a smaller production in Turkestan, Greece, the Caucasus, Afghanistan,
and Baluchistan. With few exceptions, the finer rugs come from Persia.
Small rugs, woven primarily for individual or family use, are made
throughout the rug-weaving countries. Small rugs made primarily for
export, and the larger room-size rugs, usually called carpets, are
woven chiefly in a few great production districts of the four countries
first named.
In all oriental rugs the pile is knotted by hand, and in most weaves
the wool is also scoured, carded, spun, and dyed by hand. Aniline dyes
are used in many of the cheaper rugs--particularly in those woven
outside of Persia--and either a superior quality of chemical dyes or
the old vegetable dyes in the better rugs. All rugs except the poorest
and cheapest are fast in color, unless they have been "painted."
Most oriental rugs are carefully made of good wool, and their
durability under reasonable conditions of service is guaranteed by
responsible dealers. The widespread notion that any oriental rug,
however cheap and however abused in service, will wear indefinitely is
of course absurd. Rugs are made of wool, not of concrete. Even in the
Orient they wear out in time, notwithstanding the fact that they are
not touched by heavy shoes. In the matter of durability oriental rugs
have no inherent advantage over domestics. Everything depends upon the
choice of wools and skill in handling.
The term "antique" is applied by collectors to pieces 100 years or more
in age. Few such rugs are now in the hands of dealers.
Prices are based on the age or rarity of the individual specimen rather
than on intrinsic excellence, as is the case with antique furniture or
rare books. Only the expert is competent to recognize an antique rug or
to judge of its quality or value.
Many rug merchants, department stores, and furniture stores advertise
and sell as antiques any unwashed rugs which have been more or less
aged and softened by use in the Orient, and which conform measurably
in technique and character of design to antique standards. It is also
a common practice to sell as antiques purely modern unwashed pieces
reproduced in the old designs, particularly if such pieces have been
aged artificially by some such method as exposure to bazaar traffic for
a few weeks or months. Both practices are discountenanced by dealers
of the highest standing, who apply to rugs of these kinds the term
"semi-antique."
_"Washing" and "Painting" of orientals._--Oriental rugs are usually
woven in relatively bright, strong colors. In order to soften these
colors to a point where they can be used effectively in the decoration
of modern American homes, most rugs upon arrival in this country
are given a treatment known to the trade as "washing" before they
are offered for sale. (This is the same treatment given to "sheen
type" domestics.) The mild reagents employed soften all the colors
of good rugs without bleaching them or impairing their fastness to
light. Poor wool is sometimes injured, and poor dyes bleached by the
washing process; but the statement frequently encountered in books and
magazines that any washed rug is undesirable is utter nonsense. The
fact is, that, genuine antique rugs aside, most of the fine oriental
rugs in this country are washed rugs, and innumerable fine homes use
them. The high luster imparted to the wool as a part of the washing
process is not permanent, and tends to disappear under the hard service
requirements of small American homes.
Many rugs are retouched with dyestuffs, or "painted," after they have
been washed; that is, parts of the design are treated with dyes applied
with the brush by hand in order to alter certain colors, usually by
deepening their tone. The dyes cannot be boiled into the wool or
"fixed," and will fade under strong light.
_Most oriental rug names do not show quality._--The name borne by an
oriental rug ordinarily indicates the city or district of its origin,
and throws little or no light on the excellence of the individual
specimen. There is a widespread but totally erroneous idea that all
rugs having the same name are alike in quality. The fact is that except
for a few Turkish, Indian, and Chinese weaves, oriental rugs are not
standardized, and that two Kerman rugs, for example, may differ as
widely in quality as two Detroit automobiles. In buying oriental rugs,
as in most other commodities, the consumer gets only that which he pays
for.
Other things being equal, the cost of a rug per square foot increases
directly with fineness of knotting. Other variable factors include
the character of the wool and dyes; artistic and technical skill of
designer and weaver; local conditions in the production district; and
the interplay of supply and demand in the American wholesale market.
