The Gods of China
The Birth of the Soul
The dualism noted in the last chapter is well illustrated by the
Chinese pantheon. Whether as the result of the co-operation of the
_yin_ and the _yang_ or of the final dissolution of P'an Ku, human
beings came into existence. To the primitive mind the body and its
shadow, an object and its reflection in water, real life and dream
life, sensibility and insensibility (as in fainting, etc.), suggest the
idea of another life parallel with this life and of the doings of the
'other self' in it. This 'other self,' this spirit, which leaves the
body for longer or shorter intervals in dreams, swoons, death, may
return or be brought back, and the body revive. Spirits which do not
return or are not brought back may cause mischief, either alone, or by
entry into another human or animal body or even an inanimate object,
and should therefore be propitiated. Hence worship and deification.
The Populous Otherworld
The Chinese pantheon has gradually become so multitudinous that there
is scarcely a being or thing which is not, or has not been at some time
or other, propitiated or worshipped. As there are good and evil people
in this world, so there are gods and demons in the Otherworld: we find
a polytheism limited only by a polydemonism. The dualistic hierarchy is
almost all-embracing. To get a clear idea of this populous Otherworld,
of the supernal and infernal hosts and their organizations, it needs
but to imagine the social structure in its main features as it existed
throughout the greater part of Chinese history, and to make certain
additions. The social structure consisted of the ruler, his court,
his civil, military, and ecclesiastical officials, and his subjects
(classed as Scholars--officials and gentry--Agriculturists, Artisans,
and Merchants, in that order).
Worship of Shang Ti
When these died, their other selves continued to exist and to hold
the same rank in the spirit world as they did in this one. The _ti_,
emperor, became the _Shang Ti_, Emperor on High, who dwelt in _T'ien_,
Heaven (originally the great dome). [11] And Shang Ti, the Emperor
on High, was worshipped by _ti_, the emperor here below, in order to
pacify or please him--to ensure a continuance of his benevolence on
his behalf in the world of spirits. Confusion of ideas and paucity
of primitive language lead to personification and worship of a thing
or being in which a spirit has taken up its abode in place of or in
addition to worship of the spirit itself. Thus Heaven (T'ien) itself
came to be personified and worshipped in addition to Shang Ti, the
Emperor who had gone to Heaven, and who was considered as the chief
ruler in the spiritual world. The worship of Shang Ti was in existence
before that of T'ien was introduced. Shang Ti was worshipped by the
emperor and his family as their ancestor, or the head of the hierarchy
of their ancestors. The people could not worship Shang Ti, for to do so
would imply a familiarity or a claim of relationship punishable with
death. The emperor worshipped his ancestors, the officials theirs,
the people theirs. But, in the same way and sense that the people
worshipped the emperor on earth, as the 'father' of the nation,
namely, by adoration and obeisance, so also could they in this way
and this sense worship Shang Ti. An Englishman may take off his hat
as the king passes in the street to his coronation without taking any
part in the official service in Westminster Abbey. So the 'worship'
of Shang Ti by the people was not done officially or with any special
ceremonial or on fixed State occasions, as in the case of the worship
of Shang Ti by the emperor. This, subject to a qualification to be
mentioned later, is really all that is meant (or should be meant)
when it is said that the Chinese worship Shang Ti.
As regards sacrifices to Shang Ti, these could be offered officially
only by the emperor, as High Priest on earth, who was attended or
assisted in the ceremonies by members of his own family or clan or
the proper State officials (often, even in comparatively modern times,
members of the imperial family or clan). In these official sacrifices,
which formed part of the State worship, the people could not take part;
nor did they at first offer sacrifices to Shang Ti in their own homes
or elsewhere. In what way and to what extent they did so later will
be shown presently.
Worship of T'ien
Owing to T'ien, Heaven, the abode of the spirits, becoming personified,
it came to be worshipped not only by the emperor, but by the people
also. But there was a difference between these two worships, because
the emperor performed his worship of Heaven officially at the great
altar of the Temple of Heaven at Peking (in early times at the altar
in the suburb of the capital), whereas the people (continuing always
to worship their ancestors) worshipped Heaven, when they did so
at all--the custom being observed by some and not by others, just
as in Western countries some people go to church, while others stay
away--usually at the time of the New Year, in a simple, unceremonious
way, by lighting some incense-sticks and waving them toward the sky
in the courtyards of their own houses or in the street just outside
their doors.
Confusion of Shang Ti and T'ien
The qualification necessary to the above description is that, as
time went on and especially since the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280),
much confusion arose regarding Shang Ti and T'ien, and thus it came
about that the terms became mixed and their definitions obscure. This
confusion of ideas has prevailed down to the present time. One result
of this is that the people may sometimes state, when they wave their
incense-sticks or light their candles, that their humble sacrifice
is made to Shang Ti, whom in reality they have no right either to
worship or to offer sacrifice to, but whom they may unofficially pay
respect and make obeisance to, as they might and did to the emperor
behind the high boards on the roadsides which shielded him from their
view as he was borne along in his elaborate procession on the few
occasions when he came forth from the imperial city.
Thus we find that, while only the emperor could worship and sacrifice
to Shang Ti, and only he could officially worship and sacrifice to
T'ien, the people who early personified and worshipped T'ien, as
already shown, came, owing to confusion of the meanings of Shang Ti
and T'ien, unofficially to 'worship' both, but only in the sense and to
the extent indicated, and to offer 'sacrifices' to both, also only in
the sense and to the extent indicated. But for these qualifications,
the statement that the Chinese worship and sacrifice to Shang Ti and
T'ien would be apt to convey an incorrect idea.
From this it will be apparent that Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler on High,
and T'ien, Heaven (later personified), do not mean 'God' in the sense
that the word is used in the Christian religion. To state that they
do, as so many writers on China have done, without pointing out the
essential differences, is misleading. That Chinese religion was or is
"a monotheistic worship of God" is further disproved by the fact that
Shang Ti and T'ien do not appear in the list of the popular pantheon at
all, though all the other gods are there represented. Neither Shang Ti
nor T'ien mean the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, or the Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost of the New Testament. Did they mean this, the
efforts of the Christian missionaries to convert the Chinese would be
largely superfluous. The Christian religion, even the Holy Trinity,
is a monotheism. That the Chinese religion (even though a summary
of extracts from the majority of foreign books on China might point
to its being so) is not a monotheism, but a polytheism or even a
pantheism (as long as that term is taken in the sense of universal
deification and not in that of one spiritual being immanent in all
things), the rest of this chapter will abundantly prove.
There have been three periods in which gods have been created in
unusually large numbers: that of the mythical emperor Hsien Yüan
(2698-2598 B.C.), that of Chiang Tzu-ya (in the twelfth century B.C.),
and that of the first emperor of the Ming dynasty (in the fourteenth
century A.D.).
The Otherworld Similar to this World
The similarity of the Otherworld to this world above alluded to is
well shown by Du Bose in his _Dragon, Image, and, Demon_, from which
I quote the following passages:
"The world of spirits is an exact counterpart of the Chinese Empire,
or, as has been remarked, it is 'China ploughed under'; this is the
world of light; put out the lights and you have Tartarus. China has
eighteen [now twenty-two] provinces, so has Hades; each province has
eight or nine prefects, or departments; so each province in Hades
has eight or nine departments; every prefect or department averages
ten counties, so every department in Hades has ten counties. In
Soochow the Governor, the provincial Treasurer, the Criminal Judge,
the Intendant of Circuit, the Prefect or Departmental Governor, and
the three District Magistrates or County Governors each have temples
with their apotheoses in the other world. Not only these, but every
_yamên_ secretary, runner, executioner, policeman, and constable
has his counterpart in the land of darkness. The market-towns have
also mandarins of lesser rank in charge, besides a host of revenue
collectors, the bureau of government works and other departments,
with several hundred thousand officials, who all rank as gods beyond
the grave. These deities are civilians; the military having a similar
gradation for the armies of Hades, whose captains are gods, and whose
battalions are devils.
