history induced him to make, and he lived but to
reach Bengal, and embark for Europe with little or no hope of recovery.
It has been already mentioned that he died on the passage home.
The following extracts from some of his later letters to Dr. Somerville
will not be read without interest.
_Siam, 15th June 1822._
Nearly three months have elapsed since we arrived at this place,
Bankok, the capital of Siam, and being unable to get our ship over
the bar of the river, we shall probably remain as much longer. I have
had but little opportunity to do any thing in any branch of natural
history. The people have kept a strict watch over our actions, and
their jealousy opposes an insuperable barrier to researches of that
nature. We have gained some information respecting the manners of
the people, their religion, &c., which may one day afford you some
amusement.
* * * By-the-by, what do you think of my furnishing a rapid and popular
sketch of our voyage to this place and to Cochin China? Is a production
of this sort calculated to excite any interest at the present time?
Probably not, after all you have had of late respecting the embassy to
China and the shipwreck of the Alceste. * * * I am not at all ambitious
of becoming author, and my reason for saying this much is to know your
inclinations, by which I would be guided rather than by my own.
I do not know that the political or commercial objects of our mission
are of that importance to attract any share of your attention or
curiosity. One might with justice say of the king of Siam, what
Voltaire says of a certain king of Babylon. “Il se croit le plus grand
roi de la terre, parceque tout le monde le lui dit.” The celestial
empire itself is but a small matter compared to his kingdom. Judge then
of the notions such a personage is likely to entertain of our nation.
Our Mission, there seems great reason to fear, is destined to share
the fate of the numerous attempts which have already been made to
establish a friendly and commercial intercourse with the ultra-Gangetic
nations. It does not appear likely that it will effect any thing for
the benefit of our commerce. When we arrived in the country we were
quite ignorant of many matters, a knowledge of which would have been of
the first importance in conducting affairs with such a people. Peace,
for which they are more indebted to the weakness and pusillanimity of
their enemies than to their own strength, had left the king, and one or
two of his ministers, leisure to embark in commercial speculations. You
are aware that the king is here the merchant, and almost the only one.
The success of their first attempts exceeded their expectations, and
led them to think of increasing the produce of the country. Chinese
emigrants were, with this view, encouraged, beyond all former example,
and at this moment, they are thought to equal the natives of the
country, in number. The effect was instantaneous. The produce of
sugar alone, which was before totally neglected, has increased to an
astonishing extent, in the course of the last ten years. It is the same
with other articles of commerce, as pepper, cardamums, &c.
Not content with trading to China, the Government now wishes to see the
ships of Europeans within its ports; one party in the state (that which
conducts the commerce of the country) would willingly favour the trade
with the latter; but another, and by far the most respectable among the
King’s advisers, are averse to making any alterations in established
usages, though not displeased to see their country visited by European
ships. As they stand at present, the regulations relating to commerce
with Europeans are almost prohibitory.
It were perhaps useless to say through what causes our Mission has
failed, for indeed it may be said to have done so already: I do not
know that we can expect a much better reception at the court of Cochin
China, to which we proceed as soon as we can leave this. As diplomatic
matters have hitherto gone in this part of the world, it will perhaps
be well if we come off without insult or something worse.
_Off the Hooghly, Dec. 25th, 1822._
We are thus far on our return to Bengal, after an absence of more than
thirteen months. I return with collections in natural history which
will not, I think, disappoint the Supreme Government. I have seen much,
and many interesting tribes of people; I have been much gratified;
but my health is destroyed, I fear, for ever. Both my lungs and liver
are in fault; I have exposed myself too much to the weather; but for
my health, I had been the happiest man alive. The next two months
will decide whether I shall recover or not; our cold weather is just
set in, and may do me good. This is the first time I have put pen to
paper for months, therefore do not expect much. I cannot say that we
have gained much by negotiation; the Siamese and Cochin Chinese are a
very proud people. The King of Siam gave the Mission an audience, but
the King of Cochin China, contrary to the custom of his predecessors,
would not receive the Envoy of the Governor-General of Bengal. It
was the practice of his court, he observed, to grant audiences to
the ambassadors of kings only, and that the Governor-General must
address himself to his Minister. The business of the Mission was
transacted with the latter. Cochin China offers to the traveller
a most extraordinary spectacle; the capital, Hué, is surrounded by
fortifications that would do credit to the first fortress in Europe. I
have kept a journal of events, and it is of some extent; I hope it will
serve to amuse my friends for an idle hour or two. If the public have
any curiosity respecting the countries we have lately visited, I should
not care to lay it before that awful tribunal, provided, however, that
the work would gain me some little credit. In this, however, I should
be guided by your opinion, and that of your friends. I have a great
horror of appearing before the public, but something not altogether
uninteresting in the form of a book would be of service to me in this
country, where if I get forward, it must be by my own exertions. I
should be very happy to hear from you on this subject, if you think it
deserves the least consideration.
Mr. Crawfurd means to write a book. * * * His opinion of things differs
considerably from mine, for I was in fact but a mere spectator.
I have discovered some splendid new plants. What would Mr. Brown say
to a plant of the Orchideous tribe, an ærides, as far as I have yet
discovered, that should have a flowering spike six feet high, covered
with upwards of one hundred flowers, each some inches across[1]? There
is not a more splendid object in vegetable nature; if less singular,
it is perhaps equally deserving of admiration with the Rafflesia, which
he has described in his usual classical style. I shall have a good many
plants to send home, as well as birds and quadrupeds.
_Calcutta, June 15th, 1823._
Dr. F. advises me strongly to continue in India; I see no plan so
good, if my health will admit, yet I will not continue a useless
burden on a Government which I have found so liberal, and if a
few months’ experience do not bring me about, I will give up all
prospects and wait the too tedious issue of such complaints.
I have reason to fear that I have got confirmed phthisis; if
I recover, my prospects will brighten: even under the worst
circumstances, we may prepare for better times. If I remain, it
will be greatly to my advantage to be transferred to the Company’s
medical service. It is nothing entering the lists with boys again.
_Calcutta, June 16th._
My health has not improved since my arrival, and as if ill
health were not of itself sufficient grievance, it is, I fear,
destined to entail upon me the disappointment of very fair hopes.
Notwithstanding the frequent interruption to my labours by ill
health, the present Governor-General, Mr. Adam, has expressed
himself very favourably of my exertions, and very willing to do
something for me. Indeed, I am assured on very good authority,
that he would immediately put me in possession of a most elegible
appointment, just vacated by a friend of mine, if my health would
admit of my entering upon its duties. It would be preposterous in
me to expect that Government would keep this open for me. In this
employment I should have been placed under the immediate control of
Government, and should have no less a field than the Himalaya range
for my research.
I fear I have been rather troublesome to you with my letters of
late, this being the third within a very short time.
