firmly established. Rooms of the period were paneled in oak with
small rectangular panels, plain or carved, and usually carried to the
ceiling; ceilings in ornamental plaster (parge), or in beamed-wood or
open-timber construction; and windows large, with leaded casements
separated by mullion. Most important rooms had oak-plank flooring;
there was considerable use of oriental rugs, then known as "Turkey
carpets." Many rooms still had dirt floors strewn with rushes, which
were changed but twice a year, with such results that the Englishman of
the period called his floor the "marsh," and kept his feet off it when
possible by use of chairs and tables with low, solid stretchers.
Oak was the dominant furniture wood, with some use of elm, beech, yew,
pine, and Scotch fir, which was called "deal," and valued highly.
Carving, mouldings, and paneling were used for ornament, with marquetry
for panels in walnut, ebony, rosewood, pear wood, cherry, yew, and
holly.
Furniture was massive, architectural in character, straight-lined, and
rectangular.
The beds, which were used only by the great, were the most important
article of furniture. They were of great size with a high headboard
supporting a very heavy cornice, the other end of which was borne by
posts set at the lower corners and often detached from the bottom of
the bed.
The Jacobean Style (1625-1685).
This style evolved directly from the Elizabethan, with the development
of new forms of furniture and increased use of upholstery. When, at the
Restoration in 1660, Charles II returned from France, he brought back
something of the French taste and the French desire for luxury.
[Illustration:
_Draw-top Table_
Elizabethan
_Armchair_
Elizabethan
_Armchair_
Late Jacobean
_Chair_
Late Jacobean
_Gate-leg Table_
Jacobean
Figure 11.--English styles (1560-1690).]
Oak remained the principal furniture wood, with walnut fashionable
after 1660. Furniture design, strongly influenced by Flemish practice,
tended to increasing slenderness and grace. The melon and acorn bulb
legs remained in favor for several decades; were superseded during the
Commonwealth by spiral turning; and in turn gave way to the scroll, or
Flemish legs characteristic of Charles II furniture. Chair backs became
high and narrow, and were of the ladder type or caned, carved, or
upholstered. Chair backs were raked, and later in the period the back
legs of chairs--at first perpendicular to the floor as in Elizabethan
practice, were bent outward to counterbalance the rake of the back.
Stretchers continued to follow frame line, but were gradually made
lighter, set a little higher, and turned. Toward the end of the century
the front stretching was raised, widened, and carved with a cresting
and ~C~-scrolls, as were many of the chair backs.
_Gate-leg tables_ and _day beds_ appeared early in the period--the
latter usually caned, and with a sloping head and without footboard or
back. The _couch_ took the place of the settee, and was made first with
the squab seat, and after the Restoration with the same construction
and ornament as the arm chair. _Sofas_ were made like the high-back
upholstered chairs, with arms solidly upholstered. _Tall clocks_ and
_wall clocks_ appeared, and many _small stands_.
The Style of William and Mary (1689-1702).
James II, last of the Stuart kings of England, was followed by the
Dutchman William of Orange and his wife Mary. These names stand for a
rich but confused style which marks the transition between Old English
practice and the Dutch style, fully developed a few years later in the
reign of Queen Anne. Architectural backgrounds were lighter and richer,
and the walls were often covered with velvets, damasks, and brocades in
large baroque patterns, or with papers in Chinese designs.
Walnut was the fashionable wood, but oak, elm, pine, chestnut,
pearwood, cedar, and painted beech were used, with marquetry of many
woods, plus bone and ivory. Furniture was rectangular in outline, with
a free use of curves. Carving was used for the legs and backs of many
chairs, but flat panels were embellished with veneers, marquetry, and
lacquer. Furniture legs were mostly turned, of trumpet shape and with
bun feet, though the Dutch cabriole legs, with pad feet and a single
shell carved on the knees, were not uncommon.
William and Mary brought from Holland the vogue for Chinese ornament.
Everyone collected porcelain and drank tea; new types of cabinets,
small chairs, and occasional tables appeared in profusion.
The Style of Queen Anne (1702-14).
The style of Queen Anne persisted, with unimportant changes, throughout
the reign of George I. It was less magnificent and impressive than
preceding styles, but lighter, more graceful, and more comfortable.