"The framers of this wonderful scheme for the spirits of the dead,
having no higher standard, transferred to the authorities of
that world the etiquette, tastes, and venality of their correlate
officials in the Chinese Government, thus making it necessary to
use similar means to appease the one which are found necessary to
move the other. All the State gods have their assistants, attendants,
door-keepers, runners, horses, horsemen, detectives, and executioners,
corresponding in every particular to those of Chinese officials of
the same rank." (Pp. 358-359.)
This likeness explains also why the hierarchy of beings in the
Otherworld concerns itself not only with the affairs of the Otherworld,
but with those of this world as well. So faithful is the likeness
that we find the gods (the term is used in this chapter to include
goddesses, who are, however, relatively few) subjected to many of
the rules and conditions existing on this earth. Not only do they, as
already shown, differ in rank, but they hold _levées_ and audiences
and may be promoted for distinguished services, just as the Chinese
officials are. They "may rise from an humble position to one near the
Pearly Emperor, who gives them the reward of merit for ruling well the
affairs of men. The correlative deities of the mandarins are only of
equal rank, yet the fact that they have been apotheosized makes them
their superiors and fit objects of worship. Chinese mandarins rotate in
office, generally every three years, and then there is a corresponding
change in Hades. The image in the temple remains the same, but the
spirit which dwells in the clay tabernacle changes, so the idol has
a different name, birthday, and tenant. The priests are informed by
the Great Wizard of the Dragon Tiger Mountain, but how can the people
know gods which are not the same to-day as yesterday?" (Pp. 360-361.)
The gods also indulge in amusements, marry, sin, are punished, die,
are resurrected, or die and are transformed, or die finally. [12]
The Three Religions
We have in China the universal worship of ancestors, which constitutes
(or did until A.D. 1912) the State religion, usually known as
Confucianism, and in addition we have the gods of the specific
religions (which also originally took their rise in ancestor-worship),
namely, Buddhism and Taoism. (Other religions, though tolerated,
are not recognized as Chinese religions.) It is with a brief account
of this great hierarchy and its mythology that we will now concern
ourselves.
Besides the ordinary ancestor-worship (as distinct from the State
worship) the people took to Buddhism and Taoism, which became
the popular religions, and the _literati_ also honoured the gods
of these two sects. Buddhist deities gradually became installed in
Taoist temples, and the Taoist immortals were given seats beside the
Buddhas in their sanctuaries. Every one patronized the god who seemed
to him the most popular and the most lucrative. There even came to
be united in the same temple and worshipped at the same altar the
three religious founders or figure-heads, Confucius, Buddha, and Lao
Tzu. The three religions were even regarded as forming one whole,
or at least, though different, as having one and the same object:
_san êrh i yeh_, or _han san wei i_, "the three are one," or "the
three unite to form one" (a quotation from the phrase _T'ai chi han
san wei i_ of Fang Yü-lu: "When they reach the extreme the three are
seen to be one"). In the popular pictorial representations of the
pantheon this impartiality is clearly shown.
The Super-triad
The toleration, fraternity, or co-mixture of the three
religions--ancestor-worship or Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism,
and Taoism--explains the compound nature of the triune head of
the Chinese pantheon. The numerous deities of Buddhism and Taoism
culminate each in a triad of gods (the Three Precious Ones and the
Three Pure Ones respectively), but the three religions jointly have
also a triad compounded of one representative member of each. This
general or super-triad is, of course, composed of Confucius, Lao Tzu,
and Buddha. This is the officially decreed order, though it is varied
occasionally by Buddha being placed in the centre (the place of honour)
as an act of ceremonial deference shown to a 'stranger' or 'guest'
from another country.
Worship of the Living
Before proceeding to consider the gods of China in detail, it is
necessary to note that ancestor-worship, which, as before stated,
is worship of the ghosts of deceased persons, who are usually but
not invariably relatives of the worshipper, has at times a sort of
preliminary stage in this world consisting of the worship of living
beings. Emperors, viceroys, popular officials, or people beloved for
their good deeds have had altars, temples, and images erected to them,
where they are worshipped in the same way as those who have already
"shuffled off this mortal coil." The most usual cases are perhaps those
of the worship of living emperors and those in which some high official
who has gained the gratitude of the people is transferred to another
post. The explanation is simple. The second self which exists after
death is identical with the second self inhabiting the body during
life. Therefore it may be propitiated or gratified by sacrifices
of food, drink, etc., or theatricals performed in its honour, and
continue its protection and good offices even though now far away.
Confucianism
Confucianism (_Ju Chiao_) is said to be the religion of the learned,
and the learned were the officials and the _literati_ or lettered
class, which includes scholars waiting for posts, those who have failed
to get posts (or, though qualified, prefer to live in retirement), and
those who have retired from posts. Of this 'religion' it has been said:
"The name embraces education, letters, ethics, and political
philosophy. Its head was not a religious man, practised few religious
rites, and taught nothing about religion. In its usual acceptation the
term Confucianist means 'a gentleman and a scholar'; he may worship
only once a year, yet he belongs to the Church. Unlike its two sisters,
it has no priesthood, and fundamentally is not a religion at all;
yet with the many rites grafted on the original tree it becomes a
religion, and the one most difficult to deal with. Considered as a
Church, the classics are its scriptures, the schools its churches, the
teachers its priests, ethics its theology, and the written character,
so sacred, its symbol." [13]
Confucius not a God
It should be noted that Confucius himself is not a god, though he
has been and is worshipped (66,000 animals used to be offered to him
every year; probably the number is about the same now). Suggestions
have been made to make him the God of China and Confucianism the
religion of China, so that he and his religion would hold the same
relative positions that Christ and Christianity do in the West. I
was present at the lengthy debate which took place on this subject
in the Chinese Parliament in February 1917, but in spite of many
long, learned, and eloquent speeches, chiefly by scholars of the
old school, the motion was not carried. Nevertheless, the worship
accorded to Confucius was and is (except by 'new' or 'young' China)
of so extreme a nature that he may almost be described as the great
unapotheosized god of China. [14] Some of his portraits even ascribe to
him superhuman attributes. But in spite of all this the fact remains
that Confucius has not been appointed a god and holds no _exequatur_
entitling him to that rank.
If we inquire into the reason of this we find that, astonishing
though it may seem, Confucius is classed by the Chinese not as a god
(_shên_), but as a demon (_kuei_). A short historical statement will
make the matter clear.
In the classical _Li chi, Book of Ceremonial_, we find the categorical
assignment of the worship of certain objects to certain subjective
beings: the emperor worshipped Heaven and earth, the feudal princes the
mountains and rivers, the officials the hearth, and the _literati_
their ancestors. Heaven, earth, mountains, rivers, and hearth
were called _shên_ (gods), and ancestors _kuei_ (demons). This
distinction is due to Heaven being regarded as the god and the
people as demons--the upper is the god, the lower the evil spirit or
demon. Though _kuei_ were usually bad, the term in Chinese includes
both good and evil spirits. In ancient times those who had by their
meritorious virtue while in the world averted calamities from the
people were posthumously worshipped and called gods, but those who were
worshipped by their descendants only were called spirits or demons.
