1744, by the Empress Elizabeth Petrowna, with workmen from Meissen.
Catherine II. patronised the works, and in 1765 enlarged them
considerably, under the direction of the minister, J. A. Olsoufieff,
since which this _fabrique_ has held a distinguished place among
European manufactories. The paste is hard and of a blueish cast, finely
glazed, and it betrays its Dresden origin.
[Illustration: FIG. 189.--CUP AND SAUCER. _With the mark of the Emperor
Paul._]
[Illustration: FIG. 190.--VERRIÈRE.]
MOSCOW, 1720. The potter Eggebrecht, who had undertaken a manufactory of
delft at Dresden, by direction of Böttcher, had, after that was
discontinued, left to go to Moscow, and, being acquainted with some of
the processes for making porcelain, commenced manufacturing it at
Moscow.
[Illustration: FIG. 191.--STATUETTE. _Mark, G in blue._ Height 8 in.]
[Illustration: FIG. 192.--CUP AND SAUCER. _With view of Moscow. Mark, A.
Popoffe's initials._]
A porcelain manufactory was established at TWER, by an Englishman named
Gardner, in 1787, and another by A. Popoff.
KORZEC, in Volhynia. About 1803, Mérault, a chemist of the Sèvres
manufactory, went to direct the _fabrique_ at Korzec, taking with him a
laboratory assistant named Pétion. After carrying it on for a few years,
Mérault abandoned the direction, and returned to France.
[Illustration: FIG. 193.--_Pâte dure CUP AND SAUCER. Painted with a
portrait of a lady, en grisaille, with gilt borders. Mark, Eye
within a triangle._]
BARANOWKA, in Volhynia. A small factory existed here at which the
porcelain clay found in the neighbourhood was used.
[Illustration: FIG. 194.--MILK JUG. _Mark, the name of the town._]
SWEDEN
MARIEBERG. This manufactory produced porcelain (_soft paste_), as well
as fayence. In quality as well as in decoration the porcelain is like
that of Mennecy-Villeroy in France. The industry was established by
Ehrenreich, under the patronage of Count Scheffer, Councillor of State,
in 1750, and altogether ceased about 1780.
[Illustration: FIG. 195.--CUSTARD CUP AND COVER. _Mark, M.B. combined._
Height 3-1/4 in.]
DENMARK
COPENHAGEN. This manufactory was commenced by an apothecary of the name
of Müller, in 1772, and Baron von Lang, from the Fürstenberg
manufactory, is said to have been instrumental in forming it. The
capital was raised in shares, but the factory not being successful, the
Government interfered, and it became a royal establishment in 1775, and
has remained so ever since.
[Illustration: FIG. 196.--CABARET. _With portraits of Raphael, and other
celebrated painters._]
[Illustration: FIG. 197.--CABARET.]
FRANCE
ST. CLOUD. A factory was established here about 1695 for the production
of porcelain, at which time M. Morin was proprietor, and M. Chicanneau
director of the works.
[Illustration: FIG. 198.--JUG.]
According to letters patent of 1702, granted to the heirs of Chicanneau,
his widow, Barbe Courdray, and her children, were interested in the
works; their father had made many experiments and attempts to discover
the secret of true porcelain, and from the year 1696 had produced some
nearly equal to the porcelain of China. His children, to whom he
imparted the secret, successfully continued the fabrication, and were
permitted to manufacture porcelain at St. Cloud, or in any other part or
parts of the kingdom, except Rouen and its faubourgs. In 1712 a renewal
of the patent took place for ten years, and in the meantime the widow
Barbe Courdray married a M. Trou.
[Illustration: FIG. 199.--STATUETTE. _Astronomy seated, holding the
sun._]
In 1722 letters patent were granted for twenty years more to Jean and
Jean Baptiste Chicanneau, Marie Moreau, the widow of Pierre Chicanneau
(third son) and Henri and Gabriel Trou, children of Barbe Courdray by
her second marriage. About this time serious disagreements occurred
between the two families, and they separated, Gabriel and Henri Trou
remaining at St. Cloud, patronised by the Duke of Orleans; while Marie
Moreau opened another establishment in the Rue de la Ville l'Évêque,
Faubourg St. Honoré, directed by Dominique François Chicanneau. In 1742
another _arrêt_ granted privileges for twenty years to both these
establishments, and Marie Moreau dying in 1743 left Dominique her
business.
