papa_ of ornithologists). Drs Seler and Brinton agree in the supposition
that the Zapotec name is derived from _balloo_, "the raven or crow." Dr
Seler says that the Quiche-Cakchiquel word _ahmak_ seems to signify the
vulture, "who pecks out the eyes," "who makes deep holes;" while Dr
Brinton maintains that the Quiche _ahmak_ means "the master of evil,"
referring to the owl, which is esteemed a bird of evil omen and bad
fortune. The Pipil _tecolotl_ also denotes "the night bird or owl."
[Illustration: PL. LXVII COPIES OF GLYPHS FROM THE CODICES]
The Maya and Tzental names, however, present a difficulty not so easily
explained. The signification of the former is "wax, gum, or copal gum,"
and also, according to Henderson, "root." According to Brinton the
Tzental radical _chab_ means "honey, was, bee, a late meal." He refers,
however, to the Cakchiquel, where he finds that _ch'ab_ means "mud,
clay, mire," and suggests that "as red and black clays were the
primitive pigments this may connect the Tzental day name with the Maya."
Seler, however, derives the Maya name from _ci_ or _cii_, "to taste
good," "to smell good;" and as _ci_ is also the name of the maguey
plant, and likewise refers to the pulque or intoxicating drink from this
plant, he concludes that _cib_ must have been formed by the addition of
the instrumental suffix, and hence refers to that which is used for
wine, "either the honey, or, more correctly, the narcotic root."
This conclusion he thinks is strengthened by the fact that the corkscrew
figure, which is the chief element of the _cib_ symbol, is found several
times on vases or earthen vessels (see LXVII, 6). Attention is called in
this connection to the fact that _loo_ in Zapotec signifies "root,"
which is also one of the meanings given by Henderson to the Maya _cib_,
which would seem to strengthen Dr Seler's conclusion.
The glyph is seldom if ever found in combination with other characters
or used otherwise than as a day symbol. This, together with the fact
that it is not found except as a day symbol in the beekeeper's calendar
in the Troano Codex, would seem to indicate that there has been a change
in the name of the day since the origin of the symbol; or, on the other
hand, the symbol has been modified from some older form. Nevertheless,
there are some indications that it is phonetic and that the corkscrew
figure has _b_ as its chief element, whether _cib_ be the word indicated
or not.
In the symbol for the day _Caban_ (LXVII, 9) we see the same corkscrew
figure, and observe that _b_ is the chief consonant element of the word.
In the well-known symbol for woman (LXVI, 49) there appears the same
character, usually double, one at the front of the face, the other on
the back part of the head. I have usually considered this a mere
conventional symbol, taken from the female head, these corkscrew figures
indicating the rolls of hair. Nevertheless it is possible that it is
phonetic, as we see on the cheek the _c_, _ch_, or _k_ character
heretofore referred to. As _chup_, _chupal_, and _chuplal_ are names for
"woman, female, or girl," the _p_ may replace the _b_ and represent the
corkscrew figure. I am unable, however, to explain the prefix, which
should have the _b_ or _p_ sound, or be a determinative. Possibly it may
denote _pal_, signifying a young person, though this appears to refer
generally to the male sex. Henderson, however, prefixes _x_ to give it
the signification "daughter, or girl."
That the symbol on vessels as shown in LXVII, 6, indicates liquid, or
drink of some kind, is more than probable. It may refer to _balche_ (or
_baleze_), the ceremonial drink, the symbol indicating the phonetic
element _b_.
The upper portion of the figure shown in LXVII, 7, from Tro. 3*b and 4*b
(in the space) I was at first inclined to regard as a reptile of some
kind, but the fact of its presence in the section relating to bees and
honey, and the corkscrew markings, render it probable that it is
beeswax. To this evidence may be added the fact that the symbol over
which it is placed contains some of the elements of the _cib_ glyph.
There are a number of places where quite similar markings appear on
seats and other things, but these are distinguished by the added line of
dots, showing it, as will be seen hereafter, to be in these cases the
_cab_ or _caban_ symbol.
The facts which have been mentioned, together with the form of the
symbol, may possibly lead to a correct understanding of its origin. It
seems probable that the corkscrew figure, which is the chief, and
apparently only, essential element, is taken from the root of a plant
and was the conventional method of representing that object. As it
appears from Henderson's Lexicon that "root" was one signification of
_cib_ (probably from _cibah_, "to follow, succeed," which also signifies
"born, manifested, root," alluding to origin), and also that in Zotzil
_yib_ or _yibel_ is "root" (raiz de arbol, _yibel-te_), we find the
reason why this was selected as the symbol to express the sound _cib_.