In the worship of Confucius by emperors of various dynasties (details
of which need not be given here) the highest titles conferred on him
were _Hsien Shêng_, 'Former or Ancestral Saint,' and even _Win Hsüan
Wang_, 'Accomplished and Illustrious Prince,' and others containing
like epithets. When for his image or idol there was (in the eleventh
year--A.D. 1307--of the reign-period Ta Tê of the Emperor Ch'êng
Tsung of the Yüan dynasty) substituted the tablet now seen in the
Confucian temples, these were the inscriptions engraved on it. In the
inscriptions authoritatively placed on the tablets the word _shên_
does not occur; in those cases where it does occur it has been
placed there (as by the Taoists) illegally and without authority
by too ardent devotees. Confucius may not be called a _shên_, since
there is no record showing that the great ethical teacher was ever
apotheosized, or that any order was given that the character _shên_
was to be applied to him.
The God of Literature
In addition to the ancestors of whose worship it really consists,
Confucianism has in its pantheon the specialized gods worshipped by
the _literati_. Naturally the chief of these is Wên Ch'ang, the God of
Literature. The account of him (which varies in several particulars
in different Chinese works) relates that he was a man of the name
of Chang Ya, who was born during the T'ang dynasty in the kingdom of
Yüeh (modern Chêkiang), and went to live at Tzu T'ung in Ssuch'uan,
where his intelligence raised him to the position of President of the
Board of Ceremonies. Another account refers to him as Chang Ya Tzu,
the Soul or Spirit of Tzu T'ung, and states that he held office in the
Chin dynasty (A.D. 265-316), and was killed in a fight. Another again
states that under the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), in the third year
(A.D. 1000) of the reign-period Hsien P'ing of the Emperor Chên Tsung,
he repressed the revolt of Wang Chün at Ch'êng Tu in Ssuch'uan. General
Lei Yu-chung caused to be shot into the besieged town arrows to which
notices were attached inviting the inhabitants to surrender. Suddenly
a man mounted a ladder, and pointing to the rebels cried in a loud
voice: "The Spirit of Tzu T'ung has sent me to inform you that the
town will fall into the hands of the enemy on the twentieth day of
the ninth moon, and not a single person will escape death." Attempts
to strike down this prophet of evil were in vain, for he had already
disappeared. The town was captured on the day indicated. The general,
as a reward, caused the temple of Tzu T'ung's Spirit to be repaired,
and sacrifices offered to it.
The object of worship nowadays in the temples dedicated to Wên Ch'ang
is Tzu T'ung Ti Chün, the God of Tzu T'ung. The convenient elasticity
of dualism enabled Chang to have as many as seventeen reincarnations,
which ranged over a period of some three thousand years.
Various emperors at various times bestowed upon Wên Ch'ang honorific
titles, until ultimately, in the Yüan, or Mongol, dynasty, in the reign
Yen Yu, in A.D. 1314, the title was conferred on him of Supporter of
the Yüan Dynasty, Diffuser of Renovating Influences, Ssu-lu of Wên
Ch'ang, God and Lord. He was thus apotheosized, and took his place
among the gods of China. By steps few or many a man in China has
often become a god.
Wên Ch'ang and the Great Bear
Thus we have the God of Literature, Wên Ch'ang Ti Chün, duly installed
in the Chinese pantheon, and sacrifices were offered to him in the
schools.
But scholars, especially those about to enter for the public
competitive examinations, worshipped as the God of Literature, or as
his palace or abode (Wên Ch'ang), the star K'uei in the Great Bear,
or Dipper, or Bushel--the latter name derived from its resemblance in
shape to the measure used by the Chinese and called _tou_. The term
K'uei was more generally applied to the four stars forming the body
or square part of the Dipper, the three forming the tail or handle
being called Shao or Piao. How all this came about is another story.
A scholar, as famous for his literary skill as his facial deformities,
had been admitted as first academician at the metropolitan
examinations. It was the custom that the Emperor should give with
his own hand a rose of gold to the fortunate candidate. This scholar,
whose name was Chung K'uei, presented himself according to custom to
receive the reward which by right was due to him. At the sight of
his repulsive face the Emperor refused the golden rose. In despair
the miserable rejected one went and threw himself into the sea. At
the moment when he was being choked by the waters a mysterious fish
or monster called _ao_ raised him on its back and brought him to the
surface. K'uei ascended to Heaven and became arbiter of the destinies
of men of letters. His abode was said to be the star K'uei, a name
given by the Chinese to the sixteen stars of the constellation or
'mansion' of Andromeda and Pisces. The scholars quite soon began
to worship K'uei as the God of Literature, and to represent it on a
column in the temples. Then sacrifices were offered to it. This star
or constellation was regarded as the palace of the god. The legend
gave rise to an expression frequently used in Chinese of one who
comes out first in an examination, namely, _tu chan ao t'ou_, "to
stand alone on the sea-monster's head." It is especially to be noted
that though the two K'ueis have the same sound they are represented
by different characters, and that the two constellations are not the
same, but are situated in widely different parts of the heavens.
How then did it come about that scholars worshipped the K'uei in
the Great Bear as the abode of the God of Literature? (It may be
remarked in passing that a literary people could not have chosen
a more appropriate palace for this god, since the Great Bear,
the 'Chariot of Heaven,' is regarded as the centre and governor
of the whole universe.) The worship, we saw, was at first that of
the star K'uei, the apotheosized 'homely,' successful, but rejected
candidate. As time went on, there was a general demand for a sensible,
concrete representation of this star-god: a simple character did not
satisfy the popular taste. But it was no easy matter to comply with the
demand. Eventually, guided doubtless by the community of pronunciation,
they substituted for the star or group of stars K'uei (1),
venerated in ancient times, a new star or group of stars K'uei (2),
forming the square part of the Bushel, Dipper, or Great Bear. But for
this again no bodily image could be found, so the form of the written
character itself was taken, and so drawn as to represent a _kuei_
(3) (disembodied spirit, or ghost) with its foot raised, and bearing
aloft a _tou_ (4) (bushel-measure). The adoration was thus misplaced,
for the constellation K'uei (2) was mistaken for K'uei (1), the proper
object of worship. It was due to this confusion by the scholars that
the Northern Bushel came to be worshipped as the God of Literature.
Wên Ch'ang and Tzu T'ung
This worship had nothing whatever to do with the Spirit of Tzu T'ung,
but the Taoists have connected Chang Ya with the constellation in
another way by saying that Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, entrusted Chang
Ya's son with the management of the palace of Wên Ch'ang. And scholars
gradually acquired the habit of saying that they owed their success
to the Spirit of Tzu T'ung, which they falsely represented as being an
incarnation of the star Wên Ch'ang. This is how Chang Ya came to have
the honorific title of Wên Ch'ang, but, as a Chinese author points
out, Chang belonged properly to Ssuch'uan, and his worship should
be confined to that province. The _literati_ there venerated him as
their master, and as a mark of affection and gratitude built a temple
to him; but in doing so they had no intention of making him the God of
Literature. "There being no real connexion between Chang Ya and K'uei,
the worship should be stopped." The device of combining the personality
of the patron of literature enthroned among the stars with that of the
deified mortal canonized as the Spirit of Tzu T'ung was essentially a
Taoist trick. "The thaumaturgic reputation assigned to the Spirit of
Chang Ya Tzu was confined for centuries to the valleys of Ssuch'uan,
until at some period antecedent to the reign Yen Yu, in A.D. 1314,
a combination was arranged between the functions of the local god
and those of the stellar patron of literature. Imperial sanction
was obtained for this stroke of priestly cunning; and notwithstanding
protests continually repeated by orthodox sticklers for accuracy in the
religious canon, the composite deity has maintained his claims intact,
and an inseparable connexion between the God of Literature created by
imperial patent and the spirit lodged among the stars of Ursa Major is
fully recognized in the State ceremonial of the present day." A temple
dedicated to this divinity by the State exists in every city of China,
besides others erected as private benefactions or speculations.