EUROPEAN HAND-KNOTTED PILE CARPETS
Carpet weaving was introduced to Europe by the Moors after their
conquest of Granada, and established in Holland in the sixteenth
century, and at Wilton and Axminster in England, and Paris in France,
in the seventeenth century. Machine-spun yarns are now used in making
these fabrics, but aside from this the processes are essentially
the same as those employed in the Orient. Pile carpets are made in
commercial quantities in Great Britain, Holland, Germany, France,
and Spain and can be produced in any desired size, shape, pattern,
coloring, or height of pile. Qualities vary widely in wool, knotting,
and weavers' skill, and sell in the United States for anywhere from $20
to $200 or more per square yard. The time required for delivery varies
from 3 to 12 months or more, depending upon size, character of design,
and fineness of knotting.
Spanish rugs, like many of those made in China, are often embossed or
chiseled, in order to add interest to the texture and to soften the
relationship of strong juxtaposed colors.
FLOOR TAPESTRIES
See discussion of tapestries, under "Drapery and Upholstery Fabrics,"
page 155.
CHENILLE CARPETS AND RUGS[22]
As applied to floor coverings the term chenille (from the French
_chenille_, a fuzzy worm, or caterpillar) designates a power-loom
fabric capable of producing rugs in any desired size, shape, design,
or coloring. This makes it the most practical weave for special order
work. This technique, which is completely different from that used in
the production of Wilton or Axminster carpetings, was developed in
Great Britain during the first half of the nineteenth century, and
until a comparatively recent date the great bulk of the chenille rugs
used in this country was imported. Under pressure of war conditions a
large number of looms were set up here in 1915 and 1916, and we are
now the leading manufacturers of practically all grades of chenille
carpetings.
Chenilles without seams can be made here in any width up to 30 feet,
and in any length or shape. There are many qualities, varying in
character and quantity of wool, fineness of tufting, and height of
pile, which may be anywhere from ¼ to 1 inch or more. In hand-tufted
carpets the character of the design makes little difference in
production costs, and the only limitations on the pattern are those
imposed by fineness of knotting. In chenille, on the contrary,
production cost increases rapidly with increasing intricacy of design,
so that the square yard price for any given quality might be half again
as much, or even two or three times as much, for a rug of elaborate
design as for a plain rug of the same size. Special order rugs require
from 1 to 5 months for delivery, according to size and character of
design.
WILTON CARPETINGS AND RUGS[23]
Wiltons are woven of either worsted or woolen yarns on a jacquard
Wilton loom. The essential facts concerning this weave from the
consumer's viewpoint are: _(a)_ the jacquard device makes possible the
production of patterns revealing very intricate and perfectly clean
detail, equal to that found in fine Persian carpets. _(b)_ The pile
is erect, with maximum wear at the point of maximum resistance, thus
ensuring great durability. _(c)_ Beneath the pile there is an elastic
cushion of firm yarns, which adds greatly to the durability of the
fabric. This cushion results from the unique Wilton technique, which
carries from three to six differently colored yarns between each pair
of warp threads throughout the entire length of the carpet, bringing
one only to the surface for each tuft, while the others remain in the
back.
All carpets of this weave are by no means equal in quality, durability,
and value. In fact, Wiltons vary widely in all respects save that of
the type of loom on which they are woven. They differ in the cost,
fineness, manner of blending, and spinning, and in quantity of wool,
which is the physical basis of excellence; in the use of worsted and
woolen yarns; in height of pile; and in the number of points or tufts,
per square inch (ranging from about 60 to 128 points per square inch);
in quality and cost of dyestuffs; in perfection of finish; and in
rigidity of inspection standards.
Customers cannot be stirred to enthusiasm by such statements as that
a given rug is a 2-sheet, 131-2 pick, 256 pitch, 6-frame Wilton. Many
women can, however, be interested in a picture of a harnessed loom at
work, with a brief explanation, or caught by casual mention of the fact
that in the standard 5-frame Wiltons there are 1,280 separate worsted
yarns in the 27-inch width, and 5,120 in a 9-foot seamless rug. Most
women are interested in the sources and treatment of wools, care in
dyeing, weaving, and inspection.