The fact that in the Zapotec _loo_ signifies "root" strengthens this
conclusion and indicates that the symbol is not used simply for the
sound indicated--that is, phonetically or ikonomatically--but also with
reference to the signification.
THE SEVENTEENTH DAY
Maya, _caban_; Tzental, _chic_; Quiche-Cakchiquel, _noh_; Zapotec,
_xoo_; Nahuatl, _ollin_. In addition to these, the following are also
sometimes given: In Meztitlan, _nahui olli_; Pipil, _tecpila nahuatl_.
This character, as is apparent from plate LXVII, 8-13, is subject to no
material variation; in fact, to no variation which would prevent us from
at once identifying it. That shown in LXVII, 8, is Landa's figure. The
change in position of the black spot and lines with reference to one
another does not appear to have any significance. In the Troano and
Cortesian codices the black dot is sometimes on one side and sometimes
on the other. In the Dresden Codex, however, it is nearly always on the
left. The one shown in LXVII, 13, in which there is introduced a new
element, is found several times in the last part of the Dresden Codex.
This character is used very frequently otherwise than as a day symbol,
being found separate and in combination, also as a mark on a number of
articles. As it is possible to determine with reasonable, and in fact
satisfactory, certainty its signification in a number of instances where
used otherwise than as a day symbol, some of these will be noticed, as
they seem to furnish strong evidence of phoneticism. But I repeat here
the statement made at the commencement of this paper, that in using this
term "phoneticism," I include that which may, in a strict
classification, be called ikonomatic. However, before referring to
these, it is best to give the interpretations of the names which have
been suggested, as the bearing of our interpretations of the symbols
will then be better understood.
The Mexican name _ollin_ or _olin_ is generally interpreted "motion or
movement," with special reference to the earthquake. Dr Seler, however,
adds "caoutchouc ball." In his first paper, heretofore referred to, he
remarks in regard to the Maya, Tzental, and Quiche-Cakchiquel names:
"There is not much to be drawn from these words." In his subsequent
paper he apparently relies upon the usual signification of the Mexican
term, and from this and the signification of the Zapotec _xoo_,
"powerful, strong, violent," concludes that the Tzental name may be
consistently rendered by "large, powerful," and the Maya name by "that
which is brought down, which is above," reference being made to
ascending and descending. Dr Brinton derives the Maya term from _cab_,
"might or strength," on the authority of the _Motul Dicc._, and says
that in this sense it corresponds precisely with the Tzental _chic_
(equal Maya _chich_, "cosa fuerta y dura"), the Quiche-Cakchiquel _noh_,
"strong, great," and the Zapotec _xoo_, "force, power, or might." Dr
Seler, however, concludes that the Zapotec name is here to be
interpreted "earth," or to be understood as referring to the earth. He
thinks that the day symbol is an abbreviated form of, or derived from,
LXVI, 49, which he takes to be a symbol of the goddess Chiribias or
Ixchebelyax, whom he identifies with Zaczuy, "the white maiden." As will
be observed, we have expressed the opinion that this glyph is a symbol
for woman in the general sense, which conclusion appears to be confirmed
by its connection with different female figures. There are, however,
certain prefixes and suffixes which may serve to give it a specific
application; for example, in LXVII, 14, from Dres. 16c, the prefix,
according to my interpretation, contains the _z_ sound as its chief
phonetic element. It is possible that in this case a particular person
may be referred to by the prefix, the woman symbol being here simply a
determinative. Dr Brinton, in his explanation of the month name _Zip_,
remarks: "This was _Zuhuy Zip_, the virgin _Zip_, her name being
properly _Dzip_, 'to skin, to dress slain animals.'" I prefer, however,
to interpret the symbol by "maiden," or "young woman," the prefix
signifying _zuhuy_. Nevertheless, the suffix in some instances, as
LXVII, 15, from Dres. 18b, may indicate that a sacred or mythological
personage is referred to, as it is added as a suffix in some cases to
deity symbols; however, as it is often found in other relations, where
it can have no such signification, I am not inclined to give it this
interpretation, as the evident female deities are denoted by quite
different glyphs.