Wherever Wên Ch'ang is worshipped there will also be found a separate
representation of K'uei Hsing, showing that while the official deity
has been allowed to 'borrow glory' from the popular god, and even
to assume his personality, the independent existence of the stellar
spirit is nevertheless sedulously maintained. The place of the latter
in the heavens above is invariably symbolized by the lodgment of his
idol in an upper storey or tower, known as the K'uei Hsing Ko or K'uei
Hsing Lou. Here students worship the patron of their profession with
incense and prayers. Thus the ancient stellar divinity still largely
monopolizes the popular idea of a guardian of literature and study,
notwithstanding that the deified recluse of Tzu T'ung has been added in
this capacity to the State pantheon for more than five hundred years.
Heaven-deaf and Earth-dumb
The popular representations of Wên Ch'ang depict the god himself and
four other figures. The central and largest is the demure portrait of
the god, clothed in blue and holding a sceptre in his left hand. Behind
him stand two youthful attendants. They are the servant and groom
who always accompany him on his journeys (on which he rides a white
horse). Their names are respectively Hsüan T'ung-tzu and Ti-mu, 'Sombre
Youth' and 'Earth-mother'; more commonly they are called T'ien-lung,
'Deaf Celestial,' and Ti-ya, 'Mute Terrestrial,' or 'Deaf as Heaven'
and 'Mute as Earth.' Thus they cannot divulge the secrets of their
master's administration as he distributes intellectual gifts, literary
skill, etc. Their cosmogonical connexion has already been referred
to in a previous chapter.
Image of K'uei Hsing
In front of Wên Ch'ang, on his left, stands K'uei Hsing. He is
represented as of diminutive stature, with the visage of a demon,
holding a writing-brush in his right hand and a _tou_ in his left,
one of his legs kicking up behind--the figure being obviously intended
as an impersonation of the character _k'uei_ (2). [16] He is regarded
as the distributor of literary degrees, and was invoked above all
in order to obtain success at the competitive examinations. His
images and temples are found in all towns. In the temples dedicated
to Wên Ch'ang there are always two secondary altars, one of which is
consecrated to his worship.
Mr Redcoat
The other is dedicated to Chu I, 'Mr Redcoat.' He and K'uei Hsing
are represented as the two inseparable companions of the God of
Literature. The legend related of Chu I is as follows:
During the T'ang dynasty, in the reign-period Chien Chung (A.D. 780-4)
of the Emperor Tê Tsung, the Princess T'ai Yin noticed that Lu Ch'i,
a native of Hua Chou, had the bones of an Immortal, and wished to
marry him.
Ma P'o, her neighbour, introduced him one day into the Crystal
Palace for an interview with his future wife. The Princess gave him
the choice of three careers: to live in the Dragon Prince's Palace,
with the guarantee of immortal life, to enjoy immortality among the
people on the earth, or to have the honour of becoming a minister of
the Empire. Lu Ch'i first answered that he would like to live in the
Crystal Palace. The young lady, overjoyed, said to him: "I am Princess
T'ai Yin. I will at once inform Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler." A moment
later the arrival of a celestial messenger was announced. Two officers
bearing flags preceded him and conducted him to the foot of the flight
of steps. He then presented himself as Chu I, the envoy of Shang Ti.
Addressing himself to Lu Ch'i, he asked: "Do you wish to live in the
Crystal Palace?" The latter did not reply. T'ai Yin urged him to give
his answer, but he persisted in keeping silent. The Princess in despair
retired to her apartment, and brought out five pieces of precious
cloth, which she presented to the divine envoy, begging him to have
patience a little longer and wait for the answer. After some time,
Chu I repeated his question. Then Lu Ch'i in a firm voice answered:
"I have consecrated my life to the hard labour of study, and wish to
attain to the dignity of minister on this earth."
T'ai Yin ordered Ma P'o to conduct Lu Ch'i from the palace. From that
day his face became transformed: he acquired the lips of a dragon,
the head of a panther, the green face of an Immortal, etc. He took
his degree, and was promoted to be Director of the Censorate. The
Emperor, appreciating the good sense shown in his advice, appointed
him a minister of the Empire.
From this legend it would seem that Chu I is the purveyor of official
posts; however, in practice, he is more generally regarded as the
protector of weak candidates, as the God of Good Luck for those who
present themselves at the examinations with a somewhat light equipment
of literary knowledge. The special legend relating to this _rôle_
is known everywhere in China. It is as follows:
Mr Redcoat nods his Head
An examiner, engaged in correcting the essays of the candidates,
after a superficial scrutiny of one of the essays, put it on one
side as manifestly inferior, being quite determined not to pass the
candidate who had composed it. The essay, moved by some mysterious
power, was replaced in front of his eyes, as if to invite him to
examine it more attentively. At the same time a reverend old man,
clothed in a red garment, suddenly appeared before him, and by a nod
of his head gave him to understand that he should pass the essay. The
examiner, surprised at the novelty of the incident, and fortified by
the approval of his supernatural visitor, admitted the author of the
essay to the literary degree.
Chu I, like K'uei Hsing, is invoked by the _literati_ as a powerful
protector and aid to success. When anyone with but a poor chance of
passing presents himself at an examination, his friends encourage
him by the popular saying: "Who knows but that Mr Redcoat will nod
his head?"
Mr Golden Cuirass
Chu I is sometimes accompanied by another personage, named Chin Chia,
'Mr Golden Cuirass.' Like K'uei Hsing and Chu I he has charge of the
interests of scholars, but differs from them in that he holds a flag,
which he has only to wave in front of a house for the family inhabiting
it to be assured that among their descendants will be some who will
win literary honours and be promoted to high offices under the State.
Though Chin Chia is the protector of scholars, he is also the
redoubtable avenger of their evil actions: his flag is saluted as a
good omen, but his sword is the terror of the wicked.
The God of War
Still another patron deity of literature is the God of War. "How,"
it may be asked, "can so peaceful a people as the Chinese put so
peaceful an occupation as literature under the patronage of so warlike
a deity as the God of War?" But that question betrays ignorance of the
character of the Chinese Kuan Ti. He is not a cruel tyrant delighting
in battle and the slaying of enemies: he is the god who can _avert
war and protect the people from its horrors_.
A youth, whose name was originally Chang-shêng, afterward changed to
Shou-chang, and then to Yün-chang, who was born near Chieh Liang,
in Ho Tung (now the town of Chieh Chou in Shansi), and was of an
intractable nature, having exasperated his parents, was shut up in a
room from which he escaped by breaking through the window. In one of
the neighbouring houses he heard a young lady and an old man weeping
and lamenting. Running to the foot of the wall of the compound, he
inquired the reason of their grief. The old man replied that though
his daughter was already engaged, the uncle of the local official,
smitten by her beauty, wished to make her his concubine. His petitions
to the official had only been rejected with curses.
Beside himself with rage, the youth seized a sword and went and killed
both the official and his uncle. He escaped through the T'ung Kuan, the
pass to Shensi. Having with difficulty avoided capture by the barrier
officials, he knelt down at the side of a brook to wash his face;
when lo! his appearance was completely transformed. His complexion
had become reddish-grey, and he was absolutely unrecognizable. He
then presented himself with assurance before the officers, who asked
him his name. "My name is Kuan," he replied. It was by that name that
he was thereafter known.