The walls were often paneled, but in deal rather than oak, either in
the natural color or painted, and panels were frequently embellished
with high-relief carving. For un-paneled walls, cheap printed cotton
fabrics largely replaced the sumptuous materials of the previous
style, while many walls were covered with wallpapers in landscape
or mythological subjects, or in imitation of veined marble or wood
wainscots. Ceilings were painted as in the Stuart period. Windows were
increased in size, and hung with figured velvets, satins, damasks, and
chintzes.
Lacquer continued to be vogue, and was used on _cabinets_, _screens_,
_occasional tables_, and _chairs_. Carving and painting--in black and
gold, red, blue, and green with gilding--were favorite methods of
embellishment. Caning was common. For upholstery needlepoint, figured
and plain velvet, and damask were chiefly employed.
In this style curved lines supplanted straight lines for the first
time in England. Cabriole legs were almost universal; chair backs
were high and narrow, with open framing and a fiddle splat, usually
plain but sometimes simply carved or pierced. Chair-back crests and
the legs of most furniture were ornamented with a carved shell which
reached England from Italy by way of Holland. High curved stretchers,
connecting front and back legs only and tied at the middle by a single
cross stretcher, were in general use but sometimes omitted.
The _love seat_ became an important piece of furniture at this
time, and was usually made with a double chair back, six legs, and
upholstered seat. _Dining tables_ were of the _gate-leg_ type, usually
of elliptical shape. _Tallboys_ became common, and contained from six
to nine drawers.
The Georgian Era.
Georgian England produced the decorative style created by Robert Adam,
and the individual furniture styles of Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and
Sheraton.
EARLY GEORGIAN FURNITURE
The development of English furniture between 1715 and 1727 is of little
interest save to the expert. The period was a time of lowered taste.
Mahogany, introduced from the West Indies as a curiosity about 1710,
became within two or three decades the dominant cabinet wood.
THE CHIPPENDALE FURNITURE STYLE
There were three Chippendales, all cabinetmakers. The second, Thomas
Chippendale (born 1710; died 1779), came to London with his father in
1727 to open a shop. By 1735 the firm was prospering, and 15 years
later Thomas Chippendale was a great success. As is usual with men of
genius, however, he was undervalued by his contemporaries; and it was
not until a hundred years later that he came to be recognized as the
greatest furniture designer of his race.
[Illustration:
_Settee_
William and Mary
_Armchair_
Chippendale
_Chair_
Late Queen Anne
_Armchair_
Chippendale
_Wing Chair_
Queen Anne
_Armchair_
Chippendale
_Cabinet_
William and Mary
Figure 12.--English styles (1690-1760).]
Chippendale served the world of fashion, observed and followed style
trends closely, and successively developed the Dutch, Rococo, Chinese,
and Gothic styles. He lost popular favor when the classic revival, led
by Robert Adam, became the dominating influence about 1762, and much of
his time thereafter was spent in executing work for Adam, who designed
furniture for houses but did not make it. Taking the period from 1727
to 1765, Chippendale's career as a designer took the following course:
1725 Dutch mode, with early Georgian heaviness. The chairs had
bandy legs, ball and claw feet, broad seats and fiddle backs,
carved and sometimes pierced. Gradually the proportions were
refined, a shorter and squarer back with rounded corners was
developed, and the splat was replaced by a richly carved member.
1735 Dutch influence yields and blends with the French styles of
the Regency and Louis XV, resulting in more slender and graceful
proportions and a free use of Rococo ornament.
1745 French influence predominant, with floral and Chinese lattice
detail gradually introduced and the Chinese influence growing
stronger. Lightness of effect sought after, and achieved by means
of pierced work.
1755 Chinese influence stronger, waning after 1760. Between 1750
and 1760 he developed the Gothic style, sometimes blending it
with Chinese motives.
For ornament Chippendale used mahogany and depended upon carving,
of which he was a great master, set off by gilding, japanning, and
lacquer. He made furniture for every purpose, including _mirror_ and
_picture frames_, _girandoles_, _pier tables_ and _brackets_, and
_china shelves_ and _cabinets_ (see fig. 3.) Doubtless his _chairs_ are
his most significant creations. His chair backs fall into three classes:
1. "Splat" or upright center bar, passing from plaint splat to
jar shape pierced and carved with scrolls and foliage, and
culminating in the elaborate ribbon back.
