Catalogue (ESTC), an invaluable research tool for scholars in English culture,
language, and literature. This file provides extensive descriptions and holdings
information for letterpress materials printed in Great Britain or any of its
dependencies in any language, from the beginnings of print to 1800 - as well as
for materials printed in English anywhere else in the world. Produced by the
ESTC editorial offices at the University of California, Riverside, and the
British Library, in partnership with the American Antiquarian Society and over
1,600 libraries worldwide, the file continues to be updated and expanded daily.
ESTC serves as a comprehensive bibliography of the hand-press era and as a
census of surviving copies.
ESTC included 420,000 records as of June 1998. It contains records for items of
all types published in Great Britain and its dependencies or in English anywhere
in the world from the beginnings of print (1473) through the 18th century -
including materials ranging from Shakespeare and Greek New Testaments to
anonymous ballads, broadsides, songs, advertisements and other ephemera.
Extensive indexing includes imprint word, place, genre, and year as well as
copy-specific notes. Searches may also be limited by date, language and country
of publication.
8.3. Future Trends for On-Line Catalogs
The future of catalogs is linked to the harmonization of the MARC format. While
MARC is an acronym for Machine Readable Catalogue or Cataloguing, this general
description is rather misleading as MARC is neither a kind of catalogue nor a
method of cataloguing. According to UNIMARC: An Introduction, a document of the
Universal Bibliographic Control and International MARC Core Programme, MARC is
"a short and convenient term for assigning labels to each part of a catalogue
record so that it can be handled by computers. While the MARC format was
primarily designed to serve the needs of libraries, the concept has since been
embraced by the wider information community as a convenient way of storing and
exchanging bibliographic data."
MARC II established certain principles which have been followed consistently
over the years. In general terms, the MARC communication format is intended to
be:
"- hospitable to all kinds of library materials;
- sufficiently flexible for a variety of applications in addition to catalogue
production; and
- usable in a range of automated systems."
Over the years, however, despite cooperation efforts, several versions of MARC
emerged, e.g. UKMARC, INTERMARC and USMARC, whose paths diverged because of
different national cataloguing practices and requirements. Since the early 1970s
an extended family of more than 20 MARC formats has evolved. Differences in data
content means that editing is required before records can be exchanged.
One solution to the problem of incompatibility was to create an international
MARC format (UNIMARC) which would accept records created in any MARC format.
Records in one MARC format could be converted into UNIMARC and then be converted
into another MARC format, so that each national agency would need to write only
two programs - one to convert into UNIMARC and one to convert from UNIMARC -
instead of one program for each other MARC format, (e.g. INTERMARC to UKMARC,
USMARC to UKMARC etc.).
In 1977 the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutes
(IFLA) published UNIMARC: Universal MARC format, followed by a second edition in
1980 and a UNIMARC Handbook in 1983, all focussed primarily on the cataloguing
of monographs and serials, and taking advantage of international progress
towards the standardization of bibliographic information reflected in the ISBDs
(international standard bibliographic descriptions). In the mid-1980s it was
considered necessary to expand UNIMARC to cover documents other than monographs
and serials, so a new description of the format - the UNIMARC Manual -was
produced in 1987. By this time UNIMARC had been adopted by several bibliographic
agencies as their in-house format. But developments did not stop there.
Increasingly, a new kind of format - an authorities format - was being used. As
described in the website:
"Previously agencies had entered an author's name into the bibliographic format
as many times as there were documents associated with him or her. With the new
system they created a single authoritative form of the name (with references) in
the authorities file; the record control number for this name was the only item
included in the bibliographic file. The user would still see the name in the
bibliographic record, however, as the computer could import it from the
authorities file at a convenient time. So in 1991 UNIMARC/Authorities was
published."
The Permanent UNIMARC Committee, charged with regularly supervising the
development of the format, came into being that year, as users realized that
continuous maintenance - not just the occasional rewriting of manuals - was
needed. In maintaining the format, care is taken to make changes upwardly
compatible.
In the context of MARC harmonization, The British Library (using UKMARC), the
Library of Congress (using USMARC) and the National Library of Canada (using
CAN/MARC) are in the process of harmonizing their national MARC formats. A
three-year program to achieve a common MARC format was agreed on by the three
libraries in December 1995.
Other organizations recommend the use of SGML (standard generalized markup
language) as a common format for the bibliographic records and the corresponding
hypertextual and multimedia documents.