BODY BRUSSELS CARPETS AND RUGS
The body Brussels was an immensely popular weave from the invention
of the power loom to the beginning of the present century. Its sale
is now only slight although we may see a come-back of the Brussels in
streamlined texture effects. It is woven of worsted yarns only, on
the same kind of loom as the Wilton, and with substantially the same
structure. They differ in that the pile loops of the Brussels carpet
are not cut. They are woven with three, four, or five frames of worsted
yarns, their cost and value depending upon the number of frames, number
of loops or points per square inch, quality of wool, and certain other
technical variants. They are not produced on broad looms.
AXMINSTER CARPETS AND RUGS
Axminster rugs are in great demand in this country because of the
unlimited possibilities of pattern and coloring. An additional
feature is their moderate price which is a result of mass production
techniques. This quality offers the consumer a seamless rug up to 18
feet wide.
The Axminster weave is produced by an ingenious process which beggars
description but is explained and illustrated in the Britannica and
other standard works on carpet manufacture. The technique permits
production of rugs with a great variety of color effects in each
pattern. The tufts, in the Axminster, are mechanically inserted in
the fabric and bound down into the back, essentially in the manner
of oriental rugs, except that the entire process is one of machine
technique instead of the customary oriental hand-knotting. None of the
yarn is buried in the back of the fabric, as it is in the Wilton weave,
other than that which is required for attachment. Yarn preparation for
Axminster weaving is a long process involving weeks of work, while
actual weaving time requires but one-tenth of the entire time of
manufacturing.
The commercial qualities of Axminster vary widely in wool, type of
yarn, number of tufts per square inch, and height of pile.
TAPESTRY BRUSSELS, VELVETS, AND WILTON VELVETS
Tapestry Brussels have a looped pile like that of body Brussels and are
woven of worsted yarns; Wilton velvets are also made of worsted yarns,
and have a close upright pile resembling Wilton. Velvets (formerly
called tapestry velvets), have a short upright pile and are made of
woolen yarns. These weaves, which are not yarn-dyed, are made both by
the drum printing and the roller printing methods.
In _drum printing_, the yarn is wound on a huge drum; the color applied
by means of a carriage and color roller in narrow lines; the yarn
removed and steamed to fix the color; the separate yarns wound on
bobbins and then "set" in such a way that when fed into the loom over
the wires that form the pile loops each line of color comes up where
it is required to form the pattern. This technique is economical of
wool, but naturally is incapable of yielding the definite exactness of
pattern produced by the other weaves.
In _roller printing_ the carpet is first woven in white, and then
printed on rollers by a process substantially like that of a perfecting
press printing a newspaper in color.
_Broadloom carpetings._--Any carpet woven on a wide loom. The term is
applied particularly to Wiltons, Axminsters, and plain chenilles.
_"Sheen-type" rugs; also known as American orientals._--Any
machine-made pile rug which has been chemically washed to soften the
colors and give it sheen and luster; made in the Wilton, Axminster and
chenille weaves.
LINOLEUM
Because of consistent and attractive advertising by manufacturers,
the quality and desirability of linoleum and felt-base floor covering
are now taken for granted by consumers, and these floor coverings,
once regarded purely as a utility product, are sold chiefly on the
basis of their decorative appeal. In order to be well informed on
their construction you must get the facts from the manufacturers whose
products you handle, as both the materials and processes employed have
been somewhat widely changed in recent years.
The old method of making linoleum involved the production of solidified
linseed oil and its reduction by heat and the admixture of resinous
gums to a rubberlike mass known as cement, which was then ground up
with cork dust, wood flour, whiting, and pigment to form the "linoleum
material." In plain and printed linoleums this material was then
calendered on the canvas by heavy heated rollers and seasoned in
the drying rooms from 2 to 60 days in temperatures of from 90° to
170°. Granites, jaspes, and cork carpets were made by almost the same
process. In making inlays the colored linoleum materials were formed
into patterns by one of several hand or machine processes.
In recent years progress has been made toward the partial substitution
of linseed oil by a nitrocellulose base in the preparation of
the cement. In addition, much linoleum now has a surface coat of
nitrocellulose composition, which gives it a glossy surface practically
non-markable and highly resistant to strong soaps and soda.
