a half ago, and has always been carried on by private enterprise, it is
still in a flourishing state. It was established in 1751, chiefly
through the exertions of Dr. Wall, a physician and a good practical
chemist, who in conjunction with others formed the "Worcester Porcelain
Company." The early productions were principally of the useful
description, and were sold at a cheaper rate than the wares of Bow and
Chelsea. About the year 1757, the important method of multiplying
designs upon the biscuit ware by means of transferring impressions of
engraved copper plates to the surface, was adopted at Worcester almost
at the same time as at Liverpool, the invention being in fact claimed by
both; but specimens are found bearing the names of Sadler and Green of
Liverpool, and Richard Holdship and Robert Hancock of Worcester, dated
in the same year. Bat printing succeeded the printing from engraved or
etched plates. This new style was accomplished thus: instead of the
design being first printed upon paper and then transferred, the plate
was stippled with a fine point by London artists after designs of
landscapes, shells, fruit, and flowers by Cipriani, Bartolozzi, Cosway,
and Angelica Kauffmann, who were so fashionable about the end of the
18th century. The copper plate being carefully cleaned, a thin coating
of linseed oil was laid upon it, and removed by the palm of the hand
from the surface, leaving the oil in the engraved spots; instead of
paper, bats of glue were used, cut into squares of the size of the
engraving; one of these bats was pressed on to the plate, so as to
receive the oil out of the engraved holes, and laid on to the china,
transferring the oil to the surface; it was then dusted with the colour
required, the superfluous colour being removed carefully with cotton
wool, and the china was then placed in the kiln.
[Illustration: FIG. 283.--CUP AND SAUCER.]
In 1783 the Worcester porcelain works were purchased by Mr. Thomas
Flight, from whom they afterwards passed to Messrs. Flight and Barr; the
principal painters at this time were: J. Pennington, who painted
figures; S. Astles, flowers; G. Davis, exotic birds in the Chelsea
style; Webster, landscapes and flowers; J. Barker, shells; Brewer of
Derby, landscapes; while Thomas Baxter, an accomplished artist, painted
figure subjects.
The Worcester works remained with Messrs. Flight & Barr until 1840, when
the two principal manufactories of Worcester--that of Flight & Barr, and
that of the Messrs. Chamberlain, were amalgamated; the plant and stock
were removed to the premises of the latter, and the new firm was styled
Chamberlain & Co. The last-named works were established by Robert
Chamberlain in 1786; he was the first apprentice at the Old Worcester
Porcelain Company, and he and his brother Humphrey took premises in High
Street. At first they only decorated porcelain, which they bought of
Turner of Caughley; but they afterwards manufactured largely on their
own account, and their business increased to a great extent, being
patronised by the royal family.
[Illustration: FIG. 284.--PORTION OF A TEA SERVICE. _Japanese pattern,
blue, red, and gold._]
[Illustration: FIG. 285.--PORTION OF A TEA SERVICE. _Transfer coloured,
and partly gilt._]
These two works which were united in 1840, remained so until 1852, when
Messrs. Kerr & Binns became the ostensible proprietors. In 1862 another
Joint Stock Company was formed, Mr. R. W. Binns having the direction of
the artistic department and Mr. Edward Phillips being general
superintendent.
SWINTON, near Rotherham. The manufacture of porcelain at the
ROCKINGHAM WORKS was introduced, under the patronage of the Earl
Fitzwilliam, about the year 1823 by Thomas Brameld, who spared no
expense in endeavouring to bring it to perfection. The china was of a
superior description, and the painting and decoration were of a high
character. In 1832 royal patronage was obtained and a magnificent
service was ordered by King William IV.; instead, however, of placing
the firm in a flourishing condition, it was actually the cause of its
ruin, for the expense incurred by the engagement of first-class artists,
and the super-abundance of gold employed in decorating the service,
resulted in so great a loss that the manufacture was totally
discontinued a few years after.
[Illustration: FIG. 286.--PLATE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 287.--VASE. _Centre-piece of the service made for
King William IV._ Height 14 in.]
DERBY. The earliest manufactory was called "The Derby Pot Works," and
was carried on at Cock Pit Hill by Messrs. John and Christopher Heath
for pottery and porcelain. It is said to have been on an extensive
scale, but little is known of its operations. The proprietors, who were
bankers in Full Street, became bankrupt in 1780, when the stock was sold
and the works discontinued.