The evidence that the Caban symbol is in some sense phonetic appears to
me to be too strong to be rejected. In the first place, one of its chief
elements is the corkscrew figure, which, as shown under the preceding
day, appears to have _b_ as its consonant element, this sound being a
prominent element of both _cib_ and _caban_. It also has been shown that
it is not out of place in the woman glyph, under the supposition that
this is also phonetic, as _chup_ or _chupal_ is the Maya name for woman,
and the change from _b_ to _p_ is not uncommon. It is found in several
places as that out of which plants are growing, as LXVII, 16, from Tro.
32b, which appears to represent some leguminous plant supported by a
stake driven into the ground. It is that on which persons are sitting
Indian fashion, and on which others are lying; again, it is that out of
which a serpent is arising. As "earth," "ground," will furnish an
entirely satisfactory explanation in all these cases, there is no
apparent reason why it should not be accepted. As _cab_ has "earth" as
one of its leading significations, we not only find therein a connection
with the day name, but also an indication of phoneticism.
In Cort. 30a is the figure shown at LXVII, 17. The animal represented,
notwithstanding the quadruped head, is conceded to be intended for the
serpent. The shading around the vessel, a blotch of which is on the
serpent's nose, I take for the clay or paste out of which the vessel is
being formed, or to be formed. In the division immediately below is a
representation of what appears to be some step in the manufacture of
vessels. May this not be correctly interpreted by _kancab_, "la terra
roja o amarilla," or "red clay?" Henderson gives _cancan_ as an
equivalent term of _kankan_. As I have not seen a copy of the colored
edition of this codex, I can not say whether this interpretation is
borne out by the color of the shading. If this interpretation be
correct, the serpent figure must be used symbolically or as a true
rebus.
In Tro. 9*c an individual is represented lifting what is supposed to be
honey or honeycomb out of a box-shape object on which is the _caban_
symbol. This symbol is presumed to indicate the contents--"honey." If
this supposition be correct, then, as _cab_ is the Maya name for
"honey," we have in this coincidence in sound and glyph another
indication of pboneticism. Support is given to this interpretation by
the fact that this is found in what is known as the "bee section," and
that on the upper division of the same plate the same figure, with the
_caban_ symbol upon it, is seen in the hands of an individual who holds
it to a bee.
As the character when used otherwise than a day symbol is frequently,
perhaps most generally, drawn with a suffix, as shown in LXVII, 18, I
suggest that it is possible it is a conventional method of representing
earth or soil. By reference to the Borgian Codex, plate 11, also 19a and
61b, it will be seen that where earth is introduced into the picture it
is indicated by heavy and wavy lines, as shown in LXVII, 19. This bears
a very strong resemblance to the suffix of LXVII, 18. The corkscrew or
root figure is added as appropriate, as an element, in forming an earth
figure. Such, I am inclined to believe, is the origin of the symbol
which, when used to indicate anything else than earth, is used
phonetically or ikonomatically. The figure shown in LXVII, 20, from
Dres. 30a, which Seler calls a serpent, is merely the representation of
a clay image and the seat or oratorio in which it is placed. It is
probably from something of comparatively small size, burnt in one piece.
The mark of the earth symbol, to distinguish the substance of which it
is made, is certainly appropriate. In Tro. 6b we see another on which is
quite a different symbol, indicating, as will hereafter be shown, that
the material is wood.
The compound character in LXVII, 21, is found in Tro. 9*b and 10*c. It
occurs in the latter twice, the parts, however, reversed in the parallel
groups, while in that of 9*b one is above the other. These variants do
not necessarily indicate a difference in the signification, as can
readily be ascertained by comparing characters in the numerous parallel
groups. Omitting the prefix, this maybe rendered _mak-cab_, "to eat
honey without chewing (that is, by sucking); to break into a hive and
steal the honey." By reference to the plates on which the symbols are
found the appropriateness of this rendering will be apparent, if I
rightly interpret the figures below the text. There we see the twisted
red symbols denoting the fire kindled beneath the hives, or beehouses,
by which to drive out or destroy the busy little workers. In one of the
fires we observe bone symbols, probably denoting a method of giving to
the smoke an unpleasant odor, as rags were formerly used in some
sections of our country for the same purpose.