My object in writing this is to inform you that in the course of a
month or so I shall be on my way to England. I have come to this
resolution in consequence of my bad state of health, in which no
improvement has taken place since my arrival here: if I have not
yet got a confirmed phthisis, the voyage may set me up, but if
I have, I shall wait my fate in some retired corner or other at
home. I shall leave behind me some very worthy friends who have
always been forward in promoting my interest, and although my
regiment has gone home, I could at this moment get an appointment
from Government, if my health would allow me to accept it. I have,
however, determined to sacrifice every thing for the recovery of
my health, feeling pretty well assured that with that I shall get
through the world some how or other.
My kindest and affectionate regards to you all.
It is due to Lord Amherst to mention that on his Lordship’s appointment
to the Government of India, Dr. Somerville made known to him the
acquirements of Mr. Finlayson, distinctly explaining that his object
was not to solicit favour, but to mention that it might be a subject
of regret that a person so eminently qualified by his knowledge in
natural history should return to Europe with his regiment, while his
abilities might be so usefully exerted in India. Lord Amherst said
that it was the only application of the kind that had been made to
him; he saw it in its true light, and immediately made a memorandum of
the circumstance, with an assurance that he should not fail to take
care of so deserving a person; and it is certain that his Lordship
would have done justice to his merits, had his life been spared. But
his constitution was worn out by his indefatigable exertions in those
ungenial climates in which it was his lot to serve. Even before the
arrival of Lord Amherst, a lucrative and honourable employment well
suited to his habits and studies was offered to him by Mr. Adam,
but the disease which terminated his life had already made too much
progress to admit of his availing himself of the proffered patronage.
In speaking of the character of the two brothers, Dr. Somerville thus
expresses himself:--
“I have seldom met with any young men more strongly impressed with the
sense of rectitude than Donald and George Finlayson; their conduct was
in every case regulated by a feeling of duty, and a desire to be useful
to all around them, to which it would be superfluous to add how much
they were esteemed, and how sincerely their premature death has been
regretted.”
In reflecting on this short biographical sketch, the mind cannot fail
to dwell on the bright example which it affords, that knowledge and
independence are within the reach of all who will labour for them,
whatever be their condition or rank in life, and that the best and only
solid foundation of prosperity and esteem, is a steady adherence to the
principle of rectitude.
Nothing can be more creditable than the exertions made by the father
to gratify the thirst for education and knowledge evinced by his sons,
unless it be exceeded by the generous and disinterested friendship
of the patron. But both would have been unavailing had not the young
men themselves been indefatigable in their exertions, and religiously
upright and steady in their principles, conduct, and views.
Though Finlayson may not rank with a Burns, or a Leyden, in point of
talent, still it is hoped there is enough in his story and writings to
excite interest and attention; and that while his name may be enrolled
in the long and melancholy list of those who have in early life fallen
a sacrifice to their zeal and exertions in the cause of science, it
may add another link to the chain which binds our affections and
attachment to a land where the avenues to it are open to all, and the
patronage and encouragement to worth and talent are daily advancing
with the facilities of education and improvement. Let it, however, be
recollected that the foundation of the education of the Finlaysons (for
they were in other respects nearly self-taught) was laid at home, under
the parent’s eye, not in schools, nor in the knowledge of the world,
but on the broad and obvious principles of religion and morality,--as
simple as they are sacred,--instilled into their youthful minds with
their earliest recollections, and confirmed by the pastor’s authority
and blessing, according to the practice in Scotland. This foundation
was equal to any superstructure, and on it, as on a rock of adamant,
they built their hopes, their fortunes, and their happiness,--and
their reward was a feeling of content and gratitude for the unexpected
benefits they enjoyed, and the esteem and respect of all who knew them.
* * * * *
The following observations collected from the author’s loose memoranda
were probably intended by him as the outline of an introduction to the
publication which he projected, and may be advantageously introduced
in this place as a preface to the Journal. They will shew his turn of
mind, and the objects he had in view.
In a greater or less degree, there is, perhaps, inherent in the
minds of most men, a desire to visit foreign countries,--desire
which neither storms nor tempests, deserts, wilds, nor precipices,
with all their appalling fears, have been able to counteract or to
check. Cast naked and helpless on this earth, man has aspired to
scan its limits, to ascertain its bounds, and even to scrutinize
its nature: he has risen superior to the contending elements, which
might seem to have opposed an insuperable barrier to his restless
ambition, to his ever-active, never-satisfied curiosity; and even
the great globe itself no longer seems to offer a theatre too great
or too extensive for the exertion of his activity.
Insatiable ambition, boundless curiosity, are to be reckoned among
the more prominent of the attributes with which man is endowed.
To what mighty ends have they not led? If they have brought upon
him, and upon the race, unnumbered evils, they have also had their
attendant good. His share of peace, perhaps of happiness, had been
greater had he indulged these propensities less; but it is not
in his power to resist the unalterable impulse, conferred upon
him, doubtless, for the best of purposes. The _curiosity_ that
is gratified with inquiring into the laws implanted in organized
beings, or into the general phenomena which characterize the
material world at large, admits of, and is usually attended by
gratification as permanent as it is unmixed; every step is attended
with unalloyed pleasure, every new acquisition leads and stimulates
to further discovery.
This disposition of the mind is particularly observable in those
who have made nature and natural objects their study. Hence
the eagerness with which men engage in them: no one capable of
reflection but has at one time or other experienced this laudable
curiosity, and wished for the power to gratify it. To this source
we must refer the encouragement held forth in the present day
to voyagers and travellers, and in general to every one engaged
in matters of discovery. It is not extraordinary, therefore,
that persons should readily be found eager to enter upon the
investigation of new and distant countries, and of the various
objects of knowledge which they contain. It is the lot of few to
indulge their inclinations this way; and of these few, how scanty
is the proportion of individuals qualified for the important task,
either by original endowment, by previous pursuits and habits, or
by the necessary education, or by a proper train and temper of
mind! Fortunately, however, the objects of pursuit are as numerous
as the taste of man is various, and something is left even to the
most humble intentions. A proper consideration of this matter would
lead to the most important acquirements both on the part of the
most humbly endowed, and for the benefit of science and knowledge
in general. The principle need not be enforced by argument: let
us follow it, if possible, with alacrity, and make the most of
the opportunities which fall in our way. Let us devote to the
task those abilities, however moderate, with which the Almighty
has endowed us, and we shall rarely fail altogether of deriving
benefit from our exertions. We may rest secure that the labours
so bestowed will seldom fail to be duly appreciated; that our
observations will be received with candour, and our alignments,
if urged with modesty, will rarely fail to be listened to by the
circle of our friends and acquaintances, to the approbation of whom
no one can be altogether indifferent. It is in this temper of mind
that we may hope to avoid a two-fold evil; that of exaggerating
the importance of the feeble exertions of an individual on the
one hand, and of thinking too meanly of his capacity on the
other,--since both are alike hurtful, and alike oppose the
acquisition of useful knowledge.
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Ærides. Scapo simplici, foliis a radice arcte imbricatis, distichis
tripedalibus, frondi similibus; foliolis ensiformibus, longissimis:
floribus spicatis, alternis punctatis, magnis, speciosis; labello
subcylindrico, tripartito, laminâ inferiore patente, trifida, acuminata
integra, laminis superioribus in arcum supra pistillum conniventibus.