The Meat-seller's Challenge
One day he arrived at Chu-chou, a dependent sub-prefecture of Peking,
in Chihli. There Chang Fei, a butcher, who had been selling his meat
all the morning, at noon lowered what remained into a well, placed
over the mouth of the well a stone weighing twenty-five pounds, and
said with a sneer: "If anyone can lift that stone and take my meat,
I will make him a present of it!" Kuan Yü, going up to the edge of
the well, lifted the stone with the same ease as he would a tile,
took the meat, and made off. Chang Fei pursued him, and eventually
the two came to blows, but no one dared to separate them. Just then
Liu Pei, a hawker of straw shoes, arrived, interposed, and put a stop
to the fight. The community of ideas which they found they possessed
soon gave rise to a firm friendship between the three men.
The Oath in the Peach-orchard
Another account represents Liu Pei and Chang Fei as having entered
a village inn to drink wine, when a man of gigantic stature pushing
a wheelbarrow stopped at the door to rest. As he seated himself,
he hailed the waiter, saying: "Bring me some wine quickly, because
I have to hasten to reach the town to enlist in the army."
Liu Pei looked at this man, nine feet in height, with a beard two feet
long. His face was the colour of the fruit of the jujube-tree, and
his lips carmine. Eyebrows like sleeping silkworms shaded his phoenix
eyes, which were a scarlet red. Terrible indeed was his bearing.
"What is your name?" asked Liu Pei. "My family name is Kuan, my own
name is Yü, my surname Yün Chang," he replied. "I am from the Ho Tung
country. For the last five or six years I have been wandering about
the world as a fugitive, to escape from my pursuers, because I killed
a powerful man of my country who was oppressing the poor people. I
hear that they are collecting a body of troops to crush the brigands,
and I should like to join the expedition."
Chang Fêi, also named Chang I Tê, is described as eight feet in
height, with round shining eyes in a panther's head, and a pointed
chin bristling with a tiger's beard. His voice resembled the rumbling
of thunder. His ardour was like that of a fiery steed. He was a native
of Cho Chün, where he possessed some fertile farms, and was a butcher
and wine-merchant.
Liu Pei, surnamed Hsüan Tê, otherwise Hsien Chu, was the third member
of the group.
The three men went to Chang Fei's farm, and on the morrow met together
in his peach-orchard, and sealed their friendship with an oath. Having
procured a black ox and a white horse, with the various accessories
to a sacrifice, they immolated the victims, burnt the incense of
friendship, and after twice prostrating themselves took this oath:
"We three, Liu Pei, Kuan Yû, and Chang Fei, already united by mutual
friendship, although belonging to different clans, now bind ourselves
by the union of our hearts, and join our forces in order to help each
other in times of danger.
"We wish to pay to the State our debt of loyal citizens and give peace
to our black-haired compatriots. We do not inquire if we were born
in the same year, the same month, or on the same day, but we desire
only that the same year, the same month, and the same day may find us
united in death. May Heaven our King and Earth our Queen see clearly
our hearts! If any one of us violate justice or forget benefits,
may Heaven and Man unite to punish him!"
The oath having been formally taken, Liu Pei was saluted as elder
brother, Kuan Yü as the second, and Chang Fei as the youngest. Their
sacrifice to Heaven and earth ended, they killed an ox and served
a feast, to which the soldiers of the district were invited to the
number of three hundred or more. They all drank copiously until they
were intoxicated. Liu Pei enrolled the peasants; Chang Fei procured
for them horses and arms; and then they set out to make war on the
Yellow Turbans (Huang Chin Tsei). Kuan Yü proved himself worthy
of the affection which Liu Pei showed him; brave and generous, he
never turned aside from danger. His fidelity was shown especially
on one occasion when, having been taken prisoner by Ts'ao Ts'ao,
together with two of Liu Pei's wives, and having been allotted a common
sleeping-apartment with his fellow-captives, he preserved the ladies'
reputation and his own trustworthiness by standing all night at the
door of the room with a lighted lantern in his hand.
Into details of the various exploits of the three Brothers of the
Peach-orchard we need not enter here. They are written in full in the
book of the _Story of the Three Kingdoms_, a romance in which every
Chinese who can read takes keen delight. Kuan Yü remained faithful to
his oath, even though tempted with a marquisate by the great Ts'ao
Ts'ao, but he was at length captured by Sun Ch'üan and put to death
(A.D. 219). Long celebrated as the most renowned of China's military
heroes, he was ennobled in A.D. 1120 as Faithful and Loyal Duke. Eight
years later he had conferred on him by letters patent the still more
glorious title of Magnificent Prince and Pacificator. The Emperor Wên
(A.D. 1330-3) of the Yüan dynasty added the appellation Warrior Prince
and Civilizer, and, finally, the Emperor Wan Li of the Ming dynasty,
in 1594, conferred on him the title of Faithful and Loyal Great _Ti_,
Supporter of Heaven and Protector of the Kingdom. He thus became a god,
a _ti_, and has ever since received worship as Kuan Ti or Wu Ti, the
God of War. Temples (1600 State temples and thousands of smaller ones)
erected in his honour are to be seen in all parts of the country. He
is one of the most popular gods of China. During the last half-century
of the Manchu Period his fame greatly increased. In 1856 he is said
to have appeared in the heavens and successfully turned the tide of
battle in favour of the Imperialists. His portrait hangs in every tent,
but his worship is not confined to the officials and the army, for
many trades and professions have elected him as a patron saint. The
sword of the public executioner used to be kept within the precincts
of his temple, and after an execution the presiding magistrate would
stop there to worship for fear the ghost of the criminal might follow
him home. He knew that the spirit would not dare to enter Kuan Ti's
presence.
Thus the Chinese have no fewer than three gods of literature--perhaps
not too many for so literary a people. A fourth, a Taoist god, will
be mentioned later.
Buddhism in China
Buddhism and its mythology have formed an important part of Chinese
thought for nearly two thousand years. The religion was brought
to China about A.D. 65, ready-made in its Mahayanistic form, in
consequence of a dream of the Emperor Ming Ti (A.D. 58-76) of the
Eastern Han dynasty in or about the year 63; though some knowledge
of Buddha and his doctrines existed as early as 217 B.C. As Buddha,
the chief deity of Buddhism, was a man and became a god, the religion
originated, like the others, in ancestor-worship. When a man dies, says
this religion, his other self reappears in one form or another, "from a
clod to a divinity." The way for Buddhism in China was paved by Taoism,
and Buddhism reciprocally affected Taoism by helpful development of
its doctrines of sanctity and immortalization. Buddhism also, as it has
been well put by Dr De Groot, [17] "contributed much to the ceremonial
adornment of ancestor-worship. Its salvation work on behalf of the
dead saved its place in Confucian China; for of Confucianism itself,
piety and devotion towards parents and ancestors, and the promotion of
their happiness, were the core, and, consequently, their worship with
sacrifices and ceremonies was always a sacred duty." It was thus that
it was possible for the gods of Buddhism to be introduced into China
and to maintain their special characters and fulfil their special
functions without being absorbed into or submerged by the existing
native religions. The result was, as we have seen, in the end a
partnership rather than a relation of master and servant; and I say
'in the end' because, contrary to popular belief, the Chinese have
not been tolerant of foreign religious faiths, and at various times
have persecuted Buddhism as relentlessly as they have other rivals
to orthodox Confucianism.
Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood
At the head of the Buddhist gods in China we find the triad
known as Buddha, the Law, and the Church, or Priesthood, which are
personified as Shih-chia Fo (Shâkya), O-mi-t'o Fo (Amita), and Ju-lai
Fo (Tathagata); otherwise Fo Pao, Fa Pao, and Sêng Pao (the _San Pao_,
'Three Precious Ones')--that is, Buddha, the prophet who came into the
world to teach the Law, Dharma, the Law Everlasting, and Samgha, its
mystical body, Priesthood, or Church. Dharma is an entity underived,
containing the spiritual elements and material constituents of the
universe. From it the other two evolve: Buddha (Shâkyamuni), the
creative energy, Samgha, the totality of existence and of life. To the
people these are three personal Buddhas, whom they worship without
concerning themselves about their origin. To the priests they are
simply the Buddha, past, present, or future. There are also several
other of these groups or triads, ten or more, composed of different
deities, or sometimes containing one or two of the triad already
named. Shâkyamuni heads the list, having a place in at least six.