Felt-base floor covering has a printed pattern on a base of felt
impregnated with a base of bituminous composition.
CARE OF LINOLEUM
Most linoleum used in homes is manufactured with a lustrous surface
which can be maintained with little effort.
_Washing._--The basis of all linoleum maintenance is the same--a
thorough cleaning with a mild soap, followed by waxing. Soaps which
contain excessive alkali destroy the linseed oil content of linoleum.
Cleaning compounds of the type ordinarily used for scouring porcelain
sinks and tubs, contain abrasive material and are not suitable for use
on linoleum, because they scratch the surface of the material. These
slight scratches soon fill with dirt and make subsequent cleaning more
difficult; also, they shorten the life of the linoleum. Be sure that
only pure soaps are used and wash with lukewarm water. Use very little
water and remove all traces of the soap. The floor should then be
allowed to dry thoroughly.
_Waxing._--After the floor is cleaned and dried, apply a very thin coat
of liquid or paste wax manufactured for the purpose of maintaining
linoleum.
FIBERS AND RELATED RUG TYPES
The striking improvements in weave, in colors and in styling made
within the past few years have brought a new conception of the uses
to which fiber and related rugs may be put appropriately. Originally
thought of primarily as summer rugs, and then principally for porch
use, today these rugs enjoy a greatly increased use.
_Process of manufacture._--The materials employed and the processes of
production in the making of fiber, grass, and other rugs of this type
are so different that they deserve special mention and description.
They are known as flat-weave fabrics to differentiate them from the
pile fabric rugs.
_Fiber rugs._--When a new type of yarn made from wood fibers became
available as a filler to take the place of wire grass, it widely
increased the range of utility and beauty in this type of floor
covering.
[Illustration:
Courtesy Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y.
Figure 35.--The striking improvements in weave, in colors, and in
styling made within the past few years have brought a new conception of
the uses to which fibers and related rugs may be put.]
Wood fiber is made from fir or white spruce in great paper mills,
where the logs are first reduced to pulp, then made into an extremely
tough and continuous roll of a special type of kraft paper designed
for twisting. These great rolls of kraft are cut into long strips of
varying widths, then tightly twisted into strands of twine or yarn, the
size of the strands depending upon _(a)_ the width of the strips and
_(b)_ the tightness of the twist.
The better grades of fiber yarns are extremely tough and long wearing,
giving the finished rug a tough, long-wearing surface. Also they are
finer than the grass fibers, giving a thinner, less heavy feel, but
increasing the cost because of the additional labor involved and the
increased number of picks. Three basic weaves are used to give variety:
_The basket weave._--In this 2-, 3-, and 4-weft or filler, yarns are
shuttled across the loom between each raising and lowering of the warp.
This produces a weave resembling the broad, flat weave of a market
basket.
_The twill weave._--More complicated because it requires additional
loom equipment or "harnesses." While the basket weave requires only two
such "harnesses" (one to go up while the other goes down) in twill,
the addition of more "harnesses," and chains to operate them, produces
interesting variations. In the twill weave, three harnesses are used.
Each warp strand passes over two filler strands and under the next two,
producing a diagonal, ribbed effect, giving a heavier feel to the rug,
and resulting in maximum yardage.
_Jacquard weave._--This type requires a different loom, equipped with
the jacquard mechanism described in connection with the Wilton process,
but constructed to carry the much heavier fiber yarns. In this process
each warp yarn has its own "harness" which is raised and lowered by the
operation of the cards, punched like the rolls of a player piano, to
produce the desired pattern. (See fig. 35.)
Color is introduced into fiber rugs both in the kraft as it is made,
and by stenciling.
The ingenious use of contrasting fibers, such as sisal, cellophane, and
fibers varying in color from dark to light and back again, are often
employed to develop interesting weaves and patterns.
_Wool fiber types._--Still another variation is achieved by combining
wool yarns with fiber. This type is woven with fiber warp tightly
bound together with a cotton warp that appears on the surface. Filler
yarns are of alternating fiber and wool carpet yarns, so woven that
the fabric is reversible. Pattern is achieved by the coloring of the
yarns and by stenciling. The amount of wool varies to secure the result
desired. It gives to the fabric a softer feel underfoot.