The flowers diffuse the richest fragrance, the petals are waved on the
margin, of a fleshy consistence, of a dark yellow colour, interspersed
with iron-brown spots. The pistillum is similarly dotted; the labellum
internally striated, trifid, and villous at the apex. The spike of the
plant discovered contained more than one hundred flowers, the greater
number of them fully expanded, each several inches in length, and as
much in breadth.--_Extract from Mr. Finlayson’s Botanical Journal._
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Page
Voyage from Calcutta to Islands of Preparis, Narcondam,
Seyer.--Remarkable Silence and Absence of Birds.--Granitic
Structure.--Zoological and Botanical Remarks.--Coast of
Siam.--Straits of Papra.--Botanical Observations.--Prince
of Wales’ Island.--Chinese Settlers.--Scenery.--Zoology.--Brumal
climate.--Distribution of Plants.--Soil.--Products.--Queda 1
CHAPTER II.
Leave Prince of Wales’ Island.--Luminous Appearance of the
Sea.--Pulo Dinding.--A gigantic Ærides.--Malacca.--Deserted
Appearance. Slaves.--Little Camiron.--Islands.--Vegetable
Phenomenon.--Singapore.--Unrivalled situation as an emporium
between the Indian and China Seas.--Serenity and security
of the Atmosphere and Seas.--Monsoons scarcely felt.--Climate
salubrious, contrasted with that of Upper India, so fatal to
Europeans; effects of on Vegetable and Animal Nature.--Creeping
plants.--Malay race.--Mangroves, utility of.--Character of the
Chinese.--Their Ships.--Malays of the Sea or Orang
Laut.--Description of the New Settlement.--Conduct of the Chinese,
and manly Conduct of Captain Richardson.--Natunas Isles.--Pulo
Ubi.--Seeds discovered in the Wild Plantain.--Botanical
Observations.--Groups of Islands.--Joss Sticks.--Fu-Kok.--Arrival
at Paknam in Siam River 33
CHAPTER III.
Siam.--Interpreter arrives.--Requested to land the
Guns.--Entertained by a Chief.--Physiological remarks on the
Siamese.--Progress to Bankok.--A floating Bazar.--Bankok
described.--The Governor General’s Letter to the King delivered
to a Chief.--A suspicious Attempt made to get Possession of the
Presents.--Interview with one of the Ministers.--Disgusting
Servility of his Attendants.--Negotiations respecting the
Performance of the Court Ceremonies.--Proceed to the
Palace.--Addressed in good Latin by a Native.--Observations
on the Road to the Audience.--Description of the Audience 103
CHAPTER IV.
White Elephants and White Monkies.--Taste of the
Siamese.--Brahmans and Hinduism in Siam.--Library of the
Temple.--Enormous Guns.--Trade of Siam a Royal
Monopoly.--Chinese Emigrants.--Sugar.--Siamese Policy
respecting Trade.--Policy of the Ultra Gangetic Nations.--An
Embassy arrives from Cochin China.--Procession of Royal Barges
of Siam to receive it.--Siamese Music.--Reflections on the
Result of the Mission 150
CHAPTER V.
Interview with Prince Chroma Chit.--Mr. Finlayson called
upon to visit a case of Cholera in the Palace.--Mission
not visited by any Persons of Respectability.--Parties
at the Court of Bankok.--Nothing granted in favour of
Commerce.--Agent to the Governor General leaves without an
audience.--Bankok; the Dwellings mostly Floating
Rafts.--Inhabitants mostly Chinese.--Manufactures of Tin,
Leather, Cast-Iron Vessels.--Balachang.--Siamese
eat Flesh, but do not kill.--Palaces and Temples, or
Prachadis of Bankok.--Images of Buddha excessively
numerous.--Analogies between the Pyramid of Egypt and
the Bauddhic Dagoba 194
CHAPTER VI.
Physical form and character of the Siamese.--Manners and
Customs.--Treatment of the dead, and funeral obsequies of
the Monarch.--Laws.--Adultery.--Theft.--History.--State
of defence.--Revenue.--Siamese numerals.--Kalendar.--Annual
festival at the close of the year.--Religion.--Laws of
Buddha.--Province of Chantibond the richest portion of the
territory of Siam.--Its products.--Mines of gold and of
precious stones.--Zoological remarks 224
CHAPTER VII.
Depart from Siam.--Sechang, or Dutch Islands.--Inhabitants.--
Enormous Yam.--Bay of Siam.--Geological Remarks.--Pulo
Panjang.--Two Brothers’ Islands.--Pulo Condore.--Geology.--
Inhabitants.--Hospitable Character.--Cape St. James Current.--
Bay of Cocoa Nuts.--Geology, &c.--Vung Tao.--Costume.--Governor
of Kan-dyu, a singular Character, takes charge of an Official
Communication to the Governor of Saigon.--Inhabitants very
polite.--Dress almost exclusively in Silk.--Physiognomy and
Form.--Habitations.--Costume.--Shops.--Royal Boats 264
CHAPTER VIII.
The Author proceeds to Saigon.--River of Saigon.--Saigon.--
Superstitious Emblems.--M. Diard.--Cochin Chinese Females and
Morality.--Markets.--Manufactures.--Bingeh and Saigon.--Fort.--
Conference respecting the Governor General’s Letter.--Retinue
of the Mandarins.--Hospitality of the Chinese Settlers.--
Audience of the Governor of Saigon.--Combat between a Tiger
and Elephants.--Proceed to Turon.--Coast of Cochin China.--
Fishing Tribes.--Boats.--Turon Bay.--Geology, &c.--Visit
Turon.--A limited Number allowed to visit Hué.--Wretched
Accommodations for the Passage 303
CHAPTER IX.
Voyage from Turon Bay to Hué.--Mouth of the River of
Hué.--Politeness of the Cochin Chinese has not tended to
ameliorate the Treatment of Females.--Arrive at Hué.--Perpetual
watch kept over the Members of the Mission.--Military
Costume.--The Governor General’s Letter to the King sent to
the Mandarin of Elephants.--The Chinese Translation
altered.--Interview with the Mandarin.--Canal surrounding the
City.--Beautiful Prospects on the River of Hué.--Neatness
of the Villages.--Horses.--Soil.--Fortified City.--French
Mandarins.--Conference with the Mandarin of Elephants.--
Difficulty respecting an Audience with the King.--An
Entertainment served.--Further Discussion.--The Audience
with the King refused.--Beauty and strength of the Fort.--
Inhospitality of the Government.--Royal Barracks.--Artillery
Store-Houses.--Enormous Gun.--Citadel.--Remarks on the
French Interest at court.--The Presents from the Governor
General and an Audience refused.--Poverty of the Bazar 338
CHAPTER X.