The legend of the Buddha belongs rather to Indian than to Chinese
mythology, and is too long to be reproduced here. [18]
The principal gods of Buddhism are Jan-têng Fo, the Light-lamp
Buddha, Mi-lo Fo (Maitrêya), the expected Messiah of the Buddhists,
O-mi-t'o Fo (Amitabha or Amita), the guide who conducts his devotees
to the Western Paradise, Yüeh-shih Fo, the Master-physician Buddha,
Ta-shih-chih P'u-sa (Mahastama), companion of Amitabha, P'i-lu Fo
(Vairotchana), the highest of the Threefold Embodiments, Kuan Yin,
the Goddess of Mercy, Ti-tsang Wang, the God of Hades, Wei-t'o
(Vihârapâla), the Dêva protector of the Law of Buddha and Buddhist
temples, the Four Diamond Kings of Heaven, and Bodhidharma, the first
of the six Patriarchs of Eastern or Chinese Buddhism.
Diamond Kings of Heaven
On the right and left sides of the entrance hall of Buddhist temples,
two on each side, are the gigantic figures of the four great _Ssu Ta
Chin-kang_ or _T'ien-wang_, the Diamond Kings of Heaven, protectors
or governors of the continents lying in the direction of the four
cardinal points from Mount Sumêru, the centre of the world. They are
four brothers named respectively Mo-li Ch'ing (Pure), or Tsêng Chang,
Mo-li Hung (Vast), or Kuang Mu, Mo-li Hai (Sea), or To Wên, and Mo-li
Shou (Age), or Ch'ih Kuo. The _Chin kuang ming_ states that they bestow
all kinds of happiness on those who honour the Three Treasures, Buddha,
the Law, and the Priesthood. Kings and nations who neglect the Law
lose their protection. They are described and represented as follows:
Mo-li Ch'ing, the eldest, is twenty-four feet in height, with a beard
the hairs of which are like copper wire. He carries a magnificent
jade ring and a spear, and always fights on foot. He has also a magic
sword, 'Blue Cloud,' on the blade of which are engraved the characters
_Ti, Shui, Huo, Fêng_ (Earth, Water, Fire, Wind). When brandished,
it causes a black wind, which produces tens of thousands of spears,
which pierce the bodies of men and turn them to dust. The wind is
followed by a fire, which fills the air with tens of thousands of
golden fiery serpents. A thick smoke also rises out of the ground,
which blinds and burns men, none being able to escape.
Mo-li Hung carries in his hand an umbrella, called the Umbrella of
Chaos, formed of pearls possessed of spiritual properties. Opening
this marvellous implement causes the heavens and earth to be covered
with thick darkness, and turning it upside down produces violent
storms of wind and thunder and universal earthquakes.
Mo-li Hai holds a four-stringed guitar, the twanging of which
supernaturally affects the earth, water, fire, or wind. When it is
played all the world listens, and the camps of the enemy take fire.
Mo-li Shou has two whips and a panther-skin bag, the home of a creature
resembling a white rat, known as Hua-hu Tiao. When at large this
creature assumes the form of a white winged elephant, which devours
men. He sometimes has also a snake or other man-eating creature,
always ready to obey his behests.
Legend of the Diamond Kings
The legend of the Four Diamond Kings given in the _Fêng shên yen i_
is as follows: At the time of the consolidation of the Chou dynasty
in the twelfth and eleventh centuries B.C., Chiang Tzu-ya, chief
counsellor to Wên Wang, and General Huang Fei-hu were defending
the town and mountain of Hsi-ch'i. The supporters of the house of
Shang appealed to the four genii Mo, who lived at Chia-mêng Kuan,
praying them to come to their aid. They agreed, raised an army
of 100,000 celestial soldiers, and traversing towns, fields, and
mountains arrived in less than a day at the north gate of Hsi-ch'i,
where Mo-li Ch'ing pitched his camp and entrenched his soldiers.
Hearing of this, Huang Fei-hu hastened to warn Chiang Tzu-ya of the
danger which threatened him. "The four great generals who have just
arrived at the north gate," he said, "are marvellously powerful genii,
experts in all the mysteries of magic and use of wonderful charms. It
is much to be feared that we shall not be able to resist them."
Many fierce battles ensued. At first these went in favour of the
_Chin-kang_, thanks to their magical weapons and especially to Mo-li
Shou's Hua-hu Tiao, who terrorized the enemy by devouring their
bravest warriors.
Hua-hu Tiao devours Yang Chien
Unfortunately for the _Chin-kang_, the brute attacked and swallowed
Yang Chien, the nephew of Yü Huang. This genie, on entering the body
of the monster, rent his heart asunder and cut him in two. As he could
transform himself at will, he assumed the shape of Hua-hu Tiao, and
went off to Mo-li Shou, who unsuspectingly put him back into his bag.
The Four Kings held a festival to celebrate their triumph, and having
drunk copiously gave themselves over to sleep. During the night Yang
Chien came out of the bag, with the intention of possessing himself of
the three magical weapons of the _Chin-kang_. But he succeeded only in
carrying off the umbrella of Mo-li Hung. In a subsequent engagement
No-cha, the son of Vadjrâ-pani, the God of Thunder, broke the jade
ring of Mo-li Ch'ing. Misfortune followed misfortune. The _Chin-kang_,
deprived of their magical weapons, began to lose heart. To complete
their discomfiture, Huang T'ien Hua brought to the attack a matchless
magical weapon. This was a spike 7 1/2 inches long, enclosed in a
silk sheath, and called 'Heart-piercer.' It projected so strong a
ray of light that eyes were blinded by it.
Huang T'ien Hua, hard pressed by Mo-li Ch'ing, drew the mysterious
spike from its sheath, and hurled it at his adversary. It entered
his neck, and with a deep groan the giant fell dead.
Mo-li Hung and Mo-li Hai hastened to avenge their brother, but ere
they could come within striking distance of Huang Ti'en Hua his
redoubtable spike reached their hearts, and they lay prone at his feet.
The one remaining hope for the sole survivor was in Hua-hu Tiao. Mo-li
Shou, not knowing that the creature had been slain, put his hand into
the bag to pull him out, whereupon Yang Chien, who had re-entered the
bag, bit his hand off at the wrist, so that there remained nothing
but a stump of bone.
In this moment of intense agony Mo-li Shou fell an easy prey to Huang
T'ien Hua, the magical spike pierced his heart, and he fell bathed
in his blood. Thus perished the last of the _Chin-kang_.
The Three Pure Ones
Turning to the gods of Taoism, we find that the triad or trinity,
already noted as forming the head of that hierarchy, consists of
three Supreme Gods, each in his own Heaven. These three Heavens,
the _San Ch'ing_, 'Three Pure Ones' (this name being also applied
to the sovereigns ruling in them), were formed from the three airs,
which are subdivisions of the one primordial air.
The first Heaven is Yü Ch'ing. In it reigns the first member of
the Taoist triad. He inhabits the Jade Mountain. The entrance to
his palace is named the Golden Door. He is the source of all truth,
as the sun is the source of all light.