The manufactory at St. Cloud was destroyed by fire (the act of an
incendiary) in 1773, and the manufacture ceased, the proprietors not
being able to raise sufficient funds to rebuild it.
CHANTILLY. This manufactory was founded in 1725 by Ciquaire Cirou, under
the patronage of the Prince de Condé, as appears by letters patent dated
1735, who was succeeded by Antheaume and others. The porcelain was
highly esteemed, and there was hardly any object which they did not
produce, from the lofty vase to the simplest knife handle. The Chantilly
pattern was a great favourite for ordinary services; it was called
"Barbeau," and consisted of a small blue flower running over the white
paste.
[Illustration: FIG. 200.--DISH. _Mark, hunting horn and P, in gold._
Diameter 12 in.]
[Illustration: FIG. 201.--PAIR OF FIGURES.]
ROUEN. Louis Poterat, Sieur de St. Ètienne, of St. Sever, at Rouen,
obtained letters patent in 1673, stating that he had discovered
processes for fabricating porcelain similar to that of China, and wares
resembling those of Delft; but the former was of a very rude character
and never arrived at any perfection.
After the establishment at St. Cloud had commenced selling porcelain,
the proprietors of the Rouen manufactory appear to have revived their
porcelain in the hopes of competing with them, but with no good result.
MENNECY-VILLEROY. This important manufactory was established in 1735 by
François Barbin, under the patronage of the Duc de Villeroy. The early
specimens are similar to the _porcelaine tendre_ of St. Cloud, of a
milky translucent appearance.
[Illustration: FIG. 202.--SUGAR BASIN AND STAND.]
Barbin was succeeded about 1748 by Messieurs Jacques and Jullien, and
the manufactory continued in a flourishing state until 1773, when on the
expiration of the lease it was removed to Bourg-la-Reine.
[Illustration: FIG. 203.--GROUP OF CHILDREN.]
SCEAUX PENTHIÈVRE, near Paris. Established in 1750 by Jacques Chapelle;
it was situated opposite the Petit Châtelet, and was under the patronage
of the Duc de Penthièvre. It was carried on by Glot in 1773. The
Prince-Protector died in 1794, but the production of _pâte tendre_
ceased before that time.
[Illustration: FIG. 204.--CUP AND SAUCER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 205.--MILK-POT. _Mark, S. X._]
ARRAS. Established in 1782 by the Demoiselles Deleneur, under the
patronage of M. de Calonne, Intendant de Flandre et de l'Artois; it only
lasted a few years.
[Illustration: FIG. 206.--SEAU. _Mark, A. R._]
BOULOGNE-SUR-MER. Established by M. Haffringue, in the 19th century,
with the kaolin of Limoges.
[Illustration: FIG. 207.--PLAQUE. _White biscuit._]
[Illustration: FIG. 208.--SUCRIER. _White biscuit._]
ÉTIOLLES (Seine-et-Oise), near Corbeil. Established in 1768, by Monnier,
for soft paste porcelain. The works lasted only a short time.
[Illustration: FIG. 209.--CUP AND SAUCER. _Mark, E. Pellevé_, 1770.
Diameter 2-1/2 and 5 in.]
LILLE. Established in 1711 by Barthélemy Dorez and Pierre Pelissier, his
nephew, natives of Lille. The porcelain (_pâte tendre_) of this time
was like that of St. Cloud, but in the Delft style, the favourite
ornamentation being Chinese designs. At a later period (in 1784) a
manufactory of hard porcelain was established by Leperre Durot, under
the patronage of the Dauphin; it was styled "Manufacture Royale de
Monseigneur le Dauphin." The porcelain of Leperre Durot is richly
adorned with gold and with carefully painted bouquets of flowers.