[Illustration: FIG. 288.--GROUP. _Chelsea Derby._]
[Illustration: FIG. 289.--PAIR OF VASES. _Chelsea Derby._]
[Illustration: FIG. 290.--PLATE. _With flowers by Billingsley._]
The "Derby Porcelain Manufactory" was founded in 1751 by William
Duesbury; the first productions were chimney ornaments, lambs, sheep,
and services for the table, but it was probably not until he purchased
the Chelsea works in 1769 that any great reputation was acquired, and
few if any of the early specimens can be identified. Some beautiful
examples of porcelain painted in the Chinese style were produced about
this time, but as the rage for oriental ware seemed so prevalent, the
proprietor, to insure the sale of his china, copied the Chinese marks as
well as the style of decoration. Crown Derby was produced from 1780, and
was continued by Bloor, the successor of Duesbury, as late as 1830.
After the purchase of the Chelsea and Bow works, the Derby porcelain
manufactory rose to great importance, the proprietors having of course
retained the best workmen who had been engaged there. In fact, with all
the models and moulds, the mixers, throwers, and painters of those two
great establishments, the manufactory may be considered as the Chelsea
and Bow works continued in another locality. Upon the death of William
Duesbury, in 1785, his son William continued the business, and a third
William Duesbury succeeded in the beginning of the last century. About
1815, Robert Bloor took over the works, which were altogether closed in
1848. An offshoot, however, is still carried on.
[Illustration: FIG. 291.--CUP, COVER, AND SAUCER. _Crown Derby._]
[Illustration: FIG. 292.--SCENT VASE. _Crown Derby._]
[Illustration: FIG. 293.--CUP, COVER, AND SAUCER. _Crown Derby._]
BURTON-ON-TRENT. A manufactory of earthenware was established here early
in the last century, and from about 1839 porcelain was made for seven
years.
[Illustration: FIG. 294.--COMPORT.]
WIRKSWORTH. A manufactory of china as well as pottery, established by a
Mr. Gill, existed here about 1770, and continued for about twenty years.
[Illustration: FIG. 295.--CUP.]
PINXTON in Derbyshire. Established about 1795, by Billingsley in
partnership with John Coke; the former was a practical potter, having
been engaged at the Derby works as a flower painter, in which capacity
he excelled; he brought with him a staff of workmen and their families,
and the factory went on successfully for about five or six years, when
Billingsley left; it was continued by Coke, and afterwards by Cutts the
foreman, but was altogether discontinued about 1812. The ware made here
by Billingsley was of a peculiar transparent character; and a favourite
pattern was the French sprig or "Chantilly," being an imitation of the
Angoulême china.
[Illustration: FIG. 296.--JARDINIÈRE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 297.--SUGAR BOWL AND COVER.]
LOWESTOFT. According to Gillingham's _History of Lowestoft_, written in
1790, an attempt was made to manufacture porcelain there in 1756 by Mr.
Hewlin Luson of Gunton Hall, he having found some fine clay on his
estate suitable for the purpose, and in the following year Messrs.
Gillingwater, Walker, Browne, Aldred, and Richman, established the
Lowestoft porcelain works, which existed until 1802. The porcelain was
of soft paste, and in 1902 fragments of it and moulds were found on the
site of the factory. The theory that hard paste was made at Lowestoft or
that Chinese porcelain was painted there has now been abandoned.
PLYMOUTH. About the year 1755 William Cookworthy commenced his
experiments to ascertain the nature of true porcelain of hard paste,
and searched with great perseverance throughout England for the
materials which were the constituent parts of Chinese porcelain. At
length a friend of his discovered on the estate of Lord Camelford, in
the parish of St. Stephen's, Cornwall, "a certain white saponaceous
clay, and close by it a species of granite or moorstone, white with
greenish spots, which he immediately perceived to be the two long
sought-for ingredients, the one giving whiteness and body to the paste,
the other vitrification and transparency."
[Illustration: FIG. 298.--COFFEE-POT.]
[Illustration: FIG. 299.--BEAKER AND COVER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 300.--CENTREPIECE.]
The patent was obtained in 1768, and the materials were described as
growan stone and growan clay. The works were carried on for nearly six
years, and consequently a considerable quantity of ware was made.
Cookworthy engaged the services of a French artist, M. Soqui, whose
ornamental delineations on the articles produced here were very
beautiful. Some elegant salt-cellars and table ornaments in the form of
open conch shells resting on a bed of coral, &c., all well modelled in
hard paste, were favourites for the table.
[Illustration: FIG. 301.--A SHEPHERDESS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 302.--A SHEPHERD.]
Cookworthy and Lord Camelford continued to work this manufactory until
1774, when the patent right was sold and transferred to Richard
Champion.
