from her employment at the distaff or spindle. According to the
practical notions of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers, a female was not
considered fit to enter the married state until she had made for
herself a complete set of body, bed, and table-linen. Hence the
significance of the term =Wife=, derived from the Anglo-Saxon _wif_,
by virtue of the verb _wyfan_, to weave. The designation =Widow= is
an Indo-European importation, derived from the Sanskrit _vid-hava_,
without husband. =Grass Widow=, denoting a woman temporarily separated
from her husband, is a corruption of “Grace Widow”--in other words, a
widow by grace, or courtesy. The word =Chaperon= is French, derived
from the chapeau, or cap, worn by the duennas of Spain. =Duenna=,
signifying a guardian, is Spanish, founded upon the Latin _domina_,
a mistress. The title of =Dowager=, which distinguishes a widow left
with a jointure from the wife of her late husband’s heir, comes from
the French _douairière_, built upon the verb _douaire_, to dower. The
name of =Blue Stocking= arose from the colour of the stockings worn by
the members of the lady clubs in England during the days of Boswell.
Gentlemen were not excluded from these assemblies, but the wearing of
blue stockings was a _sine quâ non_ of admittance. The last surviving
member of the original BLUE STOCKING CLUB, founded by Mrs. Montague
in 1780, died in 1840. The earliest Blue Stocking assembly came into
existence at Venice, under the title of _Della Calza_ in the year
1400. A lady’s-maid is familiarly styled an =Abigail=, in allusion to
the handmaid who introduced herself to David (1 _Samuel_ xxv. 23).
This class-name came into particular prominence during the early part
of the eighteenth century, in compliment to Abigail Hill, the maiden
name of Mrs. Mashem, the waiting-woman of Queen Anne. A Parisian shop
or work-girl is known as a =Grisette= on account of the grey cloth of
which her dress is made. In olden times all inferior classes in France
were expected to be clad in _gris_, _i.e._, grey. =Colleen= is the
native Irish for girl; and =Colleen Bawn= for a blonde girl. How little
the latter expression is understood by actresses is shown by the way
in which some of them essay to impersonate (?) the heroine of Dion
Boucicault’s well-known drama whilst wearing their own dark hair or a
dark wig. Truly, a little knowledge is a useful thing!
As nowadays comprehended, a =Milliner= is one who retails hats,
feathers, bonnets, ribbons, and similar appurtenances to female
costume. The name is really a corruption of _Milaner_, alluding to
the city of Milan, which at one time set the fashion to the north of
Europe in all matters of taste and elegance. =Haberdasher= is a modern
form of the Old English word _Hapertaser_, or a retailer of hapertas
cloth, the width of which was settled by Magna Charta. =Grocer= is a
contraction and modified spelling of =Engrosser=, the denomination
of a tradesman who, in the Middle Ages, claimed a monopoly for the
supply of provisions. A vendor of vegetables is appropriately called
a =Greengrocer=. An innkeeper is facetiously styled a =Boniface=
in honour of a devout and hospitable man whom St. Augustine caused
to be canonized, and who subsequently became the patron saint of
Germany. Shakespeare, Dante, Bacon, and Lamb never tired of referring
to Boniface. =Ostler= is a corruption of the French _hostelier_, an
innkeeper; hence we sometimes speak of an inn as a HOSTELRY. The term
=Carpenter=, from the Latin _carpentum_, a waggon, originally denoted
a mechanic who constructed the wooden body of a vehicle of any kind,
as distinguished from the =Wheelwright=; but in process of time the
same term came to be applied to artificers in timber generally. The
provincial name for such a one is a =Joiner=, literally a joiner of
wooden building materials. In some districts of England a shoemaker
still bears the name of =Cordwainer=. Formerly all shoemakers were
styled Cordwainers, because they were workers in CORDWAIN, a corruption
of CORDOVAN, which was the name of a particular kind of leather
brought from Cordova. The designation =Tailor= is an Anglicized form
of the French _Tailleur_, derived from the verb _tailler_, to cut.