Physiological Exterior of the Cochin Chinese.--Costume.--Moral
Character.--Religion.--Brutalizing effects of a Despotic
Government.--Military Servitude.--Population.--Rains and
Inundations.--Costume of the Rainy Season.--Visit to the
Tacoon.--Tablets and Boxes ornamented with the Mya
Shell.--Letter and Presents for the Governor General.--The
Agent declines accepting the Presents for the Governor
General.--Regulations respecting Trade.--Extent of Permission
retracted.--A Repast: Rotten Eggs and Chickens in the Shell
a Chinese Delicacy, and Token of Royal Favour.--The Mandarin
of Han.--Letter to the Governor General refused.--Pitiful
Spirit of the Cochin Chinese Government.--Chinese Players.--
The King of the Drama bambooed.--Final Interview with the
Mandarin of Strangers.--Return to Turon.--Beautiful
Country.--Canal.--Salt-water Lake.--Grand Scenery.--Route.--
Botanical Observations.--Palanquins and Bearers.--Granitic
Country.--Excellent Roads.--Re-embark 373
A JOURNAL
OF
THE VOYAGE OF THE MISSION
FROM
BENGAL TO SIAM AND COCHIN CHINA.
IN THE YEARS 1821-2.
CHAPTER I.
VOYAGE FROM CALCUTTA TO PRINCE OF WALES’ ISLAND.--ISLANDS OF
PREPARIS, NARCONDAM, SEYER, AND PRINCE OF WALES.
On the 21st November we embarked on the John Adam, nearly opposite to
Fort William, and dropped gradually down the river to the sand-heads.
We had but one opportunity of going on shore, and this was at some
distance above Sauger Island. The land was here eight or ten feet
above high-water mark; soil, a very deep, black, light mould, and
densely covered with low jungle. Numerous traces of deer, and one very
conspicuous track of a tiger, which appeared to have been of enormous
size. Carried off a species of Boletus, a species of Laurus, and one of
Calamus.
The pilot left us, in smooth water, near to a moored ship allotted for
the reception of pilots, and out of sight of land. On the following
morning we sailed, with a fair and tolerably strong wind, attended with
a sea sufficiently rough to occasion sickness in persons so little
accustomed to this dread element. In this manner we arrived off Cape
Negrais. While off this point, but still far from being within sight,
our ship was visited by two or three birds, one a species of dove, the
next another of the Linnean Passeres, and a third a species of Sterna.
The latter, as usually happens with others of the same family, either
from natural stupidity or from exhaustion, allowed itself to be taken
without difficulty.
_December 3._--Early in the morning, the island of Preparis, the
first land we had yet seen since we left the pilot, was in sight. We
stood towards it with the view of landing upon it, and examining its
structure; but the wind unfortunately increasing, and the windward
coast being only navigable with safety with the ship, it was deemed too
hazardous a task to land.
From the distance at which we viewed these islands, it was difficult
to form an accurate judgment respecting their structure. The two small
ones, called the Cow and Calf, at one time appeared as if they were of
basaltic formation; and again as if they were merely banks of coral.
Against the latter supposition, their altitude above the sea (not less
perhaps than two hundred feet) might seem to militate; but this is not
conclusive, especially if there be any truth in the observation, that
the great basin which composes this ocean has lost much of its original
altitude. It is possible that they may be composed both of basalt and
coral; it is highly probable that one or other of these materials
constitute their mass, and most probably the latter. The principal
island is of a gently undulating shape, rising gradually from the sea,
to a slight elevation, and is thickly covered with wood, and apparently
tall and wide-spreading trees.
We had the more reason to regret the circumstance of our not being able
to land on these islands, from their being the first in the great chain
which composes the archipelago.
On the following morning at sun-rise we were within sight of Narcondam,
an island apparently several miles in diameter, in form and shape a
perfect specimen of the volcanic cone, which we calculated to be about
two thousand five hundred feet above the sea. We were at too great a
distance to entertain a hope of landing on it. This island, from its
height, its solitary existence in a wide sea, and its singular and
beautiful form, constitutes a very striking object.
On this occasion we endeavoured to construct an instrument for
ascertaining the temperature of the sea at considerable depths,
but from the imperfection of our materials, our success was but
indifferent. In the only experiment that we performed, the temperature
at two hundred and forty feet was 2-1/2° less than at the surface.
The variations on the barometric column we observed to be very regular,
being at its greatest height about seven a.m., and lowest towards four
p.m.
The weather continued agreeable; the wind steady and moderate, the N.E.
monsoon having now set in steadily. Several of the natives on board had
been ailing; and one, a sepoy, had a dangerous attack of cholera, but
all were now sufficiently in health.
Our course now lay towards the coast, of which we soon came within
sight. As we approached the western coast of this peninsula, we could
not fail to be struck with the singular appearance of numerous islands,
varying in dimensions, situation, and height; an appearance very
different from what is observable on the opposite side of this bay,
where scarce an island rises a few feet above the water, but which here
being strewed over so great a space, seem to form a bulwark, or chain
of protection to the continental land.
The bold and elevated ridge in the centre, with the abrupt and rugged
points on their flanks, were no less striking, and appeared, even at a
distance, to afford ample evidence of their primitive structure. The
more elevated mountain ridges on the continent were not less bold or
striking in their appearance. The general direction of these ridges,
both in the islands and on the continent, is nearly north and south,
inclining a little from west to east. Vegetation appears everywhere
abundant; the forms principally arborescent.
On the 7th of December, being near to the Seyer Islands, in latitude
8° 43´ N., and longitude 97° 48´ E., we prepared to land on them.
These islands are within sight of the continent, and distant from it
about twenty-eight miles. The principal one appears to be about five
miles in length, and perhaps one in breadth. It was on this that we
proposed to land. As we approached in the boat, we were struck with
the general silence which seemed to pervade it, a circumstance which
appeared to us the more singular, as it was everywhere covered with
dense woods, which might be supposed to afford nourishment and safe
shelter to numerous land birds, while its rocky coast might have
been alike favourable to the existence of water fowl. Scarce a bird,
however, was seen to hover over the place. Neither the varied forms of
an exuberant vegetation, nor the safe asylum under its peaceful shade,
seemed sufficient to attract even a scanty portion of animated nature
to this apparently favourable, and certainly very beautiful, spot. Is
the proximity of man necessary to give to rude nature an aspect or an
impulse favourable for the support of animated creation in its various
forms? On this desert island, the tall trees seemed to wave their tops
in vain; the more humble shrub and herb flowered unseen, their sweets
apparently unappreciated. The useful and friendly palm, the luscious
plantain-tree, the scented jasmine, the elegant bamboo, the nutritious
yam, were here the spontaneous production of the soil; beautiful at
least, and interesting in appearance, though not highly possessed of
those valuable qualities, which in a domestic state man has conferred
upon them by his care and industry.
As we approached the shore, we were enabled to notice the elevated
and nearly perpendicular direction of the rocky mass, which, on more
close inspection, was found to be composed of coarse-grained granite,
for the most part of a reddish colour; but occasionally of a flesh
red, and more often of a gray colour. A well defined, broad, and very
white stripe, extending along the whole length of the island, a few
feet above the sea, appeared to form the high-water mark. This white
appearance was occasioned by a shelly incrustation.
The appearance of the rocks was, in general, very uniform. They were,
as already observed, altogether granitic. The inclination of the
strata was from N.E. to S.W. Though the character of this granite was
extremely well defined and prominent, it yet appeared a difficult task
to pronounce an opinion respecting its stratification. In one part
might be seen large, perfectly homogeneous masses, fifty or sixty
feet in thickness, without rent, fissure, or division, without the
slightest appearance of stratification; with the solitary exception
of the occasional occurrence of a seam or narrow vein of quartz, or
of finer-grained granite, crossing its surface. But by far the most
common appearance in this granite, was that of a tolerably uniform
stratification, the strata of unequal thickness, and crossing the
direction of the mountain ridge at an acute angle. These strata were
again irregularly divided in most parts, so that the whole seemed
to have a double stratification, or to be divided into irregular
trapeziums. The granite was almost universally coarse-grained,
containing chiefly quartz and feldspar, with but little mica; the
crystals of feldspar varied in size from a grain to nearly an inch.
This coarse-grained granite occasionally passed into one of very fine
structure, and here and there into gneiss, though the latter was always
of small extent. The rock was for the most part divided into numerous
sharp and needle-shaped points. Though on a lee shore, there was here
a considerable surf and swell, to impede our landing. A solitary
water-fowl was seen to wander from rock to rock, collecting food from
the pools, which abounded with small fish. After a little care, we
landed in safety on the rocks. We observed a considerable variety of
corals, crabs, and shells. Of the genus Patella, some species were
uncommonly large. Distracted with the multitude of different objects
before us, rocks, crustacea, vegetables, &c., we turned from the
sea-shore, and entered the forest. We had now reached the region most
favourable for the production of palms, the most interesting, the most
useful, the most singular of vegetable forms. We required no better
proof of an intertropical climate. Three different species were already
within our view; and the plants having an affinity to this family were
not less numerous. The former were Borassus flabelliformis, Caryota
urens, Phœnix farinifera. Of the latter, two species of Pandanus,
(odorat. and lævis,) and of Calamus two species, were abundant. The
number of plants which we observed within a small space was indeed
uncommonly great. The ascent from the sea was everywhere remarkably
steep and rugged; disintegrated granite, on the slope of the hills,
readily yielded to the pressure of the foot; the forest was, besides,
so close, as to be scarce penetrable. After we had proceeded some
way through it, our notice was attracted by the chirping of numerous
animals. We discovered this to proceed from a multitude of large bats,
Pteropus edulis, suspended from a flowering specimen of Borassus. We
brought down four of them.
Our exertions in penetrating the woods were necessarily great; the heat
was excessive. In a few hours we became somewhat tired, and returned
to our boat, highly gratified at the result of our excursion. To have
fully investigated the botany of this little island alone, would have
required not less than the period of a week. From the difficulty we
experienced in getting into our boat again, the plants we had collected
were nearly altogether lost; they were unfortunately tossed about in
the sea for some time, and thus rendered almost useless.
On returning to the ship, we found that the captain had visited the
small island opposite to us during our absence. He had not been less
entertained. The confinement of a ship necessarily renders the approach
of land agreeable; hence we are always delighted to set foot on shore
after having been some time at sea. He landed on a sandy beach; the
rocks were of similar structure to those of the larger island, but
the vegetable forms were considerably different, a circumstance to be
accounted for, perhaps, by his having landed on an opposite and less
exposed coast. In intertropical climates, the effect of the different
monsoons, even within a very narrow and circumscribed space, is very
remarkable, particularly where, as in this instance, there is, as it
were, a natural bulwark thrown up to shelter the respective aspects.
We continued to sail during the night with a gentle wind along the
coast of Siam. In the morning, a native of Siam and a Malay were
brought on board with fish from a canoe. The coast was still bold,
and in many parts rocky, with very deep water. Ridges of hills, with
intervening valleys and ravines, stretch in the direction of the
peninsula. Vegetation appeared everywhere unbounded. A few miles to the
north of the Straits of Papra, a somewhat flat table-land, many miles
in extent, divides the mountains from the coast; at this place we again
landed, at a rocky point, in the middle of an extensive sandy beach.
Here, as on the island, granite was alike abundant, forming mountain
masses and rocky eminences: structure very similar to the former;
strata more inclined from west to east; red variety of granite less
frequent; now gray predominant. Here and there veins of sienite? but
of small extent; also small veins of perhaps primitive trap, masses of
quartz, with schorl and talc imbedded.
Palms here also of spontaneous growth. Elate silvestris and Borassus
caudata of Loureiro were here common. Bambus verticillata, Scævola
lobelia, a large, herbaceous plant, with fleshy leaves, not milky
and singular from the lateral form of its flower; also Euphorbia,
Melastoma, a Syngenesious, and a singular Papilionaceous plant,
common on the shore; Convolvulus pes capræ, Jasminum, and Justicia.
Thick, dense forest, without any trace of contiguous cultivation. A
tall, slender tree, growing to the height of forty feet and upwards,
possessing much of the habit and general appearance of a pine, is found
lining the sea-beach, disposed in a continued line, with the greatest
regularity, and nearly at equal intervals. It here thrives well, and,
from its extreme regularity, gives to the scene the appearance of a
plantation. It affords shelter and protection from the sea-air to the
other vegetable forms. We discovered in this forest a solitary bird of
the genus Motacilla. Tracts of the wild elephant were not uncommon,
and the recent footsteps of a tiger were imprinted in the sand. Some
natives who, from a distance, observed us to land, kept hovering near,
but would not come within speaking distance. We now returned to the
ship, and a strong breeze springing up, we were soon carried beyond
the Straits of Papra and the island of Junkseylon or Salong. The wind
soon increased to a strong breeze, which compelled us to keep some
distance from the islands. On the 9th and 10th, we observed from time
to time the bold mountains of this coast. These mountains were still
distributed into ridges, and still loftier than those we had hitherto
seen. The hill, or rather mountain of Queda, was observed at a very
great distance. The hill of Penang came next into view; we slowly
approached this island, pleased with the great beauty of its undulating
scenery. The approach to it, through a narrow channel of deep water,
is somewhat tedious, and the tides are, for the most part, strong. The
moon shone bright, and our ship was thereby enabled to proceed during
the night without a pilot.
_11th._--In the morning of this day we anchored in the harbour, about
300 yards from the beach. We found here a considerable number of ships
of various descriptions and nations: English, American, Chinese junks,
Siamese and Arab. We received a polite invitation from the governor, W.