BRISTOL. A manufactory of _soft paste_ porcelain was founded at Bristol
about 1750. Later Richard Champion, having in 1774 purchased
Cookworthy's patent, opened a manufactory for _hard paste_. The ware was
brought to great perfection, but the large outlay prevented its being
remunerative, and in three or four years he sold his interest in the
patent to a company of Staffordshire potters.
[Illustration: FIG. 303.--BOWL AND COVER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 304.--DISH.]
CAUGHLEY, near Broseley, Salop. Established in 1751 by a Mr. Brown, and
afterwards carried on by a Mr. Gallimore. It was not until 1772 that it
rose to any importance, when Thomas Turner commenced operations. He came
from the Worcester porcelain manufactory; he was an engraver, and
probably learnt his art from Robert Hancock.
[Illustration: FIG. 305.--MUG. _Painted in blue._]
[Illustration: FIG. 306.--PLATE. _Blue willow pattern._]
The excellence of Turner's porcelain gained him great patronage. In 1780
he produced the celebrated "willow pattern," and completed the first
blue printed table service made in England. Thomas Minton of Stoke
assisted in the completion of it, being articled as an engraver at
Caughley.
In 1799 Turner retired and John Rose became proprietor; the latter
removed the works to Coalport about 1814 or 1815.
COALPORT, in Shropshire. The porcelain works here were established about
1780 by John Rose, who had removed his manufactory from Jackfield. He
carried on this and the Caughley works simultaneously. In 1820, both
the Swansea and the Nantgarw manufactories having been purchased, they
were incorporated with Coalport, and Billingsley of Nantgarw was engaged
as mixer of the clays; he remained at Coalport until his death in 1828.
The "worm sprig" and the "Tournay sprig" were much made at Coalport.
[Illustration: FIG. 307.--DISH. _Marked "Coalport improved Feltspar_
(sic) _Porcelain_."]
COLEBROOK DALE is another name for the Coalport works.
STOKE-ON-TRENT. The first Josiah Spode had a factory here in 1784 for
the production of earthenware. He died in 1797 and was succeeded by his
son Josiah, who commenced the manufacture of porcelain about 1800. He
was a most successful man of business and was appointed potter to the
Prince of Wales. Josiah Spode took William Copeland into partnership,
and the works are still carried on by Messrs. Copeland & Sons.
[Illustration: FIG. 308.--CUP, COVER, AND SAUCER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 309.--VASE.]
HERBERT MINTON when he succeeded to the business at Stoke-on-Trent (see
page 236), greatly developed the manufacture of hard and soft
porcelain, and copies were made of Sèvres porcelain vases.
[Illustration: FIG. 310.--BOWL. _Blue and gold, painted with flowers._]
LONGTON HALL. A porcelain factory was established here about 1752 by
William Littler. The ware appears to have been rather vitreous in
character, and somewhat resembles Chelsea and Bow porcelain. The works
closed about 1759, and the moulds, &c., are believed to have been
purchased by Duesbury of Derby.
[Illustration: LONGTON HALL
FIG. 311.--VASE.]
BOW. The manufactory of porcelain at Stratford-le-Bow was established
about the middle of the 18th century. Thomas Frye, an eminent painter,
appears to have been instrumental in bringing the china to that
perfection for which the manufactory was celebrated. He took out two
patents for the improvement of porcelain; the first in 1744 was in
conjunction with Edward Heylyn, the second in 1749. In 1750 the works
were disposed of to Messrs. Weatherby & Crowther.
[Illustration: FIG. 312.--TEAPOT. _Printed with King of Prussia._]
[Illustration: FIG. 313.--BOWL.]
[Illustration: FIG. 314.--PLATE. _Printed with Æneas and Anchises._]
[Illustration: FIG. 315.--STATUETTE, "FLORA."]
[Illustration: FIG. 316.--BUST OF GEORGE II.]
The interesting bowl (now in the British Museum), made at the Bow works
in the year 1760, and painted by Thomas Craft, is accompanied by a short
history of the works, which informs us that the names of the
proprietors were known all over the world, that they employed 300
persons, about 90 painters, and 200 turners, throwers, &c., all under
one roof. (See Fig. 313.) In 1775 or 1776 the works were sold to
Duesbury, and all the moulds and implements were transferred to Derby.
[Illustration: FIG. 317.--GROUP: "A TEA PARTY."]
For a more detailed account of the Bow porcelain manufactory, the reader
is referred to _Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain_, by W.
Chaffers.