[For =Tallyman= _see_ TALLY, in the article “MONEY.”] A Pawnbroker is
familiarly called =Uncle=, in perpetuation of an ancient pun on the
Latin word _uncus_, a hook. For, whereas in modern times the spout
is employed as a means of communication between the pawnshop and the
store-rooms overhead, the Roman pawnbrokers used a large hook; and
accordingly, the expression “Gone to the _uncus_,” was equivalent to
our slang phrase “Up the spout.” A =Barber= derives his class-title
from the Latin _barba_, a beard. Rude and semi-civilized tribes
were anciently called =Barbarians=, because they belonged to no
order of society. Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries the
hairdressers of this country combined the practice of surgery, and were
accordingly styled =Barber-Surgeons=. The surviving “Barber’s Pole”
attests this fact. The separation of the two professions took place in
1540.
A shepherd or an ideal farmer bears the poetical description of an
=Arcadian=, in allusion to the Arcadians, who were a pastoral people.
A friendly adviser is designated a =Mentor=, in memory of the wise and
faithful counsellor of Telemachus so named. The word =Usher= signifies
a doorkeeper, agreeably to the Old French _huisher_, a door. =Bachelor=
comes from the Welsh _bach_, small, young. This name originally meant
one inexperienced in anything. The title of =Bachelor of Arts= denotes
a degree next below that of =Master of Arts=.
=Beefeaters= is a vulgar perversion of _Buffetiers_, as the Yeoman
of the Guard were styled during the reign of Henry VIII., on account
of their attendance upon the King’s _Buffet_, or side-table. The
word BUFFET is French, derived from the Spanish _búfia_, a wineskin.
The civic guardians of law and order are denominated =Police= in
accordance with the Greek _polis_, the city. For many years after
the establishment of the Police through the measures of Sir Robert
Peel (in Ireland, as the national constabulary in 1814; in London as
a regular force in 1829), all =Policemen= were nicknamed =Bobbies=
and =Peelers=, in allusion to their founder. =Bow Street Runners=
were the original London detective force; so called because their
headquarters was Bow Street, whence they were despatched to any part
of the country in quest of the perpetrator of a particular crime. The
predecessors of the Police were a set of decrepit old watchmen whose
regular habit was to fall asleep in their boxes with their lanthorns
beside them. These were derisively nicknamed =Old Charlies=; while
their natural enemies, who loved nothing so much as to turn their
boxes upon them, to molest defenceless females, mutilate males, and
in many other ways to terrorize the peaceable inhabitants of the
Metropolis, styled themselves first of all =Scourers=, and at a later
date =Mohocks=, after the North American Indian tribe of that name.
During the years 1859 and 1860 an even more grievous terror haunted
the streets of London in the persons of =The Garrotters=, so called
from the _Garrotte_, the instrument with which condemned malefactors
are strangled in Spain. The punishment of the “cat o’ nine tails” for
“Garrotting,” which came into operation July 13, 1861, gradually put an
end to the practice. The latest terror of the streets which, unhappily,
abounds in American cities, are the =Sandbaggers=, so called because
they stun their victims with an ordinary sand-bag, such as is used to
keep the draught from penetrating between a pair of window-sashes;
after which robbery becomes an easy matter.
Pleasanter it is to turn from the birds of night to the fops and
dandies by day. The word =Fop= comes from the German _foppen_, to make
a fool of; and =Dandy= from the French _dandin_, a ninny. Between these
two poor specimens of humanity there is no perceptible difference.
The =Macaronies= of the last century derived their designation from
the fashionable “Macaroni Clubs” to which they belonged. The modern
class-title of =Masher= finds its origin in the Romany or gipsy word
_mâsha_, signifying “to fascinate the eye.” _En passant_, the term
=Gipsy= is a corruption of _Egyptian_, so called because the original
family or tribe of low caste Hindoos expelled by Timour about the year
1399 eventually travelled into Europe by way of Egypt. The =Gipsies=
were also in former times known as =Bohemians=, from the district in
which they first attracted popular attention before they scattered
themselves over Western Europe. Hence, any individual whose habits are
unconventual, and to a certain extent nomadic, is styled a =Bohemian=.
The name of =The Upper Ten= applied to the aristocracy, is short for
“The Upper Ten Thousand,” a term originally applied by N. P. Willis,
the American poet (born 1807, died 1867), to the fashionables of New
York who, at the time he introduced it, numbered about ten thousand. A
distinctly latter-day expression conveying much the same signification
is =The Four Hundred=, by which we are left to conclude that the
“select” society of New York must have undergone a considerable
weeding-out during the last twenty years.