E. Phillips, Esq., to reside with him during our stay on the island.
We landed in the course of the day, and proceeded to the governor’s
country-seat, three or four miles from the town, and were received
in the most hospitable manner by him and his family. The population
of this island consists chiefly of foreigners from almost all parts
of the east. A considerable proportion of the motley group collected
on the beach, consisted of Malabar Mahomedans, called Chuliahs, who
here, as in their own country, were readily to be recognised by their
manner, partaking as much of idleness as of expectant curiosity. They
seemed industrious only in prying into the appearance and countenances
of strangers as they arrive; an occupation which doubtless they turn
to their advantage in some way or other. Silly as at first sight it
seemed to be, it is far more congenial to the habits of man, than the
cold, apathetic air of the natives of Bengal. We had not proceeded far,
before a more interesting and more gratifying scene was expanded to our
observation. Industry, active, useful, manly, and independent, seemed
here to have found a congenial soil and fostering care. The indolent
air of the Asiatic was thrown aside. Every arm laboured to produce some
useful object, and every countenance teeming with animation, seemed,
as it were, directed to a set task. With the air, they had lost even
the slender frame of the Asiatic; and the limbs, and muscularity, and
symmetry were those of another and more energetic race. These were
Chinese, a people highly valuable as settlers, by reason of their
industrious and very regular habits, who had established on this spot
the mechanical arts, on a scale which might even vie with that of
European artists, but which we should look for in vain in any other
part of India. It was a pleasing and gratifying spectacle, so much
are we in India accustomed to the opposite, to see a numerous, very
muscular, and apparently hardy race of people, labouring with a degree
of energy and acuteness, which gave to their physical character a
peculiar stamp, and placed them in a highly favourable point of view,
when compared with the habits of the nations around them. Their manner
of using their instruments, so different from the puerile style of
Indian artists, had in it much of the dexterity of Europeans: while
their condition bespoke them a flourishing and wealthy tribe. All the
principal shops, all important and useful employments, and almost all
the commerce of the island, was in their hands. Under the patronage of
the British Government, they soon acquire riches; they meet with entire
protection of property and person, and are cherished by the government,
which, in return, derives benefit from their industry, and from the
commercial and profitable speculations in which they usually engage.
The town, in this our first visit, appeared to be of considerable
extent, very neat, clean, and handsome, and populous to a very unusual
degree, that of the whole of the island, which is stated to amount
to 30,000, being chiefly collected together in this place. The style
of their houses is particularly neat, very light and striking. They
are composed almost exclusively of wood, and in a great proportion of
leaves of the palm, as in those of the poorer inhabitants. They are
raised from the ground from four to six feet or more on pillars, and a
ladder leads to the apartments. The thatch is made of the light leaves
of the palm, and forms an elegant roof, less subject to conflagration
than we should have expected from materials of this sort. Flame
instantly excites rapid combustion, but it is said to resist fire in
the form of spark; when once on fire, however, there is no subduing the
mischief. Mr. E. compares this combustion to that of Slop’s wig, which
was no sooner lighted than it was consumed. The huts are laid out in
right lines, and of convenient breadth; the houses are in different
compartments, and are tolerably uniform, clean, and well-lighted. The
parts occupied by the Malabar inhabitants have but little to recommend
them, either in point of cleanliness or of neatness. Profiting by
the mildness of the climate, they look not beyond shelter from the
elements, and seclusion from the public eye: a mean and sordid house
afford both to their satisfaction. Ornament is never dreamt of, and
even comfort is but little considered. Unlike to these, the Chinaman
aims at neatness and even elegance in his dwelling, after having
satisfied the more important objects of comfort and utility; hence the
latter is rarely to be seen idling or sauntering about the streets:
more numerous wants, more energetic occupations, more generous diet,
demand more constant attention, and their gratification encroaches
on his leisure hours. The Indian rarely passes an European of any
rank without making an obeisance to him; and is in general abundantly
submissive. The Chinaman will not submit to this distinction, whether
from national pride and becoming independence of mind, or from
assumed insolence, unauthorised, perhaps, in his native country, does
not appear. However this may be, the latter is certainly the most
becoming custom. The object of the Chinese in banishing themselves
thus voluntarily from their native country, is doubtless to gain a
more comfortable subsistence, and to accumulate money sufficient to
maintain themselves at home. Yet they do not appear to hoard with mean
avidity; they are, on the contrary, considered as rather an extravagant
people, whose principal care is to procure good fare, though of a
coarse description, according to our European ideas. All the best
meat and fish, more particularly pork and ducks, the favourite food of
the grave disciples of Confucius, are at this place the portion of the
Chinese. It is alleged, however, that they are at times contented with
morsels of less delicacy; and that the canine tribe suffer occasionally
from their rapacious disposition, and carnivorous appetites. The good
condition in which their dogs are usually seen has probably had some
share in giving rise to the opinion of their feeding on them, for
scarcity of food cannot be urged in extenuation of the practice, if
indeed it require extenuation.
In proceeding to the governor’s country-house, we were much delighted
with the great profusion of vegetable productions that was every where
observable. As might be expected, we found here the more common species
of Palm, Cocoa and Areca, growing in great luxuriance. Numerous species
of Convolvuli and Parasitical Plants lined the hedges, and covered the
extreme branches of the trees. The low ground abounded with herbaceous
plants, and the whole resembled a beautiful and picturesque garden.
In the hedges, and in the waste lands, swamps and low grounds, which
form a tolerably broad belt between the hills and the sea coast, the
botanist finds a rich and highly interesting harvest. The neighbouring
forests, vallies, ravines, and hills, are still more interesting. At
every step he will discover new plants; and in this comparatively
small island, he will find a variety of vegetation well calculated
to delight and to astonish him. It would seem as if nature had taken
a peculiar pleasure in establishing her more delightful domain in
these islands. Nothing can exceed the extreme luxuriance, vigour, and
variety of the vegetable products. The more grand features of mountain,
precipice, and valley, are dispensed with unsparing hand. Reckless of
the comfort, and disregarding the convenience of man, here nature has,
as it were, placed her rich gifts beyond the reach of his modulating
hand. From luxuriance so lavishly bestowed scarce can he extract a
scanty subsistence, scarce can he render it subservient to his wants or
his pleasures; and he who maintains that this world was made alone for
man, might, amid such scenes, find room to doubt. The _cui bono_ must
at every step occur to his mind; he will soon discover that the tenants
of so much luxuriance are reduced to a very scanty number, and these
of the lowest order of animated creatures; birds, lizards, reptiles,
insects, and a very few predaceous quadrupeds. The poet may select such
scenes for the abodes of bliss, of happiness, and of mortal felicity;
but the philosophic inquirer will look to countries of less flattering
aspect for the more favourable existence and development, in the social
state, of the mental faculties of the human race.
We were now at liberty to employ our time agreeably to our respective
inclinations. The surrounding forests and hills afforded endless
enjoyment to those attached to natural history. They therefore claimed
no ordinary share of my regard. Every day continued to add something
to my little stock; while such is the salubrity of the climate, that
no danger seemed to be apprehended from the most free and continual
exposure even to the heat of a meridian sun, under circumstances of
fatigue, exhaustion, and the greatest exertion; and to penetrate to
any distance into the woods, or to ascend the steep and rugged sides
of the hills, necessarily exposes one to such conditions. Compared
with the botanical objects, the zoological are but scanty. Yet in this
department we were able to effect the commencement of a collection.