Various authorities give his name differently--Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun,
or Lo Ching Hsin, and call him T'ien Pao, 'the Treasure of Heaven,'
Some state that the name of the ruler of this first Heaven is Yü
Huang, and in the popular mind he it is who occupies this supreme
position. The Three Pure Ones are above him in rank, but to him, the
Pearly Emperor, is entrusted the superintendence of the world. He has
all the power of Heaven and earth in his hands. He is the correlative
of Heaven, or rather Heaven itself.
The second Heaven, Shang Ch'ing, is ruled by the second person of
the triad, named Ling-pao T'ien-tsun, or Tao Chün. No information is
given as to his origin. He is the custodian of the sacred books. He has
existed from the beginning of the world. He calculates time, dividing
it into different epochs. He occupies the upper pole of the world, and
determines the movements and interaction, or regulates the relations
of the _yin_ and the _yang_, the two great principles of nature.
In the third Heaven, T'ai Ch'ing, the Taoists place Lao Tzu, the
promulgator of the true doctrine drawn up by Ling-pao T'ien-tsun. He
is alternatively called Shên Pao, 'the Treasure of the Spirits,'
and T'ai-shang Lao-chûn, 'the Most Eminent Aged Ruler.' Under various
assumed names he has appeared as the teacher of kings and emperors,
the reformer of successive generations.
This three-storied Taoist Heaven, or three Heavens, is the result of
the wish of the Taoists not to be out-rivalled by the Buddhists. For
Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood they substitute the _Tao_, or
Reason, the Classics, and the Priesthood.
As regards the organization of the Taoist Heavens, Yü Huang has on his
register the name of eight hundred Taoist divinities and a multitude
of Immortals. These are all divided into three categories: Saints
(_Shêng-jên_), Heroes (_Chên-jên_), and Immortals (_Hsien-jên_),
occupying the three Heavens respectively in that order.
The Three Causes
Connected with Taoism, but not exclusively associated with that
religion, is the worship of the Three Causes, the deities presiding
over three departments of physical nature, Heaven, earth, and
water. They are known by various designations: _San Kuan_, 'the Three
Agents'; _San Yüan_, 'the Three Origins'; _San Kuan Ta Ti_, 'the Three
Great Emperor Agents'; and _T'ai Shang San Kuan_, 'the Three Supreme
Agents.' This worship has passed through four chief phases, as follows:
The first comprises Heaven, earth, and water, _T'ien, Ti, Shui_,
the sources of happiness, forgiveness of sins, and deliverance from
evil respectively. Each of these is called King-emperor. Their names,
written on labels and offered to Heaven (on a mountain), earth (by
burial), and water (by immersion), are supposed to cure sickness. This
idea dates from the Han dynasty, being first noted about A.D. 172.
The second, _San Yüan_ dating from A.D. 407 under the Wei dynasty,
identified the Three Agents with three dates of which they were
respectively made the patrons. The year was divided into three unequal
parts: the first to the seventh moon; the seventh to the tenth; and
the tenth to the twelfth. Of these, the fifteenth day of the first,
seventh, and tenth moons respectively became the three principal dates
of these periods. Thus the Agent of Heaven became the principal patron
of the first division, honoured on the fifteenth day of the first moon,
and so on.
The third phase, _San Kuan_, resulted from the first two being found
too complicated for popular favour. The _San Kuan_ were the three
sons of a man, Ch'ên Tzu-ch'un, who was so handsome and intelligent
that the three daughters of Lung Wang, the Dragon-king, fell in
love with him and went to live with him. The eldest girl was the
mother of the Superior Cause, the second of the Medium Cause, and the
third of the Inferior Cause. All these were gifted with supernatural
powers. Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun canonized them as the Three Great Emperor
Agents of Heaven, earth, and water, governors of all beings, devils
or gods, in the three regions of the universe. As in the first phase,
the _T'ien Kuan_ confers happiness, the _Ti Kuan_ grants remission
of sins, and the _Shui Kuan_ delivers from evil or misfortune.
The fourth phase consisted simply in the substitution by the priests
for the abstract or time-principles of the three great sovereigns
of ancient times, Yao, Shun, and Yü. The _literati_, proud of the
apotheosis of their ancient rulers, hastened to offer incense to them,
and temples, _San Yüan Kung_, arose in very many parts of the Empire.
A variation of this phase is the canonization, with the title of _San
Yüan_ or Three Causes, of _Wu-k'o San Chên Chün_, 'the Three True
Sovereigns, Guests of the Kingdom of Wu.' They were three Censors
who lived in the reign of King Li (Li Wang, 878-841 B.C.) of the Chou
dynasty. Leaving the service of the Chou on account of Li's dissolute
living, they went to live in Wu, and brought victory to that state in
its war with the Ch'u State, then returned to their own country, and
became pillars of the Chou State under Li's successor. They appeared
to protect the Emperor Chên Tsung when he was offering the _Fêng-shan_
sacrifices on T'ai Shan in A.D. 1008, on which occasion they were
canonized with the titles of Superior, Medium, and Inferior Causes,
as before, conferring upon them the regencies of Heaven, earth,
and water respectively.
Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun
Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun, or the First Cause, the Highest in Heaven,
generally placed at the head of the Taoist triad, is said never
to have existed but in the fertile imagination of the Lao Tzuist
sectarians. According to them Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun had neither origin
nor master, but is himself the cause of all beings, which is why he
is called the First Cause.
As first member of the triad, and sovereign ruler of the First Heaven,
Yü Ch'ing, where reign the saints, he is raised in rank above all
the other gods. The name assigned to him is Lo Ching Hsin. He was
born before all beginnings; his substance is imperishable; it is
formed essentially of uncreated air, air _a se_, invisible and without
perceptible limits. No one has been able to penetrate to the beginnings
of his existence. The source of all truth, he at each renovation of
the worlds--that is, at each new _kalpa_--gives out the mysterious
doctrine which confers immortality. All who reach this knowledge
attain by degrees to life eternal, become refined like the spirits,
or instantly become Immortals, even while upon earth.
Originally, Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun was not a member of the Taoist
triad. He resided above the Three Heavens, above the Three Pure
Ones, surviving the destructions and renovations of the universe,
as an immovable rock in the midst of a stormy sea. He set the stars
in motion, and caused the planets to revolve. The chief of his secret
police was Tsao Chün, the Kitchen-god, who rendered to him an account
of the good and evil deeds of each family. His executive agent was
Lei Tsu, the God of Thunder, and his subordinates. The seven stars
of the North Pole were the palace of his ministers, whose offices
were on the various sacred mountains. Nowadays, however, Yüan-shih
T'ien-tsun is generally neglected for Yü Huang.
An Avatar of P'an Ku
According to the tradition of Chin Hung, the God of T'ai Shan
of the fifth generation from P'an Ku, this being, then called
Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, was an avatar of P'an Ku. It came about in
this wise. In remote ages there lived on the mountains an old man,
Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, who used to sit on a rock and preach to the
multitude. He spoke of the highest antiquity as if from personal
experience. When Chin Hung asked him where he lived, he just raised
his hand toward Heaven, iridescent clouds enveloped his body, and he
replied: "Whoso wishes to know where I dwell must rise to impenetrable
heights." "But how," said Chin Hung, "was he to be found in this
immense emptiness?" Two genii, Ch'ih Ching-tzu and Huang Lao, then
descended on the summit of T'ai Shan and said: "Let us go and visit
this Yüan-shih. To do so, we must cross the boundaries of the universe
and pass beyond the farthest stars." Chin Hung begged them to give
him their instructions, to which he listened attentively. They then
ascended the highest of the sacred peaks, and thence mounted into the
heavens, calling to him from the misty heights: "If you wish to know
the origin of Yüan-shih, you must pass beyond the confines of Heaven
and earth, because he lives beyond the limits of the worlds. You must
ascend and ascend until you reach the sphere of nothingness and of
being, in the plains of the luminous shadows."