The temperance terms =Teetotal= and =Teetotaler= originated in the
stuttering exhortation of one Richard Turner, an artizan of Preston,
who, while addressing a meeting of abstainers in September, 1833,
observed that “Nothing but t-t-t-total abstinence will do!” Several
bodies of total abstainers from alcoholic beverages in England and
America style themselves =Rechabites=, after the descendants of
Jonadab, the son of Rechab, who lived in tents and foreswore wine.
Others rejoice in the name of =Good Templars=, after the Templars of
old. The =Good Templar Movement= cannot be accurately described as a
_crusade_ against drink; but the =League of the Cross=, established by
the Roman Catholics for the total suppression of drunkenness, is, in
title and in fact, one of the most powerful crusades ever distinguished
in modern times.
A sailor is called a =Jack Tar= because he puts on _tarpaulin_
“overalls” in “dirty weather.” =Longshoreman= is a corruption of
_alongshoreman_, _i.e._, a wharfinger, &c. =Navvy= is a contraction of
_Navigator_, which name was first given to the labourers employed in
the construction of canals for inland navigation. A cabman is popularly
styled a =Jehu= in allusion to one of the kings of Israel noted for his
furious driving. A =Jerry Builder= is so called after one Jeremiah, a
London builder who amassed a fortune by putting up houses with inferior
materials in order to sell them at a large profit. A =Journeyman= is
properly one who hires himself out to work by the day, agreeably to the
first portion of the word _Jour_, the French for day. A debt-collector
is known as a =Dun=, and his persistence is styled “Dunning,” in
memory of Joe Dun, a famous bailiff of Lincoln, who was so successful
in the discharge of his duties that it became quite customary when an
individual refused to pay his debts to exclaim, “Why don’t you _Dun_
him for it?” which was tantamount to saying, “Why don’t you send _Dun_
to arrest him?” Whilst on the subject of law, we may here add that
the expression =A Man of Straw=, employed to denote a person without
capital or means, originated in the days when a certain class of men,
chiefly ruined tradesmen, found it a profitable occupation to hire
themselves out as witnesses in the law courts. The recognized mark of
these persons was a wisp of straw protruding from their shoes; and as
often as a lawyer stood in need of a convenient witness to prove his
case, he knew by the presence of “a pair of straw shoes” in court that
the owner of the said shoes would recollect and swear to any incident
in consideration of a fee.
=Costermonger= is a corruption of _Costardmonger_, a seller of the
famous costard apple introduced into this country by the Dutch in 1736.
Both these terms are used by Shakespeare; nevertheless, they bore a
totally different signification in his time. The word =Monger= comes
from the Anglo-Saxon _mongere_, one who trades. An itinerant salesman
in the olden time was styled a =Pedlar=, in accordance with the Latin
_pedes_, the feet, because he travelled on foot; whereas =Hawker= comes
from the German _hoken_, to carry on the back, to retail. Hawkers and
Pedlars were first licensed in England in 1698. An itinerant salesman
of another kind is known as a =Cheap Jack= on account of the word
“cheap” which is Saxon for market, derived from _ceapan_, to buy.
A travelling medicine-vendor originally received the nickname of
=Quack-doctor=, or =Quack=, from _Quacksalber_, the German term for
quicksilver, because, differing from the regular practitioners, he
resorted to mercury and other dangerous ingredients. At times a Quack,
or any other individual gifted with humorous colloquial powers, is
dubbed a =Merry Andrew=, in allusion to Andrew Borde, a physician of
the time of Henry VIII., noted for his facetious manners and sayings.
=Juggler= is a corruption of _jongleur_, the French designation of
one of the companions of the troubadours, whose business it was to
supplement the lyrical accomplishments of the latter with feats of
sleight-of-hand and other tricks for the amusement of the company. A
=Stump Orator= is properly one who delivers a speech from the stump of
a tree; the literal meaning of a STUMP SPEECH being thus explained.
The now approbrious name of =Blackguard= was formerly given to the
scullions or dirty dependants of the English Court who washed out
the saucepans, carried coals up to the kitchens, and performed other
menial duties. As the “Guards of Honour” in the Royal Household were
distinguished by their fine appearance, so these kitchen-men were
equally distinguished by their grimy appearance; consequently the
latter were styled “Black Guards.” The origin of the word =Scullion=
was the Norman-French _esculle_, a porringer or dish. The place where
the dishes are cleansed is still called a SCULLERY, while the domestic
who performs such work bears the name of =Scullery Maid=. A rascal or
sharper is designated a =Blackleg=, because such a one was generally
to be found among the lower orders of turf and sporting men at the
time these were especially characterized by the wearing of black
top-boots. A =Plunger= is one who bets heavily either on the turf or
at the gaming-table, without consideration for the risks he incurs.