Wide ranges of colors, weaves, and patterns are now available in
fiber rugs to meet all decorative needs. For custom, room-size rugs
larger than 9 × 12, many of the most popular patterns are offered in
broadlooms, in widths up to 12 feet.
_Grass rugs._--Only in three localities in the world is produced the
grass from which these useful rugs are constructed. It is the wire-like
grass which grows wild in the marshes which dot the great prairies in
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the vicinity of Winnipeg, Canada. It grows
to a height of 2 feet without a joint, and in the spring is covered
with water which gives it the waterproof characteristic. When dry it is
cut and, after curing, bound into continuous strands.
Grass rugs employ the simplest of all weaves, the "over-and-under,"
the warp yarns being raised and lowered alternately as the weft or
grass yarns are shot across the loom in the shuttle, to bind the fabric
together.
Design usually is applied upon one side of grass rugs by painting by
hand or sprays, through stencils, although introduction of different
colored warp yarns achieve interesting pattern effects. The natural
color of the grass is always a part of the design. Most rugs then are
varnished to brighten colors and preserve the surface. The better
qualities are bound on four sides. Grass rugs are reversible, usually
plain on one side, patterned on the other.
_Sisal rugs._--From Yucatan, Central America, and the West Indies comes
a tough, heavy, long-wearing fiber called sisal. Its largest use is
in the making of twine and rope, but its great durability makes it an
important fiber for floor coverings.
Sisal fiber is derived from the leaf of a plant, much as linen is
made from the stem of the flax plant. Fibers remain after the pulp of
the leaf is pressed out. They are twisted into strands of the desired
thickness, then woven into floor coverings, as are the fiber rugs.
Colors are introduced by dyeing the strands, by stenciling the woven
fabric, or both.
Sisal fiber is often used with other fibers to widen the range of color
and utility.
_Varied uses._--While the different types of grass and fiber rugs
developed out of a demand for cool, colorful floor coverings that
primarily could be used during the summer, their usefulness has been
greatly widened as new methods evolved and new materials became
available. They now comprise an essential part of every well-rounded
showing of floor coverings. Their wide acceptance is an illustration
of the way in which new types of fabrics are developed to meet new
conditions. Insofar as their basic materials differ, the care of
fiber rugs differs from those of other fabrics, as set forth in the
discussion "Proper Care of Floor Coverings," page 169.
PROPER CARE OF FLOOR COVERINGS[24]
Frequent cleaning prevents the dirt from accumulating in the surface
of pile fabrics. Unless it is removed, fine particles of grit become
buried at the base of the pile. Sharp edges of this grit, grinding
against the pile as the rug or carpet is walked upon, tend to sever the
wool fibers. Cleanliness becomes the most important factor in care.
Use of a vacuum cleaner is recommended for cleaning, both of new and
old fabrics. Surface dirt may be removed daily with a carpet sweeper or
soft-bristled broom, the former being preferred. After cleaning, the
nap should be gently brushed so that the pile is all left lying in the
same direction. Vigorous beating or shaking of rugs or carpets tends
to loosen the pile tufts, and is condemned. Small rugs should never by
cleaned by "snapping" them as this causes threads to break.
The bulletin of the Institute of Carpet Manufacturers states:
Under no consideration should an attempt be made to shampoo a rug
or carpet while on the floor. There is no shampoo method or device
which, while the carpet is on the floor, adequately cleans the
fabric to the base of the pile or effectively removes the soap and
detergent material. This residual soap and detergent material cause
rapid resoiling, development of crushed appearance, and may cause
the development of rancid odor or a gradual color change in the
dyestuff.
_Axminster, chenilles, velvets, and Wiltons._--These should not be
swept hard at first and never against the nap. Sheared when finished,
a little light woof or loose wool will come out for a time. Long ends
should be cut even with the surface of the rug and never pulled out.
Unequal crushing of the surface will produce light and dark patches on
any cut-pile rug. Application of a hot iron on a damp cloth will allow
pile to be brushed to normal position.