As most of the publishers use the SGML format to store their documents, a
convergence between MARC and SGML is expected to occur. The Library of Congress
set up the DTD (definition of type of document, which defines its logical
structure) for the USMARC format, because it will probably sell more and more
data both in SGML and in USMARC. A DTD for the UNIMARC format has also been
developed within the European Union. In his study L'accès aux catalogues des
bibliothèques par Internet (The Access to Library Catalogs through the
Internet), Thierry Samain specifies that some libraries choose the SGML format
to encode their bibliographic data. In the Belgian Union Catalog, for example,
the use of SGML allows one first to add descriptive elements stemming from the
MARC format and other formats, and second to facilitate the production of the
annual CD-ROM.
The libraries also have to adapt their thesauri and their key-word lists. In
international bibliographic databases like the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the
absence of a universal thesaurus is a real problem when you try to find
documents using the search by subjects. In Europe, each country uses thesauri or
key-word lists in its own language, whereas multilingual thesauri would be
essential.
Another problem is the harmonization of software. From January to December 1997,
ONE (OPAC Network in Europe) was a collaborative project involving 15
organizations in eight European countries. This project provided library users
with better ways to access library OPACs (online public access catalogs) and
national catalogs, and stimulated and facilitated interworking between libraries
in Europe.
Because of international rules, catalog records are often much more difficult to
establish today than in the past. That is why nowadays libraries often hire
full-time catalogers. Because of the knowledge and the training it requires,
cataloging has become a specialty in librarianship.
In a few years, catalogs on the Web will no longer be "only" a collection of
records, which is often a prelude to a difficult time finding the document
itself - because of the forms to fill out and the difficulties of interlibrary
loans. Catalogs on the Web will give instant access to the documents on the
screen. This is already true in an experimental way for a few thousands
documents, but has to be progressively widened to all catalogs.
9. PERSPECTIVES
[In this chapter:]
[9.1. Print Media and the Internet / 9.2. Intellectual Property / 9.3.
Multimedia Convergence / 9.4. The Information Society]
9.1. Print Media and the Internet
As shown all throughout this study, the Internet is opening new perspectives in
all the sectors of the print media.
In any field (literature, sciences, technology, etc.), authors can create a
website to post their works - they no longer need to wait for a publisher to
distribute them. And, thanks to e-mail, communication with their readers has
become much easier.
On-line booksellers are able not only to sell books published in their own
country, but also sell foreign books or sell abroad, or both. The readers can
read on their screen excerpts or full texts of books. Many on-line bookstores
offer an extensive literary magazine with an editorial content which changes
every day.
The dream of catalog managers to be able to give access to a document through
its bibliographic record is no longer totally utopian. It is already the case
for a few thousand works belonging to public domain. Organizations are also
studying the possibility of posting commercial documents on the Web, in return
for a royalty tax corresponding to the copyright rights, which could be paid by
credit card.
Libraries have a new tool for letting the public know their collections better,
and for developing projects for real or potential users. The Internet is also a
gigantic encyclopedia, easily available for consultation by the libraries' staff
and readers.
Many newspapers and magazines' latest issues are available on-line, as well as
"dossiers" on current events and archives equipped with a search engine to find
information from previous issues. We are also witnessing the first steps of an
on-line press which would be different from the paper version and would have its
own criteria. Some publishers of specialized periodicals, as well as academic
and research works, are thinking about becoming "only" electronic to escape the
paper publishing crisis, or making only small print runs when necessary.
Besides this gigantic and lively encyclopedia, the people working in these
different fields can increase exchanges thanks to electronic mail and discussion
forums. For once, a (relatively) cheap new tool permits people to communicate
quickly and worldwide with no concern for time and boundaries.
The disruption of the print media by the Internet has led to new perspectives
for intellectual property and regulations about cyberspace. The so-called
"multimedia convergence" has led to major changes in jobs. We are living the
first years of the information society. Will this society provide any changes
for the better?
9.2. Intellectual Property
The massive arrival of electronic texts on the Web is a real problem for
applying the rules relating to intellectual property. Digital libraries, for
example, would like to post commercial documents but can't do so yet, until
there is a system allowing the surfer to pay the equivalent royalties. With a
few clicks, any text or article posted on the Internet can be very easily
retrieved and copied - much more easily than by photocopying - without its
author being paid for the use of his text. And what about all the hyperlinks
giving access to all kinds of documents from one website?
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), an intergovernmental
organization which is one of the 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations
System of Organizations, says on its website:
"As regards the number of literary and artistic works created worldwide, it is
difficult to make a precise estimate. However, the information available
indicates that at present around 1,000,000 books/titles are published and some
5,000 feature films are produced in a year, and the number of copies of
phonograms sold per year presently is more than 3,000 million."