A =Bookmaker= is so called because he arranges his book, _i.e._, his
bets, in such a manner that his losses and gains upon each day’s racing
must balance themselves. The Bookmaker who absconds after a race in
order to avoid paying those who have entered bets with him and won
is styled a =Welsher=, in allusion to the thieving propensities of a
certain race of people, as set forth in the old song, which begins,
“Taffy was a Welshman, Taffy was a thief,” &c. The word =Burglar= is
made up of the Old English _burgh_, a borough, derived from the German
_burg_, a fortified place, and the French _lair_, a thief; the allusion
being that such a one breaks into a private dwelling for purposes of
theft. Down to a comparatively recent date the common hangman in this
country bore the nickname of =Jack Ketch=, really a corruption of
Richard Jacquett, to whom the manor of Tyburn, where our malefactors
were executed prior to the year 1783, belonged.
A native of London is popularly styled a =Cockney=, pursuant to the Old
English _cockeney_, an effeminate person, or rather one who has been
rendered effeminate by the luxuries of the table; this term tracing
its origin directly from the Latin verb _coquere_, to cook, whence we
have the Italian _cuchina_, the French _cuisine_, the German _küche_,
and the English _kitchen_. A popular satiric poem of the thirteenth
century, entitled “The Land of Cockaygne,”--_i.e._, Kitchen Land, draws
a picture of an imaginary Fool’s Paradise, where there is nothing but
eating and drinking, where care, trouble, and toil find no place--a
desirable country for those monks of the Church who delight in the
pleasures of the table rather than the observance of their spiritual
exercises. After this performance the term =Cockaigne= or =Cockaygne=
gradually came to be applied to our capital city, where _cockenies_,
or kitchen-servants, abounded, and where the luxury of good living was
supposed to attain its highest development.
A raw youth, or a countryman new to the ways of the world, is dubbed
a =Greenhorn=, in reference to the undeveloped horns of a young ox;
the word “Green” being derived from the Anglo-Saxon _grêne_, that
which is in process of growing. =Nincompoop= is a corruption of the
Latin phrase _non compos [mentis]_, not in sound mind. A person of
defective mind is called a =Lunatic=, from the Latin _luna_, the moon,
in accordance with the Roman idea that the mind was affected by the
changes of the moon. A person addicted to making foolish mistakes is
styled a =Dutchman=, in allusion to the dull comprehensions supposed
to be possessed by the inhabitants of the Low Countries. The term
first came into use as an epithet of derision during the wars with
Holland. A =Humbug= is one whose representations, though sounding
plausible enough, are not to be relied upon. The origin of this word
is as follows: In olden times there resided in the neighbourhood of
the Mearns, in Scotland, a gentleman of landed property whose name was
Hume, and whose estate was known as “The Bogue.” Owing to the great
falsehoods which this “Hume of the Bogue” was in the habit of relating
about himself, his family, and everything connected with his affairs,
it became customary, as often as the people of that district heard
anything at all remarkable or absurd to exclaim, “That is a Hume of
the Bogue.” The word spelt in its present form first appeared on the
title-page of “The Universal Jester: a choice collection of _bonmots_
and _humbugs_,” published by Fernando Killigrew about the year 1736.
The assurance that Humbug is of such old date can scarcely tend to our
satisfaction.
_MALT LIQUORS._
At the present day the terms =Ale= and =Beer= are used somewhat
confusedly. The former, derived from the Gaelic and Irish _ól_, drink,
is the real name of our national beverage, which, to judge from its
intoxicating effects, must, in the days of our forefathers, have been a
very strong drink indeed. The latter, on the other hand, is essentially
a Saxon word, from the same root as _barm_, signifying “fermented
drink,” and used to denominate the lighter kinds of fermented liquors
generally, as well as other drinks obtained from the roots or leaves of
plants, such as GINGER-BEER, SPRUCE-BEER, &c. We still speak of =Old
Ales=; whereas =Small Beer= indicates a liquor of very poor quality.
In former times the only varieties of malt liquor in this country were
=Ale= and =Beer=, the one strong, the other comparatively weak. To
these a third, popularly described as =Twopenny=, was eventually added.