The most singular animal we as yet procured was the Galeopithecus
variegatus, an animal covered with the softest fur; furnished with a
broad expansion of the skin, extending from the head along the neck to
the fore-feet, which are palmated; from thence to the hind-feet, also
palmated, and from this to the extremity of the tail. By means of this
membrane it is able, for a short distance, to support itself in the
air. In the night-time it is active and lively; in the day, dull, lazy,
sleepy, and annoyed at being disturbed. It has two pectoral mammæ.
Those of the female are of considerable size. The voice is harsh,
sharp, screaming, and disagreeable. It feeds on fruit, and would seem
to be easily domesticated.
In some points this singular animal has a strong affinity to the genus
Lemur; but its elongated head, and comparatively small eyes, and more
especially the want of incisorial teeth in the upper jaw, shew that it
has been with propriety removed to a different genus.
We procured also, during the first few days of our stay, a species of
Felis, said to be common in the woods. It has much the appearance of a
species of Viverra. The body is very long, though in other respects it
is nearly of the size of a cat. It is remarkably fierce, and flies at
every thing that approaches; body black, with gray stripes, tail very
long, breast whitish.
A handsome species of Sciurus. The head large and globular; body and
tail dark gray; belly brown; top of the tail brown.
A species of Vespertilio.
The number of birds that we saw was inconsiderable. The principal
are the Buceros, Pelican, (in Mr. Philips’s grounds several are
domesticated,) several species of Alcedo, a solitary Adjutant, a
fishing Vulture, five species of Certhia, and several other Passeres;
of Corvus two species; Fulica; and Columba two species.
To describe or to enumerate the numerous vegetable productions which
are to be found in this island, is but little compatible with the
plan of a journal such as this. For an account of what has been done
in this way, I refer to the catalogues, descriptions, and drawings.
Several circumstances have conspired to render these less extensive and
less complete than was desirable. The mechanical labour and personal
fatigue, incurred in collecting materials, were necessarily very
great; that of preserving them afterwards considerable; and the aid
to be derived from persons of the labouring classes was not always
at my disposal. Neither was the present season the most favourable
for botanical pursuits. The brumal distance of the sun is felt, even
in the intertropical regions. In these islands more particularly,
this distance is rendered sensible, by unusual vicissitudes in the
atmosphere, not only in point of temperature, but as regards the state
of the winds, their capacity for retaining or depositing moisture; the
greater prevalence of electric phenomena; the remarkable variations
in the appearance of the clouds. Rains at this time are prevalent.
Towards evening the clouds accumulate in thick masses, the winds often
blowing with tempestuous fury, and the face of day is darkened; the
effect of these circumstances on the vegetable world is very sensible,
and yet the thermometer at this period of the year rarely descends
under 70° near to the equator. But even this indicates a degree of
cold, which in these climates acts more sensibly on the human body
than would be easily credited by an inhabitant of a cold region. The
effect is, doubtless, the more powerful from the presence of universal
moisture in the air, amounting very commonly to saturation. A degree
of brumal influence is therefore extended to the vegetable world; the
greater number of plants have ceased to flower; many trees cast a large
proportion of their leaves, and have a degree of nakedness not common
to them at other times. This influence is still more sensibly felt on
vegetation at various elevations above the sea. On the hills it is most
observable in arborescent botany. On the highest, very few plants,
and those chiefly herbaceous, are now to be found in flower. In the
plains, however, and in the sheltered acclivities of mountains, this
circumstance is less observable. Besides, with a considerable number of
the plants which grow in such places, the present is the proper and
natural period of flowering; and the number is not inconsiderable of
such as are to be found in flower, or in fruit, at all seasons of the
year.
The altitude of the mountain ridges in Penang is not so great as to
produce a very marked difference in the geographic distribution of
its vegetable productions. The highest point of land is that on which
the flag-staff is placed; and this, by barometric measurement, gives
an altitude of two thousand two hundred and twenty-three feet, above
the governor’s house, which may be reckoned about twenty-five feet
above the level of the sea; so that the greatest altitude will be two
thousand two hundred and forty-eight feet. Within this space, however,
the more experienced botanist, will detect a sensible difference in the
distribution of the vegetable forms. In the low grounds which extend
from the sea coast to the base of the hills, and for some distance
up their flanks, he will recognise the favoured region of the Palms,
and of the greater number of the Scitamineæ, vying with the former in
utility, whilst they even excel them in the beauty of their general
appearance.
Of the intertropical plants, the most superficial observer will have
remarked, that a considerable proportion are influenced scarcely less
in their geographical distribution by longitudinal than by latitudinal
position; and, if we divide the globe into hemispheres, we shall find
that the plants of an eastern differ from those of a western hemisphere
scarcely less than those of the northern from the southern. We may thus
observe a constant tendency to confine plants to a particular spot, to
isolate, and to increase their number; and that though, like man, some
are capable of existing in a great variety of climates, yet that these
are to be considered as exceptions to a great and general rule. Within
the tropics this limited distribution of plants is more remarkable than
in the other zones. It is especially observable in the distribution
of Palms, Scitamineæ, and the more valuable spices and aromatics.
Heat alone is not sufficient for their production, or we should find
them more general throughout the torrid zone, while, in fact, they
are respectively confined to very narrow limits. Within the tropics,
from the equator to nearly 20° N., and on the level of the ocean, or
but slightly elevated above it, we distinguish a belt, within which
are contained almost all the Palms with which we are acquainted. They
constitute the most remarkable vegetable production within this space.
As to distribution, we notice various points at which, without apparent
alteration of temperature, they are respectively limited.
Of the Cocoa-nut we may remark, that it grows with the greatest
luxuriance and perfection in the Maldive and Laccadine Islands, on
the south and west coasts of Ceylon, on the coasts of Malabar and
Coromandel, and west as far as Bombay. At Penang this Palm is evidently
less productive, and therefore less extensively cultivated. It is
replaced by the Areca catechu; by Nipa fruticans, Cycas circinalis,
and a few others. The Sea Cocoa-nut, as it is called, is still more
limited in its distribution; and the Borassus gomutus is almost equally
so. Here, too, it is rare to see a single specimen of the Borassus
flabelliformis, a palm so common in other parts of India. Peculiarity
of soil does not appear to be the sole cause of the occurrence of some,
or of the want of other species of the Palm tree. The soil of Penang
and of the opposite coast is of various descriptions and qualities, and
probably suited to the production of the whole tribe, being in some
parts sandy, hard and poor; in others, of a stiff, iron-coloured clay;
in others, soft and spongy, constituting extensive morasses; in others,
thick, black, and rich, containing a large proportion of vegetable
matter.