WIPO is responsible for the promotion of the protection of intellectual property
throughout the world through cooperation among States, and for the
administration of various multilateral treaties dealing with the legal and
administrative aspects of intellectual property. Intellectual property comprises
two main branches: (1) industrial property, chiefly in inventions, trademarks,
industrial designs, and appellations of origin; and (2) copyright, chiefly in
literary, musical, artistic, photographic and audiovisual works.
Copyright protection generally means that certain uses of the work are lawful
only if they are done with the authorization of the owner of the copyright. As
explained by WIPO in International Protection of Copyright and Neighboring
Rights, the most typical are the following:
"the right to copy or otherwise reproduce any kind of work; the right to
distribute copies to the public; the right to rent copies of at least certain
categories of works (such as computer programs and audiovisual works); the right
to make sound recordings of the performances of literary and musical works; the
right to perform in public, particularly musical, dramatic or audiovisual works;
the right to communicate to the public by cable or otherwise the performances of
such works and, particularly, to broadcast, by radio, television or other
wireless means, any kind of work; the right to translate literary works; the
right to rent, particularly, audiovisual works, works embodied in phonograms and
computer programs; the right to adapt any kind of work and particularly the
right to make audiovisual works thereof."
Under some national laws, some of these rights - which together are referred to
as 'economic rights' - are not exclusive rights of authorization but, in certain
specific cases, merely rights to remuneration. In addition to economic rights,
authors (whether or not they own the economic rights) enjoy 'moral rights' on
the basis of which authors have the right to claim their authorship and require
that their names be indicated on the copies of the work and in connection with
other uses thereof, and they have the right to oppose the mutilation or
deformation of their works.
Started in July 1993, the International Trade Law (ITL) Monitor was one of the
very first law-related WWW sites, and the first dedicated to a particular area
of law. The site is run by Ralph Amissah, and hosted by the Law Faculty of the
University of Tromso, Norway. The section relating to Protection of Intellectual
Property gives access to various documents, including the European Commission
Legal Advisory Board (LAB): Intellectual Property.
Until the payment of royalties for copyright is possible on the Web, digital
libraries focus on 19th-century texts, or older texts, which belong to public
domain. In many countries, a text enters the public domain 50 years after his
author's death.
In Clearing an Etext for Copyright, Michael Hart gives Project Gutenberg's
volunteers some rules of thumb for them to determine when works enter the public
domain. For the United States:
a) Works first published before January 1, 1978 usually enter the public domain
75 years from the date copyright was first secured, which is usually 75 years
from the date of first publication. (This is the rule Project Gutenberg uses
most often).
b) Works first created on or after January 1, 1978 enter the public domain 50
years after the death of the author if the author is a natural person. (Nothing
will enter the public domain under this rule until at least January 1, 2023.)
c) Works first created on or after January 1, 1978 which are created by a
corporate author enter the public domain 75 years after publication or 100 years
after creation whichever occurs first. (Nothing will enter the public domain
under this rule until at least January 1, 2053).
d) Works created before January 1, 1978 but not published before that date are
copyrighted under rules 2 and 3 above, except that in no case will the copyright
on a work not published prior to January 1, 1978 expire before December 31,
2002. (This rule copyrights a lot of manuscripts that we would otherwise think
of as public domain because of their age.).
e) If a substantial number of copies were printed and distributed in the U.S.
without a copyright notice prior to March 1, 1989, the work is in the public
domain in the U.S."
When Project Gutenberg distributes in the United States, U.S. law applies. When
it distributes to other countries, local law applies.
Project Gutenberg and The On-Line Books Page, among others, are concerned with
the new Copyright Extension. On October 28, 1998, John Mark Ockerbloom wrote in
the News of The On-Line Books Page:
"The copyright extension bill mentioned in the October 9 news item is now law,
having been signed by President Clinton on October 27. This will prevent books
published in 1923 and later that are not already in the public domain from
entering the public domain in the United States for at least 20 years.
I have started a page to provide access to copyright renewal records, which
eventually should make it easier to find books published after 1922 that have
entered the public domain due to nonrenewal. I welcome contributions of
additional records, in page image, text, or HTML format.
Although the bill has become law, I would encourage readers to speak loudly in
support of the public domain. Congressional testimony indicates that some in the
entertainment industry favor even longer copyright periods, effectively
preventing anything further from ever entering the public domain. Your voice is
needed to help stop this from happening."