CHELSEA. This celebrated porcelain manufactory was established about
1740, shortly after that of Bow, and the early productions of the two
are frequently mistaken one for the other; but, fortunately, the Chelsea
wares, especially the finest pieces, were subsequently marked with an
anchor in gold or red. The period of its greatest excellence was from
1750 to 1765.
The early pieces were copied principally from the Oriental, being
decorated with Chinese patterns, and these were marked with an embossed
anchor.
[Illustration: FIG. 318.--MARSHAL CONWAY.]
[Illustration: FIG. 319.--SHEPHERD.]
The beautiful vases in the French style, in imitation of Sèvres, with
_gros bleu_, crimson, turquoise, and apple-green grounds were made from
1760 to 1765.
In 1769, by order of M. Sprimont, the proprietor, the Chelsea porcelain
manufactory was sold by auction.
[Illustration: FIG. 320.--VASE. "DEATH OF CLEOPATRA."]
The works were purchased by W. Duesbury of Derby, and carried on by him
at Chelsea until 1784. The later pieces made here under his direction
are easily distinguished; these vessels are of simple elegant forms,
with the frequent recurrence of gold stripes, and the same forms and
style were adopted simultaneously at Derby, but they are inferior to
the vases made when M. Sprimont had the works under his direction.
WALES
SWANSEA. The manufacture of porcelain was revived at Swansea in 1814 by
L. L. Dillwyn. At that time Billingsley had commenced making his
porcelain at Nantgarw; it naturally attracted Dillwyn's attention, and
conceiving that the kilns used by Billingsley & Walker might be
considerably improved, he made arrangements with them to carry on their
process at Swansea. Hence the origin of the Swansea porcelain, which
obtained great repute, and was continued for six or seven years. Baxter,
a clever painter of figure subjects, left Worcester and entered
Dillwyn's service in 1816 and continued there for three years, returning
to Worcester in 1819. In the year 1820 the manufactory was discontinued,
and all the moulds and appliances were purchased by John Rose, who
removed them to Coalport about the same time as those of Nantgarw.
[Illustration: FIG. 321.--PLATE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 322.--PLATE.]
NANTGARW. Established in 1813 by Billingsley, the celebrated flower
painter of Derby, with Walker, after they left Worcester. They produced
some very fine porcelain, of the same peculiar character as that of
Pinxton, with a sort of vitreous appearance and a granulated fracture
like that of lump sugar. Being very soft the paste would not in all
cases stand the heat of the kiln; some of the early pieces are
consequently found cracked on the glaze, or slightly warped and bent.
[Illustration: FIG. 323.--PLATE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 324.--CUP AND SAUCER.]
The Nantgarw porcelain was of remarkably fine body and texture, but its
production was expensive. About the year 1820 the manufacture was
discontinued; Billingsley and Walker having disposed of their interest
in the concern to J. Rose, the moulds and everything connected with the
works were removed to Coalport.
[Illustration: FIG. 325.--VASE.]
ORIENTAL POTTERY AND PORCELAIN
CHINA
The porcelain of China is composed of two earths, the one a decomposed
felspathic rock called _kaolin_, and the other a rock of the same
geological origin, mixed with quartz, called _petuntse_. They both
harmonise so completely that they have an equally resisting power when
placed in the kiln. The _kaolin_ used in making porcelain is much softer
than _petuntse_ when dug out of the quarry, yet it is this which, by its
mixture with the other, gives strength and firmness to the work.
Chinese porcelain was classified by the late Dr. S. W. Bushell, C.M.G.,
under the following periods:--
1. Primitive period, including the _Sung_ dynasty (960-1279) and the
_Yuan_ dynasty (1280-1367).
2. Ming period, comprising the whole of the _Ming_ dynasty (1368-1643).
3. K'ang Hsi period, extending from the fall of the Ming dynasty to the
close of the reign of _K'ang Hsi_ (1662-1722).
4. Yung Chêng and Chiên Lung period (1723-1795), the two reigns being
conjoined.
5. Modern period, from the beginning of the reign of _Chia Ch'ing_ to
the present day.
[Illustration: FIG. 326.--STONEWARE VASE. _With Céladon green glaze.
Ming dynasty._]
The most ancient mode of decoration was the blue _camaïeu_, and it is
still much esteemed in China; it was executed on the ware, simply dried
before the glaze was applied, and then placed in the kiln. Being all
completed in one baking, _au grand feu_, the painting thus executed
became imperishable.