It has been remarked, that the mountain ranges are but of moderate
altitude, and that, therefore, we must not look for very great or
striking differences in the distribution of vegetable forms, as
connected with this circumstance. Arborescent vegetation here exists
in its fullest vigour, to within two or three hundred feet of the
summit of the loftiest peaks; and it may be observed, that the forests
generally abound in wood of uncommon altitude. At the elevation of
nearly one thousand feet, a considerable number of diminutive, but
elegant herbaceous plants are to be found, which do not occur at a
less elevation, and we meet with several species of Ferns in the
same situation. The gigantic Grasses of the plains here cease to
grow: Parasites, Epidendra, and Contortæ increase in number. Within a
few hundred feet of the summit we find an arborescent Fern of great
magnitude, and a species of Yew is said to occupy a similar range on a
contiguous hill. On the summit of the two highest peaks, arborescent
vegetation is evidently stunted, and the trees are of shrubby forms,
yet the productions of the plains will here thrive, with the assistance
of cultivation. We found Canna indica, Carica, Mussænda frondosa, and
various other plants growing around the Bungalows built upon the summit
of the principal peak. This elevation must certainly afford a fine
prospect from its summit, but as we were unfortunate in the state of
the weather at the time of our visit, I am not enabled to speak duly in
its favour.
The agricultural produce of this island is but inconsiderable; and
although much care is at the present time bestowed in clearing the
hills, for the purpose of introducing the cultivation of Coffee,
Spices, &c., the success of the experiment must as yet be left for the
ascertainment of futurity. The labour and expense of clearing steep
hills of exuberant woods must necessarily be very great; and where
arborescent vegetation exists in such vigour, it will always be a
matter of much difficulty to prevent the ground becoming again rapidly
covered with forest. It is to be feared, too, that the sloping sides
of granitic hills will not long continue favourable to the growth of
plants requiring a peculiar soil, and modified by the care bestowed
upon them by man. It is known that the more valuable productions of
the botanical world require the richest soil, and most assiduous
and unremitted care on the part of the cultivator. They have, in
fact, become, in a great measure, the work of his own hand; in their
perfect condition frequently incapable of maintaining their existence
independent of his care. When abandoned, they soon revert to their
original meagre condition, with difficulty to be identified with the
cherished product of cultivation, whilst of some plants, as of the
more valuable of the Cerealia, we look in vain for the parent stock.
Hence it is, that disregarding or forgetting this fact, we are apt to
consider the soil as excellent which supports that astonishing quantity
of vegetation we observe throughout these islands. To enumerate the
useful and curious plants this island produces, either spontaneously or
by culture, is a task too extensive. Pepper is the principal article.
It is produced principally on the southern parts of the island, on the
slopes of low hills, and on the narrow level belt which intervenes
between them and the sea-shore. The cultivation is almost exclusively
in the hands of the Chinese, who conduct it with a degree of art and
neatness, unknown in any other part of the East. For an account of the
cultivation of pepper, see _Marsden’s History of Sumatra_. The plants
are supported on the stems of the Erythrina indica, and occasionally
on those of the Morinda citrifolia, which are planted with them for
this purpose. The Nutmeg may be considered as the next in importance of
the agricultural products. Its cultivation is, on the whole, attended
with considerable success; the trees are large, vigorous, and produce a
great quantity of fruit, yet it has required upwards of twenty years to
give earnest of success; and it is stated, that as yet no exportation
of this article has taken place. The number of trees, at present on the
island, is rated at one hundred and fifty thousand, of which one-third
only are in a condition to bear fruit. Mr. Brown states the produce
of a single tree at one thousand nuts annually, and this number is at
present sold in the market for five Spanish dollars, and the mace,
which amounts to about one-fourth of the weight of the nuts, is sold
for something more than the above-mentioned sum. The first fruit is
reaped after the seventh year.
The Clove is also cultivated with success. Some trees which I have seen
growing at the base of the hills, and on the skirts of the forest,
where they were planted under the shade of other trees, seemed to
flourish with great vigour.
Mr. Brown states the produce of a single Coffee plant at four pounds.
We were too late to enjoy the Mangosteen in its greatest perfection,
yet from the few which were still to be procured, we considered it well
entitled to the encomium so often bestowed upon it by travellers.
I proceed to mention the more general plants used in the domestic
economy of the natives.
Pandanus lævis--the leaves afford a strong cordage, used for making
nets and other purposes.
A species of Urtica is cultivated for a similar purpose.
Erythrina indica, } supporters to the pepper plant.
Morinda citrifolia, }
Nipa fruticans--the leaves are used universally for thatching.
Calamus--various species, applied to endless useful purposes on the
island, and exported to China.
Bromelia ananas--the pine-apple, three principal varieties; _a._ long,
conical sort, of a red colour, with numerous sprouts from the base.
_b._ With elegant, variegated leaves; the crown leaves and sprouts at
the base of the fruit also variegated.
_c._ Common species.
The Pine-apple thrives here with unusual luxuriance: some that were
shewn to us weighed from four to six pounds. They may be had for a mere
trifle in the markets.
Musa paradisiaca, or plantain. These are also produced in great
abundance and very cheap.
_December 25._--Visited Qualla Muda, on the opposite shore of Queda.
The country here, to the distance of seven or eight miles from
the sea, is low, flat, and swampy, covered for the most part with
almost impenetrable jungle, the secure haunt of tigers, leopards,
rhinoceroses, and occasionally of elephants, its vast swamps being
unfavourable to the latter. The soil consists of a stiff, blue clay;
on the beach, here and there, disposed in beds, very plastic, purely
aluminous, and of a red colour; in other parts the soil consists of a
tough, black, soft and spongy mould, apparently very closely allied
to peat-moss. Where this soil exists, the ground is always boggy; the
moss is bound together by tough vegetable fibres; the surrounding
water assumes a black colour, of a bitter and peculiar taste, and a
strong, disagreeable odour. The appearance is quite peculiar. I have
not, in India, seen any thing resembling peat-moss so closely as this
soil does[2]. It is apparently in progress to the formation of that
substance. During our excursion we passed some rich fields of rice. The
ground was so soft, that we sunk to the knee at every step. We had not
proceeded far, before we came upon a bullock that had just been killed
by a tiger, in all probability of uncommon size, the impression of his
paw being equal in breadth to twice that of a man’s hand. The bullock,
a fine, large, and fat animal, had been killed by a blow on the neck,
by which the vertebræ appeared to have been dislocated or broken, while
the superficial veins were torn open by the tiger’s claws. A small
part of the rump only had been eaten. In the following night the tiger
returned, and carried off the carcass to the distance of about one
hundred yards.
The plants on this coast differ considerably from those of Penang. They
also exhibit considerably less variety. The Argus pheasant is common,
and a very considerable variety of gallinaceous birds is carried
from hence to Penang. The black leopard, and a species of wild goat,
probably an antelope, are also found. The resources of the mountains
and inland parts are almost entirely unknown, although, perhaps, there
exists no better field in the world for the naturalist than is afforded
by this peninsula, throughout the whole of its extent.
FOOTNOTE:
[2] Dr. Francis Hamilton has noticed several instances of what may be
called peat formations.--_Buch. MS._