Having reached these ethereal heights, the two genii saw a bright
light, and Hsüan-hsüan Shang-jên appeared before them. The two
genii bowed to do him homage and to express their gratitude. "You
cannot better show your gratitude," he replied, "than by making my
doctrine known among men. You desire," he added, "to know the history
of Yüan-shih. I will tell it you. When P'an Ku had completed his
work in the primitive Chaos, his spirit left its mortal envelope
and found itself tossed about in empty space without any fixed
support. 'I must,' it said, 'get reborn in visible form; until I can
go through a new birth I shall remain empty and unsettled,' His soul,
carried on the wings of the wind, reached Fu-yü T'ai. There it saw
a saintly lady named T'ai Yüan, forty years of age, still a virgin,
and living alone on Mount Ts'u-o. Air and variegated clouds were
the sole nourishment of her vital spirits. An hermaphrodite, at
once both the active and the passive principle, she daily scaled the
highest peak of the mountain to gather there the flowery quintessence
of the sun and the moon. P'an Ku, captivated by her virgin purity,
took advantage of a moment when she was breathing to enter her mouth
in the form of a ray of light. She was _enceinte_ for twelve years,
at the end of which period the fruit of her womb came out through her
spinal column. From its first moment the child could walk and speak,
and its body was surrounded by a five-coloured cloud. The newly-born
took the name of Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, and his mother was generally
known as T'ai-yüan Shêng-mu, 'the Holy Mother of the First Cause.'"
Yü Huang
Yü Huang means 'the Jade Emperor,' or 'the Pure August One,' jade
symbolizing purity. He is also known by the name Yü-huang Shang-ti,
'the Pure August Emperor on High.'
The history of this deity, who later received many honorific titles
and became the most popular god, a very Chinese Jupiter, seems to be
somewhat as follows: The Emperor Ch'êng Tsung of the Sung dynasty
having been obliged in A.D. 1005 to sign a disgraceful peace with
the Tunguses or Kitans, the dynasty was in danger of losing the
support of the nation. In order to hoodwink the people the Emperor
constituted himself a seer, and announced with great pomp that he
was in direct communication with the gods of Heaven. In doing this
he was following the advice of his crafty and unreliable minister
Wang Ch'in-jo, who had often tried to persuade him that the pretended
revelations attributed to Fu Hsi, Yü Wang, and others were only pure
inventions to induce obedience. The Emperor, having studied his part
well, assembled his ministers in the tenth moon of the year 1012,
and made to them the following declaration: "In a dream I had a visit
from an Immortal, who brought me a letter from Yü Huang, the purport
of which was as follows: 'I have already sent you by your ancestor
Chao [T'ai Tsu] two celestial missives. Now I am going to send him in
person to visit you.'" A little while after his ancestor T'ai Tsu,
the founder of the dynasty, came according to Yü Huang's promise,
and Ch'êng Tsung hastened to inform his ministers of it. This is the
origin of Yü Huang. He was born of a fraud, and came ready-made from
the brain of an emperor.
The Cask of Pearls
Fearing to be admonished for the fraud by another of his ministers,
the scholar Wang Tan, the Emperor resolved to put a golden gag in his
mouth. So one day, having invited him to a banquet, he overwhelmed
him with flattery and made him drunk with good wine. "I would like
the members of your family also to taste this wine," he added, "so I
am making you a present of a cask of it." When Wang Tan returned home,
he found the cask filled with precious pearls. Out of gratitude to the
Emperor he kept silent as to the fraud, and made no further opposition
to his plans, but when on his death-bed he asked that his head be
shaved like a priest's and that he be clothed in priestly robes so
that he might expiate his crime of feebleness before the Emperor.
K'ang Hsi, the great Emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, who had already
declared that if it is wrong to impute deceit to a man it is still
more reprehensible to impute a fraud to Heaven, stigmatized him as
follows: "Wang Tan committed two faults: the first was in showing
himself a vile flatterer of his Prince during his life; the second
was in becoming a worshipper of Buddha at his death."
The Legend of Yü Huang
So much for historical record. The legend of Yü Huang relates that in
ancient times there existed a kingdom named Kuang Yen Miao Lo Kuo,
whose king was Ching Tê, his queen being called Pao Yüeh. Though
getting on in years, the latter had no son. The Taoist priests were
summoned by edict to the palace to perform their rites. They recited
prayers with the object of obtaining an heir to the throne. During
the ensuing night the Queen had a vision. Lao Chün appeared to her,
riding a dragon, and carrying a male child in his arms. He floated down
through the air in her direction. The Queen begged him to give her the
child as an heir to the throne. "I am quite willing," he said. "Here
it is." She fell on her knees and thanked him. On waking she found
herself _enceinte_. At the end of a year the Prince was born. From
an early age he showed himself compassionate and generous to the
poor. On the death of his father he ascended the throne, but after
reigning only a few days abdicated in favour of his chief minister,
and became a hermit at P'u-ming, in Shensi, and also on Mount Hsiu Yen,
in Yünnan. Having attained to perfection, he passed the rest of his
days in curing sickness and saving life; and it was in the exercise
of these charitable deeds that he died. The emperors Ch'êng Tsung
and Hui Tsung, of the Sung dynasty, loaded him with all the various
titles associated with his name at the present day.
Both Buddhists and Taoists claim him as their own, the former
identifying him with Indra, in which case Yü Huang is a Buddhist deity
incorporated into the Taoist pantheon. He has also been taken to be
the subject of a 'nature myth.' The Emperor Ching Tê, his father,
is the sun, the Queen Pao Yüeh the moon, and the marriage symbolizes
the rebirth of the vivifying power which clothes nature with green
plants and beautiful flowers.
T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu
In modern Taoism T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu is regarded as the first of
the Patriarchs and one of the most powerful genii of the sect. His
master was Hung-chün Lao-tsu. He wore a red robe embroidered with
white cranes, and rode a _k'uei niu_, a monster resembling a buffalo,
with one long horn like a unicorn. His palace, the Pi Yu Kung, was
situated on Mount Tzu Chih Yai.
This genie took the part of Chou Wang and helped him to resist Wu
Wang's armies. First, he sent his disciple To-pao Tao-jên to Chieh-p'ai
Kuan. He gave him four precious swords and the plan of a fort which
he was to construct and to name Chu-hsien Chên, 'the Citadel of all
the Immortals.'
To-pao Tao-jên carried out his orders, but he had to fight a battle
with Kuang Ch'êng-tzu, and the latter, armed with a celestial seal,
struck his adversary so hard that he fell to the ground and had to
take refuge in flight.
T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu came to the defence of his disciple and to
restore the morale of his forces. Unfortunately, a posse of gods
arrived to aid Wu Wang's powerful general, Chiang Tzu-ya. The first
who attacked T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was Lao Tzu, who struck him several
times with his stick. Then came Chun T'i, armed with his cane. The
buffalo of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu stamped him under foot, and Chun
T'i was thrown to the earth, and only just had time to rise quickly
and mount into the air amid a great cloud of dust.
There could be no doubt that the fight was going against T'ung-t'ien
Chiao-chu; to complete his discomfiture Jan-têng Tao-jên cleft the air
and fell upon him unexpectedly. With a violent blow of his 'Fix-sea'
staff he cast him down and compelled him to give up the struggle.
T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu then prepared plans for a new fortified camp
beyond T'ung Kuan, and tried to take the offensive again, but again
Lao Tzu stopped him with a blow of his stick. Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun
wounded his shoulder with his precious stone Ju-i, and Chun-t'i
Tao-jên waved his 'Branch of the Seven Virtues.' Immediately the
magic sword of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was reduced to splinters, and
he saved himself only by flight.