2. "All-over" patterns, covering in equal fashion the whole of the
back, and characteristic of his Chinese and Gothic designs.
3. Ladder-back or horizontal rails.
Chippendale made a free use of colorful textiles for both squab seat
and upholstered pieces, employing tapestries, worsted damask, Spanish
tooled leather, and close-stitch embroidery.
THE ADAM STYLE
The classic revival, discussed under the French style of Louis XVI,
was initiated in England by the Scotch architect, Robert Adam. He was
appointed architect to the King in 1762; designed many important homes
for private owners; and with his brother James, under the firm name of
The Adelphi (Greek for brothers), carried out an extensive program of
fine residence construction in London. Robert Adam died in 1792.
Adam designed everything that went into his houses, including the _fire
grates_, _girandoles_, _upholstery_, _carpets_, and _furniture_.--He
was not a cabinetmaker, but the furniture made to his designs by other
men--including Chippendale and Hepplewhite--was called Adam furniture.
The Adam style perfectly reveals the classic qualities of fine
proportions and symmetrical balance, combined with a delicacy strongly
influenced by Pompeian decoration. Walls were paneled and painted, with
paneling and cornice enriched by painted compo ornament. Ceilings were
in relief, designed from a center to fit the room with the motives
repeated in the floor coverings.
Adam furniture was in mahogany, satinwood, and painted wood. This
was embellished with low relief carving, narrow moldings, inlays of
exceptional delicacy and beauty, and painted decoration. Forms were
basically rectangular, but softened by a free use of curves. Chair legs
were straight and tapering, square or round, and plain, fluted, reeded,
or carved. Chair backs were square, round, elliptical or shield-shaped,
upholstered or filled with carved wheel, lyre, urn, or other ornament.
_Console tables_ and _cabinets_ were often of semielliptical shape,
and _sideboards_ frequently were formed of two pedestal cabinets,
surmounted by _knife urns_, and connected by a _shelf table_.
THE HEPPLEWHITE FURNITURE STYLE
George Hepplewhite (or Heppelwhite--both spellings are used) was
a designer and cabinetmaker whose proclaimed purpose was to unite
elegance and utility in furniture. His work was in the neoclassic
style; was very strongly influenced by Louis XV and Louis XVI
decoration, and by the work of Robert Adam; and enjoyed a great
popularity from 1785 to 1795. Hepplewhite died almost at the beginning
of his vogue, and his business was carried on by his widow, Alice,
under the firm name of A. Hepplewhite & Co.
Hepplewhite's furniture was distinguished by lightness, refinement, and
elegance. It was chiefly in mahogany or satinwood, with cheaper woods
employed as a base for painting or japanning. Carving and marquetry
were employed for embellishment, with the ornament drawn from the same
sources as that of Louis XVI and Adam, but with special emphasis upon
wheat ear, garrya husk, and three-feather Prince of Wales' plume.
[Illustration:
_Sideboard_
Hepplewhite
_Settee_--Sheraton
_Armchair_
Hepplewhite
_Chair_--Adam
_Armchair_
Sheraton
_Side Table_--Adam
Figure 13.--English styles (1760-1800).]
Except for his furniture which used the cabriole legs and Rococo
ornament of Louis XV, Hepplewhite employed the straight tapering leg,
square or round, and plain-fluted or reeded, with straight, collard, or
spade feet. Chair backs were most characteristically of shield shape,
filled with carved styling, urns, the feather back, or the interlocking
heart form. These backs were supported by a construction of the back
legs, and were not attached to the seats. Front legs (except in the
case of the cabrioles) were perpendicular to the floor, while back
legs curved outward to balance the rake of the back. Console cabinets
were often semielliptical, and sideboards were rectangular except for
concave curves near the ends.
For covering, Hepplewhite insisted upon silks and satins, and he was
especially fond of narrow stripes. He often designed or selected the
draperies used with his furniture and chose the narrow stripes of plain
lines and serpentine pattern of the French styles, as well as designs
of ribbons, festoons and tassels, shields, circles, and garrya husks.
THE SHERATON FURNITURE STYLE
Thomas Sheraton (born 1751; died 1806) was the last of the great
English furniture designers. He was strongly influenced by Louis XVI
and Adam designs.
Sheraton was not a money maker, although, in addition to cabinetmaking,
he worked as a drawing master, preacher, author, and publisher.
However, he was a great cabinetmaker and a great designer, unsurpassed
and probably unequaled by any man of his race in the making of
_cabinets_, _secretaries_, _sideboards_, _dressers_, and _tables_. (See
fig. _3a_, p. 16.)
He used mahogany for dining-room, library, and bedroom furniture; and
rosewood, satinwood, and painted furniture for the drawing room. Inlay
was his favorite method of embellishment, with turning, some carving,
ornamental veneering, and painting. His ornaments included swags, the
star, cockleshell, fan, and disk.
Notwithstanding its apparent delicacy, Sheraton's furniture was
structurally sound. The legs were very slender, usually round but
sometimes square, tapered, and often reeded. Some of his later pieces
have spiral-turned legs. The feet were inconspicuous, usually spade or
straight and collard. Chair backs were characteristically square, with
a central panel rising slightly above the top rail, and the lower rail
kept the back well up from the seat.
For upholstery Sheraton used plain, striped, and flowered silks, and
gold and silver brocades. He was especially fond of blue as a color,
three of his favorite schemes being in blue and white, blue and black,
and very pale blue and yellow.
The Hepplewhite and Sheraton styles are similar and cannot always be
distinguished without careful study. Sheraton used more underbracing,
and his sideboards have convex instead of concave corners. Beside the
characteristic difference in chair backs, Hepplewhite pulled his seat
covers well over the apron, while Sheraton permitted a part of the seat
frame to show.
AMERICAN STYLES
The early colonists came from England to Virginia, New England, and
parts of Pennsylvania; from Holland to the Hudson River country and
Delaware; and from Germany to parts of Pennsylvania. The little
furniture brought with them, as well as the ideas upon which they
proceeded to build and furnish their homes in the New World, were
representative of the common houses of the small towns and countryside
of their native lands. (See fig. 45, see page 212.)
The interest in Early American art is now so widespread, and the sales
of Colonial furniture so great, that every salesman should have sound
working knowledge of the subject. Many books are available, a few of
which are mentioned in the reading list. One of the most useful is _A
Handbook of the American Wing_ of the Metropolitan Museum[12]--a book
every furniture store can well afford to own.
THE EARLY COLONIAL PERIOD
The earliest New England houses were solid but simple and primitive.
Walls were of whitewashed rough plaster or of wide molded boards, which
were used vertically to form partitions; ceilings of wood, with exposed
joists resting upon heavy supporting beams; and floors of plank.
Furniture was of Jacobean type, some of it brought from England,
but for the most part made here from oak, pine, maple, and other
native woods. The forms were few and simple and included _cupboards_,
_chests_, _trestle tables_, and _chairs_ of the turned or wainscot
types. Most furniture was left unfinished. Later there came the _chest
of drawers_, and chairs of the Cromwellian and Carolean types, often
with spiral turned legs and scroll feet, and either caned or with seats
and backs upholstered in needlework.
Near the beginning of the eighteenth century the open-construction
rooms began to give way to complete interior finish, with paneled
walls. The American form of the _Windsor chair_ which reached its
highest development at about this time, was mostly of hickory because
of the adaptability of that wood for bows and spindles.
[Illustration:
Courtesy Merchandise Mart News Bureau.
Figure 14.--Harmony in periods in rugs and furniture is shown by this
figured Axminster, accurate reproduction of an old floral hooked rug
shown with Early American. The design is red, rust, and green on wood
tones, harmonizing with the green of the ivy in the wallpaper pattern,
and the rust of the draperies.]
THE LATE COLONIAL PERIOD
By 1750 the production of good furniture was well under way, with
designs based upon Early Georgian models, and 10 years later, in the
period of the strongest Chippendale influence, the fine homes of the
Colonies were filled with very distinguished furniture of American
design, of which the _highboy_ is a perfect example.
The Adam influence appeared here shortly before the Revolution.
Sheraton and Directoire models were adapted and combined by Duncan
Phyfe of New York, who shares with William Savery of Philadelphia the
distinction of creating some of the finest American furniture.
THE FEDERAL PERIOD
The work of Duncan Phyfe belongs to this period, and it is supposed
that the White House was first furnished by Thomas Jefferson with
furniture of that style. Destroyed by the British in 1814, the White
House was rebuilt and furnished by James Monroe in 1817 with Empire
originals imported from France. This style, as modified in the United
States, with its heavy, classic ornament, and gilt mountings, remained
dominant until it was replaced by the ungraceful and ugly adaptations
of the style of Louis XV which appeared in Victorian England and were
copied here.
THE MODERN STYLE (L'ART MODERNE)
"Modern art" is a term used to include aspects of present-day practice
which depart widely from traditional or conventional models. It
regards period styles as survivals of a past, dead and gone. Avoiding
mere prettiness, it seeks dominant simplicity through elimination of
ornament on structural forms, and an adaptation of design to function
as complete as that revealed by today's motor car or skyscraper.
Literally, it is streamlined for comfort and beauty in the modern way.
Broadly speaking there are two modern developments in functional
furniture:
1. There is a _classic-modern_ development deeply rooted in
tradition but adapted to the needs of today.
2. There is a _functional-modern_ development which, forsaking the
past, is giving us a fresh, practical angle in furniture design.
Both developments seek comfort, simplicity, and beauty in all ways.
The simplicity features of functional furniture are triumphs in finish
and in structure. Surfaces are flat and smooth without applied
ornament. The completed pieces are sharp and vigorous in outline,
perfection in finish, with long continuous curves replacing the old
sharp angles. In the new metal furniture it is not uncommon to note
that the entire frame of a chair, settee, or table has been made from
a single length of metal tubing. Grace and lightness are natural
attributes of these flowing lines.
This contemporary furniture also achieves a sincerity which marks a new
high. Without ornamental features which characterize the classic-modern
development it is impossible to hide flaws in workmanship. Construction
accordingly is emphasized rather than concealed. There are no "fake
antique" effects about this functional furniture. No one is trying to
make these materials look like something else. Metal is called metal;
maple is maple; and neither, sparkling under a brown graining, pretends
to be walnut. Finishing processes continue to be used but they aim at
developing the individual grain, color, and texture of each species.
The following statement quoted from the April 1940, Bulletin of the
National Retail Dry Goods Association, is a forcible expression of this
viewpoint:
The majority of consumers interpret such expressions as "all
mahogany" or "genuine Honduras mahogany" or "all maple" or "all
walnut" literally, i. e., that furniture so described is made
wholly of mahogany or maple or walnut according to the wood
named. The National Better Business Bureau recommends that such
terms be applied only to those articles of furniture in which
all the exposed parts are made wholly of the wood named. If the
exposed parts are composed of more than one kind of wood such
article should be described by the names of the principal woods
used, viz, "mahogany and gumwood," "walnut and gumwood," not by
such description as "combination mahogany," and "combination
walnut." Also it is recommended that furniture employing veneered
construction be frankly described in advertising as "veneered."
To achieve the finish and structural beauty of functional furniture
the modern craftsman works with various materials. The whole world is
bringing to the markets choice cabinet woods to be used in producing
hitherto undreamed-of effects. Magnolia, amboyna, bubinga, macassar,
satinwood, narra, makore, padouk, and thuya--these are familiar names.
Glass--clear, white, and colored--has won acceptance as a structural
material. Aluminum, stainless steel, and chromium plate are popular.
Cork veneer with its velvety texture and warm coloring is excellent
surface finish for wood furniture. Metal frames with veneer tops often
are shown in designs suitable for use as kitchen, sunroom, porch,
and even living-room furniture. Linoleum tops for tables and desks
afford variety in color. Various synthetic products are converted into
tops which have been proofed against heat and liquid stains, thus
popularizing them for cocktail and coffee tables. Colored lacquers
reminiscent of the orient have been appropriately used. Textile designs
which are largely depended upon to supply the necessary ornament for
rooms, employ the straight lines, acute angles, and whirling curves of
the futurists as well as natural forms drawn with little or no attempt
to representation. The end is not yet predictable, but there is much to
be learned now.
USING STYLE APPEAL IN SELLING
We may use style appeal in selling furniture of any quality except
the poorest to customers of any level of taste except the lowest. The
salesperson should have some appreciation of the importance and dignity
of furniture, and a fair working knowledge of the forms, materials, and
ornament of the several period styles.