Journalists, too, are particularly concerned by this problem of intellectual
property rights. During the ILO Symposium on Multimedia Convergence held in
January 1997, Bernie Lunzer, Secretary-Treasurer of the Newspaper Guild, United
States, stated:
"There is a huge battle over intellectual property rights, especially with
freelancers, but also with our members who work under collective bargaining
agreements. The freelance agreements that writers are asked to sign are
shocking. Bear in mind that freelance writers are paid very little. They turn
over all their future rights - reuse rights - to the publisher and very little
in exchange. Publishers are fighting for control and ownership of product,
because they are seeing the future."
Another participant to this Symposium, Heinz-Uwe Rübenach, of the Federal
Association of German Newspaper Publishers (Bundesverband Deutscher
Zeitungsverleger), said:
"Copyright is one of the keys to the future information society. If a publishing
house which offers the journalist work, even on an on-line service, is not able
to manage and control the use of the resulting product, then it will not be
possible to finance further investments in the necessary technology. Without
that financing, the future becomes less positive and jobs can suffer. If,
however, publishers see that they are able to make multiple use of their
investment, then obviously this is beneficial for all. Otherwise the costs
associated with on-line services would increase considerably. As far as the
European market is concerned, this would only increase competitive pressures,
since United States publishers do not have to pay for multiple uses."
DOI: The Digital Object Identifier System is an identification system for
intellectual property in the digital environment. Developed by the DOI
Foundation on behalf of the publishing industry, its goals are to provide a
framework for managing intellectual content, link customers with publishers,
facilitate electronic commerce, and enable automated copyright management.
The Introduction to the Digital Object Identifier specifies:
"The Internet represents a totally new environment for commerce. As such, it
requires new enabling technologies to protect both customer and publisher.
Systems will have to be developed to authenticate content to insure that what
the customer is requesting is what is being delivered. At the same time, the
creator of the information must be sure that the copyright in the content is
respected and protected.
In considering the new systems required, international book and journal
publishers realized that a first step would be the development of a new
identification system to be used for all digital content. This Digital Object
Identifier (DOI) system not only provides a unique identification for that
content, but also a way to link users of the materials to the rights holders
themselves to facilitate automated digital commerce in the new digital
environment.
Developed and tested over the last year, the DOI system is now being used by
more than a dozen U.S. and European publishers in a pilot program that has been
running since July. Participation in Phase Two of the Prototype was extended to
all publishers at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 1997."
Penny Pagano, a former Washington correspondent for the Los Angeles Times, is a
Washington, D.C.-based freelance writer. In Intellectual Property Rights and the
World Wide Web, an article published in AJR/NewsLink, she wrote: "Today, those
who create information and those who publish, distribute and repackage it are
finding themselves at odds with each other over the control of electronic
rights."
Among many comments mentioned by Penny Pagano is the one of Dan Carlinksy,
writer and vice president of the American Society of Journalists and Authors, in
New York.
"'The electronic explosion has changed the entire nature of the business,'
Carlinsky says. In the past, articles sold to a periodical essentially 'turned
into a pumpkin with no value' once they were published. 'But the electronic
revolution has extended the shelf life of content of periodicals. You can now
take individual articles and put them into a virtual bookstore or put them on a
virtual newsstand.'
The second major change in recent years, he says, is 'an increasing trend to
more and more publications being owned by fewer larger and larger companies that
tend to be international media conglomerates. They are connected corporately
with an enormous array of enterprises that might be interested in secondary use
of materials'."
To get secondary rights, "the National Writers Union has created a new agency
called the Publication Rights Clearinghouse (PRC). Based on the music industry's
ASCAP [American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers], PRC will track
individual transactions and pay out royalties to writers for secondary rights
for previously used articles. For $20, freelance writers who have secondary
rights to previously published articles can enroll in PRC. These articles become
part of a PRC file that is licensed to database companies." Several companies
participate, including UnCover, both a fax reprint service and the world's
largest database of magazine and journal articles.
9.3. Multimedia Convergence
Because of computerization and communication technologies, previously distinct
information-based industries, such as printing and publishing, graphic design,
the media, sound recording and film-making, are converging into one industry.
Information is their common product.
Wilfred Kiboro, Managing Director and Chief Executive of Nation Printers and
Publishers Ltd, Kenya, made the following comments during the ILO Symposium on
Multimedia Convergence held in January 1997:
"In content creation in the multimedia environment, it is very difficult to know
who the journalist is, who the editor is, and who the technologist is that will
bring it all together. At what point will telecom workers become involved as
well as the people in television and other entities that come to create new
products? Traditionally in the print media, for instance, we had printers,
journalists, sales and marketing staff and so on, but now all of them are
working on one floor from one desk."