The characters shown in LXVII, 22 and 23, are from the upper part of
Cort. 22, which is supposed to be the right half of the so-called "title
page" of the Tro. Codex. These are interpreted by Seler, and probably
correctly, as indicating "above" and "below" (LXVII, 22, the former, and
LXVII, 23, the latter). By following the line in which these characters
are found, through the two pages, beginning at the left of the plate of
the Tro. Codex, the result appears to be as follows, giving the
signification of the characters so far as known: First, the four
cardinal points in one direction, then two characters apparently
corresponding with the two we have figured, one of which is partly
obliterated; next the cardinal points in an opposite direction, after
which follow the two characters shown in LXVII, 22 and 23. As the right
half of the first (22) is the _cab_ or _caban_ symbol, it is presumable
that it has here substantially the same phonetic value. It is probable,
therefore, that the whole compound character maybe rendered _yokcabil_
(or _okcabil_), "above the earth," or as Henderson, who gives two words
of this form, interprets the first, "over, above the earth, above." The
second (LXVII, 23) has also as its chief part the _cab_ symbol, and the
upper right-hand portion appears to have _x'm_ as its chief phonetic
elements. It is possible that _cabnix_; "a stair," "downward," given by
Henderson, furnishes the phonetic equivalent of the compound character.
These six directions, according to Dr J. W. Fewkes,[257-1] were noted by
the Tusayan Indians in some of their religious ceremonies. Mr Cushing
says the same thing is true in regard to some of the Zuni ceremonies.
Plate LXVII, 24, is a compound character from Dres. 39b, below which the
long-nose deity holds in his hand a peculiar article (LXVII, 25), "as
if," says Seler, "pouring out of a bottle." That the prefix has the
interior cross-hatched when complete appears from a number of other
places, as, for example, in the upper division of the same plate. This,
as heretofore stated, gives the _x_ or _ch_ sound. It is possible,
therefore, that the symbol, omitting the right portion, should be
interpreted _xachcab_, "abrir de par en par," or _hechcab_, "to open
little by little, to develop, discover it" (Henderson). As the right
portion has a character resembling the _Muluc_ symbol as its chief
element, and below it the _u_ glyph, we may translate it _muyal_,
"cloud." This would give as the meaning of the entire symbol "open the
cloud"--that is, "to pour out the rain." As this is connected with a
rain series, and we see a similar glyph (though with different prefix)
on plate 38b, where the same deity is in the midst of a rain storm and
holding in his hand a similar object, the rendering appears to be, at
least, appropriate. It is to be further observed that this combined
_Caban_ and _Muluc_ symbol is found frequently in connection with rain
storms and cloud symbols.
According to the interpretation given LXVII, 22 and 24, the compound
symbol shown at 26, from Dres. 35b and 34b, should be rendered _Yokcabil
muyal_, "the cloud above." As we see in both places, in the picture
under the text, the looped serpent inclosing water, which Dr Seler
considers the "water sack" or cloud, this interpretation is appropriate.
As further confirmation of the interpretation given LXVII, 22, attention
is called to the picture in Tro. 32*c over which the same symbol is
found. Here the allusion is doubtless to the basket-like covering over,
or "above," the black deity lying on a mat.
THE EIGHTEENTH DAY
Maya, _edznab_ or _ezanab_; Tzental, _chinax_; Quiche-Cakchiquel,
_tihax_; Zapotec, _gopaa_; Nahuatl, _tecpatl_.
The form of the symbol of this day varies but little in the codices, as
shown by plate LXVII, 28-31. It is seldom found in this form in
combination. If its equivalent is given in these, it is of the form
shown in 33. It is, however, occasionally seen on articles of stone, as
the spearpoint (32) and stone hatchet (34) and sacrificial knife. It
also appears in the symbol for the stone mortar (36) from Tro. 19c.
Before discussing its signification and probable origin we will give the
significations which have been suggested of the different names of the
day.
The signification of the Nahuatl name--_tecpatl_--is "flint." Dr Brinton
says, "especially the flint-stone knife used in sacrificing, to cut the
victim." Dr Seler finds agreement in the Tzental name from a statement,
by Nunez de la Vega, that the symbol _chinax_, or rather the tutelary
god of the same, was a great warrior, who was always represented in the
calendars with a banner in his hand, and that he was slain and burned by
the nagual of another heathen symbol. Dr Brinton states that the name
"is an old or sacred form of the usual _zni-nax_, 'knife.'" The literal
meaning of the Cakchiquel _tihax_ is, according to Ximenes, "it bites,
scraping" (muerde rasgando). Dr Seler, however, affirms that Ximenes
(with what authority he knows not) gives "obsidian" as the meaning. He
thinks the word is related to the root _teuh_, "cold"--_tih-ih_, "to be
cold"--with which may be compared the words _tic_, "to stick in, prick;"
_tiz_, "to stitch," and _tiztic_, "pointed."