[Illustration: FIG. 327.--STONEWARE VASE. _With Céladon crackle glaze._]
It is on this blue ware that the greater number of the Chinese
characters are found denoting the period in which the porcelain was
made. The cobalt on the earlier pieces was not so fine as on those of
the _Siouen-te_ and _Ching-hoa_ periods, which are now much sought
after. It is extremely difficult to tell even the approximate date of
the coloured pieces, especially as there was a conventional method of
decorating them which had been practised from time immemorial; the
painters worked according to given models or patterns, and monsters,
deities, or flowers and landscapes, of the same uncouth and rude
designs, were placed in successive ages upon the ware.
[Illustration: FIG. 328.--PORCELAIN VASE. _Painted in enamel colours._]
The Père d'Entrecolles tells us the manner of painting vases in China,
and how the different parts of a landscape on one vase were intrusted
to various hands according to their ability to paint special objects
mechanically. He says: "One is employed solely to form the coloured
circle which is seen round the border of the ware, a second traces the
flowers in outline, which a third fills in with colour; another excels
only in painting the water and the mountains, while the next is only
competent to portray birds or animals."
[Illustration: FIG. 329.--PORCELAIN EWER. _Painted in enamel colours,
and mounted with Florentine copper gilt. 17th century._]
A sort of very hard stoneware, covered with a thick glaze, may be the
most ancient description seen at the present day. The surface is covered
with a semi-opaque glaze which is called _céladon_ by the French, and
which varies in colour from a russet grey to a sea green. The glaze of
this ware is frequently seen crackled all over in irregular lines, which
is termed in England _crackle_. This crackle china is the most esteemed
of Oriental porcelain, although it arises from a _defective_ cause.
[Illustration: FIG. 330.--BOTTLE. _Powder blue porcelain. Ming
dynasty._]
[Illustration: FIG. 331.--JAR. _Painted with plum blossoms. Ming
dynasty._]
The same effect may be easily produced upon all terra-cottas of which
the paste is more sensible to the changes of temperature than the
exterior coating or glaze. In fayence this accident is of frequent
occurrence; the red porous clay, being more expansive, draws away the
enamel, which, being less elastic, is separated into fragments, and the
greater the resistance the more they are multiplied. Now one of the
qualities of porcelain is precisely to avoid this double action. Its
paste is composed of a felspathic rock, decomposed and infusible, called
_kaolin_; the cover or glaze comes also from a felspathic rock, slightly
crystallised; these melt and assimilate together harmoniously in
vitrification, and a complete affinity is evident between the two
elements of porcelain. Nevertheless the Chinese, in modifying the glaze,
are able to render it more or less expansive and to break the harmony
between its own shrinkage and that of the paste or body which it covers.
[Illustration: FIG. 332.--PLATE. _Egg shell porcelain._]
Hence the crackle, at the option of the potter, is made of large,
middling, or small size.
Various kinds of crackle are thus produced, sometimes upon one and the
same piece, as by exposing the porcelain or portions of it when at its
greatest heat to a sudden cold or contact of water, large fissures may
be obtained. These cracks are sometimes filled in with black, red,
chocolate, or purple colours.
Others may be classed among the curiosities of porcelain--for example,
cups or bowls which have an outer reticulated coating, pierced or cut
out into arabesques, completely insulated from the inner vessel, except
at the rim at top and bottom where it is joined; these have been used
for tea or hot liquids, and may be held in the hand with impunity,
notwithstanding the heat enclosed within it.
[Illustration: FIG. 333.--PLATE. _Egg shell porcelain._]
Another variety consists in cutting or punching out pieces of the paste
or body of the ware in patterns before it is baked; the pieces so cut
out are small ovals like grains of rice placed in more or less numerous
stars, rosettes, &c. The vase thus ornamented is dipped into the glaze
which fills up all these small holes, and then placed in the kiln. The
pattern, being much more transparent than the body of the ware, is
distinctly seen, but especially so when held to the light.
Another beautiful effect is produced by means of the glaze itself, which
is of a light or dark shade according to its intensity or thickness; for
example: a fish, animal, or other object is stamped incuse on the upper
surface of a plate, it is then filled in with a coloured glaze and
vitrified, and is consequently shaded according to the thickness of the
glaze on each portion of the design, the surface being perfectly smooth.
Vases are sometimes seen separated in the middle into two pieces (which
must have been cut while the clay was soft), the upper half being
completely divided from the lower half--in arabesques and dove-tail
patterns, in such a manner, that although separate, they cannot be
altogether removed from each other; the wonder is, that in the baking,
the edges in juxtaposition should not have become again cemented
together.