However, it was rare that any one of these three was demanded singly;
it being the custom, particularly in London, for the working-classes to
call either for =Half-and-Half= or =Three Thirds=, meaning a tankard
filled with equal portions of ale and beer, or of ale, beer, and
twopenny. This custom remained in vogue until the year 1730, when
it occurred to Mr. Harwood, a brewer of East London, to prepare a
liquor analogous to the mixture of ale, beer, and twopenny; and thus
save the time of the tavern-keepers, who were compelled to serve each
customer from three different casks. Almost immediately, therefore,
he introduced the malt liquor known as =Entire=, because it was drawn
_entire_ from one cask. It was first retailed at the sign of “The Blue
Last,” in Curtain Road, Shoreditch, where it soon came to be in active
demand by the City porters, who made this house their regular resort,
whereupon the enterprising publican adroitly called it =Porter=. The
word “Entire” still appears upon the facia-boards of numerous taverns
throughout the Metropolis; but who thinks of calling for _Entire_ at
the present day? By the term =Stout= is implied a malt liquor of the
stoutest quality, _i.e._, having the most body in it.
=Stingo= expresses an old beer of particular sharpness, in allusion
to its _stinging_ properties; while =Yorkshire Stingo= is, of course,
peculiar to the county of York. Originally the single X displayed on
beer-barrels denoted that the liquor had paid a ten shillings’ duty.
The additional X’s are merely brewers’ trade-marks, indicating various
degrees of strength over and above that of the single X ale.
Concerning German beers, we need only allude to =Mum=, or =Mumm=,
which is peculiar to Brunswick, and named after Christoph Mumme, who
first brewed it in 1492; =Lager-Bier=, so called because it is kept
in a lager or cellar; and =Bock-bier=, a liquor which causes the
inconsiderate tippler to caper about like a bock, or goat.
_DIAMONDS AND PRECIOUS STONES._
The word =Diamond= is a corruption of, and synonymous with, =Adamant=,
derived from the Greek _adamas_, untamable, infrangible, not to be
subdued, in accordance with the prefix _a_, without, and _damas_, to
tame, to subdue. As every one must be aware, the diamond is capable of
resisting fire.
The great diamonds of the world are the following:--=The Kohinoor=, or
“Mountain of Light,” weighing 106 carats, came into the possession of
Queen Victoria on the annexation of the Punjaub in 1849; the =Mattan=
(367 carats) belongs to the Rajah of Mattan; the =Orloff= (194 carats)
preserves the family name of Catherine II. of Russia, who purchased
it in 1775; the =Shah= (86 carats), presented by Chosroes I., Shah of
Persia, who died in the year 579, to the Czar of Russia; the =Star of
the South= (254 carats), discovered in Brazil by a poor negress in
1853; the =Sauci= (106 carats), originally the property of a French
gentleman of this name, and bought by the Russian Czar for half a
million roubles in 1835; the =Regent=, also known as the =Pitt= (137
carats), first acquired by Mr. Pitt, the grandfather of the Earl of
Chatham, and subsequently sold to the Duc d’Orleans, Regent of France,
for £135,000; the =Pigott= (82¼ carats), brought from India by Lord
Pigott sometime previous to 1818, when it came into the possession
of Messrs. Rundell and Bridge; the =Dudley= (44½ carats), found at
the Cape by a black shepherd in 1868, and, after various changes of
ownership, bought by the Earl of Dudley for £30,000; and the =Twin
Diamonds=, both found in the bed of the river Vaal at the Cape in 1872.
With regard to precious stones:--the =Turquois= derived its name
from Turkey, where it was first found; the =Topaz=, from Topazos, an
island in the Red Sea; and the =Agate=, from the Greek _Achates_, a
river in Sicily, in the bed of which it was anciently discovered. The
term =Amethyst= comes from the Greek _amethustos_, a precious stone,
and =Opal=, through the Latin _opalus_, from the Sanskrit _opula_,
a precious stone. =Emerald= traces its origin through the French
_emerande_ to the Latin and Greek _omaragdus_; =Garnet=, through the
French _grenat_, from the Latin _granatus_; and =Ruby=, from the Latin
_ruber_, red. =Pearl= is an Anglo-Saxon word derived from the Latin
_pirula_, a diminutive of pear.
We may conveniently add that the weight of precious stones, as well as
that of gold, is regulated by =Carats=, because formerly carat seeds,
or the seed of the Abyssinian coral flower were employed for this
purpose.
_NAVAL AND MILITARY SOBRIQUETS._