In regard to the Zapotec name, _gopa_, _gopaa_, or _opa_, the authors
named differ quite widely, Dr Seler deriving it from _rogopa_, "cold,"
and Dr Brinton suggesting that it is more likely "a variant of _guipa_,
a sharp point or edge, whence the word for stone knife, _gueza-guipa_,
from _guia_, stone."
The Maya name, however, does not appear to be readily brought into
harmony with the others. Dr Seler simply remarks that it may be related
to the root _e_, "firm, rigid, hard." Pio Perez offers no explanation.
Dr Brinton suggests that it is a figurative expression for the
sacrificial knife, from _nab_, something anointed, or blood, and _edz_,
to adjust, to point, to sharpen.
There can be no question that the articles in the codices on which the
trembling cross is found consists, in most instances, if not all, of
stone. Hence it is a reasonable conclusion that the primary
signification of the symbol is stone. The Zotzil name for "flint"
(pedernal) is _zuiton_.
I am inclined to believe that the symbol is derived from a conventional
form used for indicating stone or flint, probably from the cracks or
fissures in it.
I am not prepared yet to discuss the somewhat similar figures which
assume the form of the St Anthony cross. Various interpretations, as
symbol for "union," "night sun," etc, have been given. However, as this
form is never used as a day symbol, it has no direct relation to the
present discussion.
THE NINETEENTH DAY
Maya, _cauac_; Tzental, _cahogh_; Quiche-Cakchiquel, _caok_, _cook_;
Zapotec, _ape_, _appe_, _aape_; Nahuatl, _quiahuitl_.
The various forms of the symbol of this day are shown in plate
37-48--that by Landa at 37; those of the Troano and Cortesian codices at
38-43, and those from the Dresden Codex at 45-47. The irregular form
given at 44 is from Tro. 28d, and that at 48 from the Peresianus.
This symbol is found quite frequently in combination with other
characters, in some of which its phonetic value can be ascertained with
reasonable certainty. For example, it forms the lower half of the symbol
for the month _Yax_, as seen at LXIV, 12; also in the symbol for the
month _Zac_ (LXVI, 48). In both these instances its chief phonetic
element appears to be the guttural sound _k_, or _ks_. The essential
elements are also found frequently on objects which are undoubtedly of
wood and where no reasonable explanation can be given except that it
signifies "wood" in these places. For example, it is found on what
appear to be boards carried in the hands of individuals, on Tro. 32*b
(LXVII, 49); and it also is seen on what appear to be wooden boxes or
gums from which the honeycomb is being removed, as Tro. 5*c and 9*a. Dr
Seler, who gives quite a different interpretation of the character from
that presented here, admits that these are boards. It is also found on
trees, as Tro. 15*a (shown in LXVIII, 1) and 17*a, and Dres. 26c, 27c,
and 28c. It is marked on the walls of houses or canopied seats, as Tro.
6b, 29*c, and 18*b. Under the last mentioned we observe the _cab_
symbol, showing that it is a building placed on the ground and not on a
stone foundation. It also appears on the ends of beams, as at Tro. 9a
and 22*a. True, Dr Seler contends that these are stones instead of
weight poles, but I think all trappers will decide against him. Again,
it appears on seats (Tro. 13a and 14*a) and also marked on heads, one of
which is shown in LXVIII, 2. That the symbol is not intended to indicate
the different articles on which it is found is evident; hence it must be
given to denote the substance of which these things are formed, which I
maintain can only be wood. That the trees and boards must be wood is
admitted; that the walls of many of the houses and of some of the other
buildings of Yucatan were of wood must be admitted; that seats were
often of wood is well known. The heads with this mark are in all
probability representations of wooden masks. Masks are represented in
the hands of individuals at several places in the codices, as Dres.
42(1)a and in Peresianus. I therefore conclude that in all these cases
the symbol is to be interpreted by _che_, _cheil_, "wood, tree, timber,
stick." In order to show the difference between the explanation given
here and that by Dr Seler, I copy the latter: