the 18th century, at a factory founded by Gelz of Frankfort. The
manufactory ceased in 1794, but a potter named Dahl established one in
the vicinity. He made statuettes and other ornaments.
DRESDEN. A manufactory was established at Meissen, on the Elbe, about 12
miles from Dresden, by Augustus II., King of Poland and Elector of
Saxony, for the manufacture of hard paste, or true porcelain. The
experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706; to the
latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt
produced a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the
lapidary and gilt by the goldsmith. It was made from a kind of brown
clay found at Meissen. This red ware, made by Böttcher, was a fine
stoneware, having opacity, grain, and toughness.
[Illustration: FIG. 96.--BÖTTCHER COFFEE-POT.]
Another kind of pottery was made at the beginning of the 18th century,
in imitation of the Japanese; it was called the red pottery of Dresden.
TEINITZ (Bohemia). A manufactory was carried on in this small town in
the 18th century by a potter named Welby.
[Illustration: FIG 97.--PLATE.]
Fig. 97. A plate painted in bistre _camaïeu_ with the Discovery of
Calisto by Diana. It has an elegant border in grey, with richly gilt
designs, resembling the gilding of Vienna. Date about 1800.
FRANKENTHAL. Paul Hannong, driven from Strassburg in 1753, in
consequence of the Vincennes monopoly, founded a manufactory here in the
following year for hard paste porcelain; he also made great quantities
of fayence, usually decorated with flowers, as at Strassburg. It was
called "Poterie du Rhin."
ARNSTADT (Gotha). A factory was established here about the middle of the
18th century. A fayence jug, painted in blue _camaïeu_, with St. George
and the Dragon, coloured flowers on the sides, and a purple and green
check border, is in the British Museum.
KIEL was noted for its fayence about 1770; the factory was under the
direction of J. Buchwald, who had been master potter at Marieberg, 1761
to 1765; a few years after, probably in 1767 or 1768, he became director
of the Kiel manufactory. The paintings of landscapes and flowers in
colours are well finished.
[Illustration: FIG. 98.--BISHOP'S MITRE BOWL.]
HOLLAND AND LUXEMBURG
HOLLAND
Delft, a town between the Hague and Rotterdam, was celebrated for its
earthenware at a very early period. The exact date of its commencement
is not known, but there is a record of a certain Herman Pietersz, a
fayence maker, being married in 1584, consequently pottery was being
made in the town towards the end of the 16th century. At this period the
decorated Dutch pottery showed Italian influence in its design, and it
is recorded that a painter on pottery named Vroom studied his art in
Italy.
After the middle of the 17th century the industry increased rapidly, and
reached its greatest prosperity about 1680, when there were about thirty
different factories, and the ware was decorated by highly skilled
artists. No one was allowed to establish a factory unless he had
obtained a licence from the Guild of S{t}. Luc.
To this period belong famous potters, such as P. J. Van Kessel of "The
Metal Pot"; Abram de Kooge of "The Old Moor's Head," who decorated
landscapes in blue _camaïeu_; and Albrecht de Keizer, with his two
sons-in-law, Jacob and Adrian Pynaker, of "The Three Porcelain
Bottles," who were the first to imitate oriental porcelain. Other
potters of note at this time were the Eenhorns, father and two sons, the
Kleftyns, and the five Kams.
[Illustration: FIG. 99.--CRUCHE.]
By the middle of the 18th century, owing to the competition of English
pottery, the Delft industry was already on the wane. In 1780 the
factories were reduced to one half their former number, and by 1808 only
seven existed. All these gradually succumbed, and now only one factory,
"The Old Porcelain Bottle," remains.
[Illustration: FIG. 100.--TEAPOT.]
The forms of the Delft ware are very varied; among other curious efforts
the potters produced musical instruments. There are four fayence violins
extant, all painted in blue _camaïeu_, with figures in Dutch costume of
the 17th century, dancing and singing, musicians and kermess scenes, in
the manner of Gerard Lairesse, with cupids and Renaissance ornaments as
borders.
The decorated pieces of Ter Himpelen, although rarely signed, are much
prized; he painted fairs and marine subjects on square plaques, about
the year 1650. So also are those of Piet Viseer, a celebrated colourist,
who flourished about 1750; and of Van Domelaar, who painted Chinese
landscapes, &c., about 1580.
[Illustration: FIG. 101.--VASE.]
Fig. 99, a cruche, is painted in blue _camaïeu_, with a musical party,
in the costume of about 1670.
[Illustration: FIG. 102.--PLATE.]
Fig. 100, a teapot, is painted in polychrome with Chinese landscapes and
flowers on a black ground. It has the mark of Louwys Fictoor. Late 17th
or early 18th century.
Fig. 101, a vase, is painted in blue with flowers, in imitation of a
Chinese type. The mark of Ghisbrecht Lambrechtse Kruyk. Later half of
17th century.
Fig. 102, a plate painted with figures in blue, is one of a set of
twelve representing the tobacco industry.
UTRECHT. There was a manufactory of tiles here, founded in 1760; they
were decorated in blue or violet, _en camaïeu_, in imitation of Delft;
the manufactory was closed in 1855.
AMSTERDAM. A German Jew of Breslau, named Hartog, known as Hartog Van
Laun, and another, named Brandeis, established a manufactory of fayence
near the gate of Weesp, at Amsterdam. The ware is heavy, not very
artistic, and usually in blue _camaïeu_. Fig. 103, a fruit dish, is
painted in blue, with a man and woman seated.
[Illustration: FIG. 103.--DISH.]
OVERTOOM. A manufactory of fine fayence was established in 1754, in the
parish of Amstelveen, near Amsterdam; it lasted ten years. The Barons
Van Haeren and Van Palland were the proprietors, and Ariel Blankers was
the director. The fayence, though heavy, was of a fine white enamel and
of good forms; besides table and tea services, groups of birds, modelled
from nature, statuettes, &c., were made.
LUXEMBURG
An important _fabrique_ was established at Luxemburg by the brothers
Boch, in 1767, who had removed from Audun le Riche in France. They made
various descriptions of earthenware, as well as fine fayence, and
largely imitated the English Queen's ware.
RUSSIA AND SWEDEN
RUSSIA
ST. PETERSBURG. About the year 1700, Peter the Great, during his stay at
Saardam, induced some potters of Delft to emigrate to St. Petersburg,
where he established a manufactory. We have no information on the
subject, except a notice of it in the "_Connaissances Politiques_," of
Beausobre, published at Riga in 1773: "There is also among the porcelain
manufactories at St. Petersburg a _fabrique_ of fayence, on the other
side of the Neva, where they make every description of vessels of
correct design and in good taste. A private gentleman of Revel has also
established at his own cost, near this city, a _fabrique_ of fayence,
and has obtained painters and potters from Germany."
SWEDEN
RÖRSTRAND, a suburb of Stockholm, where a factory for earthenware was
established in 1726. The works were at first under the direction of Jean
Wolf. He was succeeded by C. C. Hünger. In 1772 they were managed by
Nordenstople, and later by Geyer.
[Illustration: FIG. 104.--BUTTERBOAT.]
[Illustration: MARIEBERG
FIG. 105.--VASE AND COVER.]
Fig. 104, a butterboat, leaf-shaped, is painted with flowers; dated
1771.
STOCKHOLM is the same manufactory as Rörstrand, but the mark was altered
when the latter town was united to the capital.
MARIEBERG, near Stockholm. The second Swedish pottery was established in
1750, on the expiration of the monopoly of Rörstrand, by M. Ehrenreich,
under the patronage of Count Scheffer, Councillor of State. The fayence
was something like Delft ware, and it was also ornamented with transfer
printing.
[Illustration: FIG. 106.--PLATE.]
Fig. 105, a vase and cover, is coloured in relief; date about 1770.
Fig. 106, a plate with pierced border, has a shield of arms and flowers;
dated 1768.
CONTINENTAL PORCELAIN
Porcelain has this distinguishing characteristic, that when held up to a
strong light it appears translucent, unlike fayence, which is perfectly
opaque. Its fracture is hard and white internally, like a broken piece
of alabaster.
Porcelain of soft paste has the appearance of an unctuous white enamel
like cream; it is also to the touch of a soft, warm, and soapy nature,
something like the surface of fine fayence. The _pâte tendre_ is also
soft in another sense, being unable to bear so great a degree of heat in
the furnace as hard porcelain. The soft paste may, therefore, be easily
cut or scratched with a steel point or a file, which would have no
effect upon the hard paste; it is consequently liable to become much
scratched by frequent use. The hard paste or true porcelain is of the
whiteness of milk; it feels to the touch of a hard and cold nature, and
is somewhat heavier than the soft; underneath the plates and other
pieces the rim or edge is left unpolished, or without glaze.
The painting upon porcelain is executed after the ware has been baked.
Whilst in a biscuit state, the piece to be painted is dipped into a
diluted glaze; it readily absorbs the water, leaving on the surface a
thin coating of components which quickly dries into a solid shell,
uniformly thick over all its parts, and sufficiently firm to bear
handling without being rubbed off during removal into the seggar or case
which protects it in the kiln.
The amateur must be upon his guard in collecting porcelain, and not
place too much reliance on the marks which he may find upon the ware.
When the mark is not indented on the paste, or baked with the porcelain
when at its greatest heat (_au grand feu_), it gives no guarantee of its
genuineness. The mark was nearly always affixed before glazing. It is
necessary in forming a correct judgment of the authenticity of a piece
of valuable china, such as Sèvres, that many things be taken into
consideration: First, above all it is most important to be satisfied
whether the porcelain be of hard or soft paste, and whether such
description of paste was made at the particular epoch represented by the
mark; then, if the decoration be in keeping with the style adopted at
the time indicated, the colours, the finish, and various other _indicia_
must also be taken into consideration.
ITALY
FLORENCE. The first successful attempt in Europe to imitate porcelain
was made at Florence as early as 1580, under the auspices of Francesco
I. de' Medici, but it was not so hard as that of China; that is to say,
it was not composed of _kaolin_ and _petuntse_, but was a soft paste and
_translucent_, which is one of the principal tests of porcelain. For
some reason, the manufacture of this porcelain was abandoned after the
death of the inventor.
[Illustration: FIG. 107.--CRUET.]
Fig. 107, a cruet for oil and vinegar, has scroll ornament in blue; on
either spout A and O (Aceto and Olio). About 1600.
Fig. 108, a bowl, is painted inside and out with blue flowers. About
1600.
[Illustration: FIG. 108.--BOWL.]
DOCCIA. The manufactory was founded in 1735 by the Marquis Carlo Ginori,
contemporaneously with the manufactory at Sèvres. About 1760 it rose to
great importance, and large groups were executed from the models of the
most celebrated sculptors. In 1821 the moulds of the Capo di Monte
porcelain were transferred to Doccia.
[Illustration: FIG. 109.--TEAPOT.]
About 1860 the fabrication of the imitative Capo di Monte ware of the
18th century, in coloured _mezzo-rilievo_, was brought to great
perfection, as well as the successful imitation of the maiolica of Xanto
and Maestro Giorgio of the 16th century, by the invention and
introduction of metallic lustres in the colouring.
[Illustration: FIG. 110.--BASIN.]
Fig. 109, a teapot, is painted with flowers and purple border.
Fig. 110, a basin, has a band of flowers in relief. Diameter 5-1/2 in.
NAPLES--CAPO DI MONTE. This manufactory was founded by Charles III. in
1736. It is considered of native origin, as the art, which was kept so
profound a secret in Dresden, could, at that early period, have scarcely
had time to be introduced here, and the character of its productions
are also essentially different. The king himself took great interest in
it, and is said to have worked occasionally in the manufactory. The
beautiful Capo di Monte services and groups in coloured relief are of
the second period, _circa_ 1760.
[Illustration: FIG. 111.--VASE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 112.--SAUCER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 113.--CUP AND SAUCER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 114.--COFFEE-POT.]
Fig. 111, a vase, has green ornaments, on gold ground, and medallions of
figures.
Fig. 112, a saucer, bears a portrait of Ferdinand IV. and legend.
Fig. 113, a cup and saucer, is painted with landscape and figures.
Fig. 114, a coffee-pot, has classical subjects.
TREVISO. There was a manufactory of soft porcelain probably established
towards the end of the 18th century, carried on by the brothers Giuseppe
and Andrea Fontebasso.
[Illustration: FIG. 115.--ÉCUELLE.]
Fig. 115, an écuelle, with blue ground, has gold fret borders and oval
medallions of Italian buildings, landscapes, and figures.
[Illustration: FIG. 116.--CUP AND SAUCER.]
Fig. 116, the cup is painted with a garden scene, with a man and woman
holding flowers, the former also holding a bird, the latter a cage.
TURIN--VINOVO. Vittorio Amedeo Gioanetti established a manufactory of
porcelain at Vinovo or Vineuf in 1770. Attempts in this direction had
been previously made, but they were unsuccessful, and it was not until
Gioanetti applied himself to the manufacture that it succeeded. The ware
was noted for its fine grain and the whiteness of its glaze, as well as
for the colours employed in its decoration.
[Illustration: FIG. 117.--ÉCUELLE.]
Fig. 117, an écuelle, is ornamented in gold, with initials and the Royal
Arms.
VENICE. Porcelain of soft paste was made here probably about 1720.
The "Casa eccellentissima Vezzi" was founded by Francesco Vezzi, a
goldsmith of Venice. He invested the sum of 30,000 ducats in a porcelain
company, amongst whose shareholders were Luca Mantovani and others. The
site of the Vezzi manufactory of porcelain was at S. Nicolo in Venice.
How long after Vezzi's death it was carried on does not appear, but
judging from the statements made to the Senate in 1765, it did not long
survive him, and the secret of his process for making porcelain had
evidently not been disclosed.
Materials for making porcelain were to be obtained in the Venetian
dominions, but not such as to produce the _hard_ or Oriental porcelain;
they were therefore procured from Saxony, as were probably also some of
the workmen, which will account for the fact that the "Casa
eccellentissima Vezzi" produced both _hard_ and _soft_ paste.
The pieces made at the Vezzi manufactory are painted with masquerades,
grotesque Chinese figures and decorations in relief, flowers, birds,
arabesques, and geometrical patterns and colours, statuettes, &c.,
especially in the Venetian red which pervades all the decorations, the
handles, borders, and mouldings being sometimes covered with silver or
platinum, producing the effect of oxidised metal mountings. Another
striking peculiarity in the decoration of porcelain of this period is a
border of black or coloured diaper work formed by crossed lines, having
in the interstices small gilt points or crosses bordered by scrolls.
These specimens are mostly of hard paste in the form of bowls, plates,
tureens, &c.
[Illustration: FIG. 118.--VASE AND COVER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 119.--VASE. _Cozzi period._ Height 17 in.]
A beautiful example of this porcelain is represented in Fig. 118, a vase
and cover of hard paste painted in lake _camaïeu_, heightened by gold,
with a continuous landscape; the peculiar border, noticed above, with
marks and interlaced bands, is shown on the cover; the edges, knob, and
flutings are raised and plated with silver or platinum.
After the Vezzi manufactory had ceased to exist we have no documents to
prove that any efforts were made to introduce the manufacture of
porcelain into Venice until December 1757, when a petition was presented
to the Venetian College by Frederick Hewelcke & Co., who stated that the
sale introduced and directed by them in Dresden of Saxon porcelain had
been carried on in a very flourishing manner, but that in consequence of
the then existing war (the Seven Years' War, which commenced in 1756),
they had been obliged to abandon Saxony and to seek refuge in a foreign
country.
On the 18th of March 1758, a decree granted to the Hewelckes the
privileges they had requested. It seems that the undertaking proved
eventually to be unfortunate, and at the termination of that war, which
had brought them to Venice, they returned to their native country.
In 1765, the Senate granted to Giminiano Cozzi, in the Contrada di San
Giobbe, Venice, protection and pecuniary assistance in carrying out a
manufacture of porcelain. Cozzi's first efforts were directed towards
the imitation of the Oriental ware; and a very large trade was carried
on by him for nearly fifty years. He produced statuettes in biscuit, in
glazed white porcelain, and coloured groups, vases, &c. The gilding on
Cozzi's porcelain is especially fine, the pure gold of the sequin having
been used in its decoration.
The manufactory ceased to exist in 1812.
NOVE. The manufacture of porcelain at Nove may be traced back as far as
the 12th January 1752, when Pasqual Antonibon brought from Dresden a
certain Sigismund Fischer to construct a furnace for making porcelain in
the Saxon style.
From this time forward he continued his experiments, and must have made
great progress in the art, for in February 1761 he had three furnaces,
of which one was for Saxon (_ad uso di Sassonia_), the other two for
French porcelain (_ad uso di Francia_).
In 1762, Antonibon submitted specimens of his porcelain to the Board of
Trade, and petitioned that the patent rights which had been conceded to
Hewelcke should be extended to him. At that time, the report states,
Antonibon had at Nove a manufactory, rich in buildings, machinery, and
tools. The capital embarked in it was estimated at 80,000 ducats, and so
great was the sale of his products that he gave employment to 150 men
and their families, in addition to 100 people employed in his retail
business, carried on at his three shops in Venice. This extensive
manufactory was, however, principally for maiolica.
[Illustration: FIG. 120.--JARDINIÈRE. _By_ ANTONIBON.]
On the 7th April 1763, a decree was made in his favour; and he appears
to have set earnestly to work in his manufacture of porcelain. His
competitor, Hewelcke, shortly after deserted Venice; but he had a more
formidable rival in Giminiano Cozzi, who obtained a decree for making
porcelain in 1765, in which Pasqual Antonibon's manufacture is noticed,
the Senate declaring it to be the duty of the magistrate to make such
arrangements as would lead to an amicable understanding between the
rival manufacturers and their workmen.
[Illustration: FIG. 121.--VASE.]
Pasqual Antonibon and his son Giovanni Battista continued the
fabrication of porcelain until the 6th February 1781, when they entered
into partnership with Signor Parolini. The same manufacture, _con sommo
onore dell'arte_, was continued by them until the 6th February 1802,
when it was leased to Giovanni Baroni, who produced some very charming
pieces both in form and decoration; but in a few years, from being badly
conducted, it began to fall off, and by degrees it went to decay and was
abandoned. The "Fabbrica Baroni," however, lingered on for more than
twenty years.
[Illustration: FIG. 122.--VASE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 123.--MILK-POT.]
An example of the Baroni _fabrique_, in porcelain, with female figure
handles, and painted with classical subjects, is given. (See Fig. 121.)
On 21st May 1825, the old firm of "Pasqual Antonibon and Sons" resumed
the works, the actual proprietors being Gio. Batt. Antonibon and his son
Francesco; they continued the manufacture of porcelain until 1835, but
all their efforts to sustain it were ineffectual; they could not compete
with the porcelain manufactories of France and Germany, so they were
compelled to abandon the factory.
SPAIN
MADRID--BUEN RETIRO. This manufactory (_Soft Paste_), called "_La
China_," was founded by Charles III. in 1759, in the gardens attached to
his palace, EL BUEN RETIRO, at Madrid. It was organised by workmen whom
he brought with him from Naples. The early ware produced here
consequently resembles that of Capo di Monte.
[Illustration: FIG. 124.--GROUP.]
The royal manufactory was taken possession of by the French, and the
place converted into a fortification, which surrendered in 1812 to the
Duke of Wellington. It was subsequently blown up by Lord Hill when the
misconduct or perfidy of Ballasteros compelled him to evacuate Madrid.
[Illustration: FIG. 125.--VASE. Height 22 in.]
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--VASE. _With scenes from_ "Don Quixote." Height
17 in.]
Ferdinand VII., on his restoration, recreated _La China_, at La Mancha,
once a villa of the Alva family on the Manzanares; but this factory
also has ceased to exist, at least as regards artistic merit.
ALCORA. The Comte de Laborde, in his _View of Spain_, in 1808, says, "On
ne fait de Porcelaine (en Espagne) qu'à Alcora et à Madrid: celle
d'Alcora est très commune, on en fait très peu." In confirmation of this
assertion M. Chas. Davillier, on a visit to Spain, saw an engraving of a
furnace for baking porcelain with this inscription: "Modele de four pour
la porselene naturele, fait par Haly pour M. le Comte d'Aranda Alcora,
29 Juin 1756." The works are also noticed by Don Antonio Ponz, _Viaje de
España_, in 1793.
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--PLAQUE.]
GERMANY
DRESDEN. The celebrated porcelain manufactory at Dresden, or rather at
Meissen (in its vicinity), was established by Augustus II., Elector of
Saxony, for the manufacture of true porcelain, that is, hard paste. The
experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706, and to the
latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt was
a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the lapidary, and
ornamented by gilding; it was a fine stoneware, having the opacity,
grain, and toughness of pottery. Later, Böttcher succeeded in
discovering the mode of making true porcelain by the accidental
detection of the kaolin necessary for the purpose. In consequence of
this important discovery, Augustus II. established the great manufactory
at Meissen, of which Böttcher was appointed Director in 1710, and about
1715 he succeeded in making a fine white porcelain. The first
decorations upon this ware were very imperfect, consisting of a blue
colour under the glaze, in imitation of Nankin blue porcelain. It was
under Horoldt's direction, in 1720, that paintings of a superior
character, accompanied by gilding, and medallions of Chinese figures
were introduced, and magnificent services completed. In 1731, Kändler,
a sculptor, superintended the modelling of animals, groups, vases, &c.,
while other artists painted birds, insects, and copies of paintings
principally of the Flemish school. The best productions emanated from
the Dresden manufactory from 1731 to 1756.
[Illustration: FIG. 128.--VASE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 129.--SUCRIER, CUP AND SAUCER. _Etched by_ BUSCH.]
[Illustration: FIG. 130.--CUP AND SAUCER. _Of the Marcolini period, with
gros bleu ground._]