[Illustration: FIG. 210.--CUP AND SAUCER. _With mark, crowned Dolphin._]
M. Roger succeeded Leperre Durot, and in 1792 he sold his interest in
the works to Messieurs Regnault and Graindorge; they were, however, soon
ruined, and the establishment was closed.
BOURG-LA-REINE. Started in 1773 by Messieurs Jacques and Jullien, who
removed thither on the expiration of their lease at Mennecy. It was in
active existence, making china purely of an industrial character, in
1788.
[Illustration: FIG. 211.--CUSTARD CUP. _Mark, B. R._ Height 3-1/4 in.]
CLIGNANCOURT. Established in 1775 by Pierre Deruelle, under the
patronage of Monsieur le Comte de Provence, brother of the king
(afterwards Louis XVIII.).
[Illustration: FIG. 212.--MILK-POT AND COVER.
FIG. 213.--CUP AND DISH.
FIG. 214.--MILK JUG.]
LUNÉVILLE. A factory called "Manufacture Stanislas" was established in
1731. It lasted only a short time, but a later manufactory, founded
about 1769, was celebrated for its productions.
Paul Louis Cyfflé, sculptor, obtained, in 1768, letters patent for
fifteen years, by virtue of which he established another manufactory for
superior vessels of the material called _terre de Lorraine_, and in the
following year a new privilege was granted for making groups and
statuettes with his improved paste, under the name of _pâte de marbre_.
ORLEANS. Established by M. Gerréault in 1753, under the protection of
the Duc de Penthièvre; the porcelain first made here was of the soft
paste, but hard paste was subsequently produced. Gerréault was succeeded
by Bourdon _fils_ about 1788, Piédor, Dubois, and lastly, Le Brun, from
1808 to 1811.
NIDERVILLER. Established about 1760 by Baron de Beyerlé. After
successfully carrying on this branch for several years, he attempted
hard porcelain in 1768, and procured potters and artists from Saxony.
Three or four years before his death, which happened in 1784, the estate
was bought by General de Custine. This new proprietor continued the
_fabrique_, under the direction of M. Lanfray, who paid especial
attention to the production of fine porcelain; the fabrication of
statuettes was greatly increased.
[Illustration: ORLEANS
FIG. 215.--BOWL, COVER, AND STAND. _Mark, heraldic label in blue._]
[Illustration: FIG. 216.--MILK-POT AND COVER. _Mark, double C under
coronet, in blue._ Height 6-1/2 in.]
After the decapitation of the unfortunate de Custine, his estates, being
forfeited to the Republic, were sold on the 25 Germinal, An X (1802), to
M. Lanfray, and carried on by him until his death in 1827, when the
manufactory was sold to L. G. Dryander, of Saarbrücken. For many years
he continued to make porcelain, as well as fayence groups and
statuettes, but the distance of his _fabrique_ from the kaolin of St.
Yrieix prevented him from competing successfully with those of Limoges,
and this branch was abandoned.
BOISSETTE, near Melun. A factory was established in 1777 by Jacques
Vermonet père et fils, but it lasted only a short time.
[Illustration: FIG. 217.--TEAPOT.]
CAEN, Normandy. Established and supported by some of the principal
inhabitants, at the time of the French Revolution (about 1793), when
several workmen from Sèvres came to join it. It was carried on for a few
years, but no market being found for the ware, the factory was
discontinued at the commencement of the last century. It is hard paste,
and equal to that of Sèvres, and of the same forms.
[Illustration: FIG. 218.--CUP AND SAUCER. _With "Caen" stencilled in
red._]
VALENCIENNES (Nord). By an Order of Council, dated 24th May 1785, M.
Fauquet was permitted to carry on a manufacture of porcelain at
Valenciennes. He was originally established at St. Amand in the
manufacture of fayence as early as 1775, and probably carried on both
works simultaneously.
[Illustration: FIG. 219.--CUP AND SAUCER. _Mark, F. L. V., in cipher, in
blue._ Diam. 3-3/4 and 6-1/4 in.]
ST. AMAND-LES-EAUX. Founded by M. Maximilien de Bettignies in 1815, for
the manufacture of _pâte tendre_ porcelain like the old Sèvres. He was
formerly proprietor of the Tournai manufactory, which he ceded to his
brother Henri when that city became re-annexed to Belgium.
STRASSBURG. About the year 1752, Paul Hannong obtained the secret of
true porcelain from Ringler, and started a factory here, but in
consequence of the monopoly of Sèvres he was compelled to relinquish it,
and in 1753 removed to Frankenthal, where he greatly flourished under
the protection of the Elector Palatine Carl Theodore.
[Illustration: Fig. 220.--CUP AND SAUCER. _Mark, J. H._ Diam. 2-5/8 and
5-5/8 in.]
MARSEILLES. An important manufactory of porcelain was established here
by Jacques Gaspard Robert about 1766. Porcelain was made also by Honoré
Savy and Veuve Perrin, but was only of secondary importance. The works
were closed about the period of the French Revolution in 1793.
PARIS. Rue Thiroux. Established in 1778 by André Marie Lebeuf, and the
ware was called "Porcelaine de la Reine."
[Illustration: FIG. 221.--SUCRIER. _Mark, crowned A._]
PARIS. Rue de Bondy. Opened in 1780 by Dihl and Guerhard, under the
patronage of the Duc d'Angoulême, and the ware was called "Porcelaine
d'Angoulême."
[Illustration: FIG. 222.--EWER AND BASIN.]
PARIS. Rue Fontaine au Roi. This factory, called "De la Courtille," was
established in 1773 by Jean Baptiste Locré, who was afterwards joined by
Russinger in 1784. The latter during the Revolution became sole
director.
[Illustration: FIG. 223.--PART OF A TEA SERVICE.]
PARIS. Faubourg St. Honoré. A factory was established here by Veuve
Chicanneau, _née_ Marie Moreau. The teapot, Fig. 224, was probably made
at these works.
[Illustration: FIG. 224.--TEAPOT. _Mark, V{e} M. & C._]
PARIS. Pont-aux-Choux. In 1784, Louis Honoré de la Marre de Villars
opened an establishment for the manufacture of porcelain in the Rue des
Boulets, Faubourg St. Antoine. It was afterwards disposed of to Jean
Baptiste Outrequin de Montarcy and Edmé Toulouse, who in 1786 obtained a
brêvet from the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, and authority to
sign the productions with the letters L. P., and to take the title of
_Manufacture de M. le Duc d'Orléans_. They were afterwards established
in Rue Amelot, _au Pont-aux-Choux_, by which name the porcelain is
generally known.
[Illustration: FIG. 225.--TEAPOT.]
The former name ceased in 1793, with the condemnation of the Duke of
Orleans, and the objects subsequently produced were inscribed merely
"_Fabrique du Pont-aux-Choux_."
PARIS. Rue de Crussol. Established in 1789 by Charles Potter, an
Englishman, and the ware was called the "Prince of Wales's China."
[Illustration: FIG. 226.--CUP.]
PARIS. Belleville. Originally established in 1790 by Jacob Petit; but
later removed to Fontainebleau. The products of the first period were
much esteemed, being well painted and well modelled, bearing Petit's
mark; but the proprietor unwisely altered his original plan and imitated
Dresden, counterfeiting also the mark of the crossed swords. Jacob Petit
also made biscuit figures, birds' nests, flowers, &c.
[Illustration: FIG. 227.--WATCH-STAND. _Plain white of rococo form.
Mark, J. P. in blue._ Height 5 in.]
PARIS. Rue du Faubourg St. Denis. Fabrique de Charles Philippe Comte
d'Artois, afterwards Charles X. This manufacture was the most ancient of
all those established in Paris. Hannong of Strassburg, who brought into
France the secret of hard porcelain, formed the first establishment in
1769. Having obtained the protection of Charles Philippe, Comte
d'Artois, it was called by his name. The factory belonged actually to
Bourdon des Planches, who continued the manufacture of hard porcelain,
&c., but the works were closed in 1810.
VINCENNES. There was a porcelain manufactory here in 1786, quite apart
from the royal factory. It was directed by M. Le Maire, probably the
same who founded that in Rue Popincourt, which was ceded to M. Nast in
1783. There were four establishments at Vincennes; the first by the
brothers Dubois, subsequently transferred to Sèvres; the second by
Maurin des Aubiez, in 1767; the third by Pierre Antoine Hannong; and the
fourth that described above.
[Illustration: FIG. 228.--CUP AND SAUCER. _Mark, H. L. L., in gold._
Diam. 2-1/2 and 5 in.]
VINCENNES AND SÈVRES
The history of the celebrated manufactory at Sèvres must be traced back
to that of St. Cloud, which was founded as early as 1695. Here Louis
XIV. accorded his patronage and favour by granting exclusive privileges.
In 1735 the secret of the manufacture was carried, by some of the
workmen, to Chantilly, and for a time continued there by the brothers
Dubois. They left in a few years, taking with them their secret, and
settled at Vincennes, where a laboratory was granted them, but after
three years they were dismissed.
In 1745, a sculptor, named Charles Adam, formed a company, and the
scheme was approved of by the king, privileges being accorded them for
thirty years, and a place granted for their works in the Château de
Vincennes. In 1753 the privileges of Charles Adam were purchased by Eloy
Brichard, and Louis XV. took a third share; hence the factory became a
royal establishment. Madame de Pompadour considerably encouraged the
ceramic art, and it arrived at the height of perfection. The buildings
were found too small to meet the increasing demands for the beautiful
productions, and in 1756 the works were removed to a large edifice at
SÈVRES built expressly for the company.
A favourite decoration of Vincennes porcelain was flowers and birds, on
a beautiful _bleu de roi_ ground, and cupids painted in _camaïeu_ of a
single colour.
[Illustration: FIG. 229.--VASE. _Bleu de roi ground, with panels with
birds in gold. Mark, double L enclosing a dot, in gold._ Height 9-1/4
in.]
In 1760 the king became sole proprietor, and M. Boileau was appointed
director.
In 1769, after Macquer had brought the making of hard paste to
perfection, the manufacture was successfully established at Sèvres, and
both descriptions of china continued to be made until 1804, when,
Brongniart being director, soft paste was altogether discontinued, and
declared to be "useless in art, of expensive manipulation, dangerous to
the workmen, subject to great risk in the furnace, &c."
[Illustration: FIG. 230.--CUP AND SAUCER. _Bleu de roi ground, with
white medallions enclosing birds in gold. Mark, double L, in blue._
Diam. 2-5/8 and 5-3/8 in.]
The principal colours used in decorating the ground of the Sèvres vases
were:--
1. The _bleu céleste_, or turquoise, invented in 1752 by Hellot.
2. The rich cobalt blue, called _bleu de roi_, of which there were two
varieties, the darker being designated _gros bleu_.
3. The _violet pensée_, a beautiful violet from a mixture of manganese,
one of the rarest decorations of the _pâte tendre_.
[Illustration: FIG. 231.--VASE.]
4. The _rose Pompadour_ (called in England _rose Du-Barry_), a charming
pink or rose colour invented in 1757 by Xhrouet of Sèvres.
5. The clear yellow or _jonquille_, a sort of canary colour.
6. The _vert pré_, or bright grass green.
[Illustration: FIG. 232.--ÉCUELLE. _Dated 1771._]
7. The _vert pomme_, or apple green.
8. The _rouge de fer_, a brilliant red.
9. The _oeil de perdrix_ was at a later period a favourite ornament
for the grounds of vases.
[Illustration: FIG. 233.--BISCUIT GROUP. CUPID AND PSYCHE.]
The forms are exceedingly varied, but names are assigned to each, either
from the designers of the models or their special shapes or
ornamentation; these may be found at length in _Marks and Monograms on
Pottery and Porcelain_, 10th edition.
The beautiful _pâte tendre_ ware of Sèvres was always much esteemed, and
never could have been produced at a reasonable price even at the time it
was made, the expense of decoration as well as the risk in firing being
so great. It was manufactured for royal presents or occasionally sold by
express permission at exorbitant prices, which bore a more approximate
value to the present exorbitant prices than is generally supposed.
GREAT BRITAIN
POTTERY
The earthenware vessels made in England previous to the 16th century
were of a very coarse description, rudely fashioned and usually devoid
of ornament, sometimes cast in a mould in grotesque forms, and
occasionally covered with a yellow or green glaze. Numerous specimens of
early English cups are found in excavations in London and other parts of
England, and may be identified by comparison with the vessels in Norman
and mediæval manuscripts.
Although inexpensive, they were badly burned, and not very durable; and
the German stoneware with a salt glaze was eagerly sought after
throughout the 16th century, and imported in large quantities. These
stone pots were usually impressed with the arms of German towns; a rose
or other device in front, and a ferocious bearded visage under the
spout. They were derisively called bellarmines, after the celebrated
Cardinal Bellarmin, who in the 16th century made himself so conspicuous
by his zealous opposition to the Reformed religion.
These bellarmines were in general use throughout England in the 16th and
beginning of the 17th century at inns and public-houses for serving ale
to the customers. The importation of these stone pots was always
monopolised by the potters of Cologne, near which city they were made.
In the reign of Queen Elizabeth we find one William Simpson presenting a
memorial that he may be allowed to bring "the drinking stone pottes made
at Culloin" into this country, and requesting permission to make similar
stone pots in England; but he was not successful in his suit.
In 1626, however, two other potters, named Rous and Cullyn, merchants of
the city of London, obtained the exclusive privilege of making stone
pots and jugs in this country, and a patent was granted them for
fourteen years; the preamble states that "heretofore, and at this
present, our kingdom of England has been served with stone pottes, stone
jugges, and stone bottells, out of foreign parts, from beyond the seas."
STAFFORDSHIRE
When Dr. Plot wrote his natural history of this county in 1686 there
were very few manufactories of pottery; he only speaks of one at
Amblecott and another at Wednesbury; but he says: "The greatest pottery
they have in this country is carried on at Burslem, near
Newcastle-under-Lyme." The earthenware made here towards the end of the
17th century was of a very coarse character, and the decoration
extremely rude, consisting merely of patterns trailed over the surface
in coloured clay, technically termed _slip_, diluted to the consistence
of syrup, so that it could run out through a quill. The usual colours
of these slips were orange, white, and red, the orange forming the
ground and the white and red the paint. After the dishes had been thus
ornamented they were glazed with lead ore beaten into dust, finely
sifted, and strewed over the surface, which gave it the gloss but not
the colour. The vessels remained twenty-four hours in the kiln, and
were then drawn for sale, principally to poor cratemen, who hawked them
at their backs all over the country.
[Illustration: FIG. 234.--TYG. _With four handles. Dated_ 1621.]
[Illustration: FIG. 235.--MUG. _With two handles. Dated_ 1682.]
[Illustration: FIG. 236.--PLATEAU. _With Charles II. and his Queen, in
relief. By_ RALPH TOFT. 1677.]
The forms of these vessels were tygs or mugs, with two or more handles
for passing round a table, candlesticks, dishes, &c. The earliest names
found upon them are Thomas and Ralph Toft, William Talor, Joseph Glass;
all names still known in Staffordshire.
BURSLEM. The family of WEDGWOOD was of long standing at Burslem, and
many members of it were employed in making pottery long before the birth
of the great potter, Josiah Wedgwood. His father, grandfather, and
great-grandfather, as well as many of his other relations, were all
engaged in the trade. Josiah Wedgwood was born in 1730, at Burslem; he
was the youngest of thirteen children; his father, Thomas Wedgwood, died
when Josiah was only nine years old. His eldest brother, Thomas,
succeeded his father as a potter, and Josiah was bound apprentice to him
in 1744, after the expiration of which he left his brother's house to
make knife handles, imitation agate, and tortoiseshell small wares, at
Stoke. Here, in 1752, he entered into partnership with John Harrison,
which only lasted two years.
[Illustration: FIG. 237.--VASE. _Pale blue jasper, with subjects in
relief._]