MAP READING
A knowledge of the rudiments of map reading is essential to the camper
who has occasion to travel into wilderness haunts. He should have a
clear mental conception of the ground to be covered and the map
furnishes this--the corresponding distances, the net work of streams,
roads and trails, and the elevations and slopes.
The starting points for all surveys are the five principal meridians
which run north and south. The range of the townships are numbered on
this line east and west and all reliable maps have the base lines and
meridians indicated. The townships are further divided into thirty-six
sections of six hundred and forty acres each and each section measures
one mile square making a total section measurement of six miles square.
The corners of all sections are marked in the field as follows:--In the
open country mounds are placed by the government surveyors and
surrounded by four pits--one pit on each section of land. Within this
mound will be found a stone with as many notches cut on the east and
west side as it is miles to the township line. In timbered regions
instead of a stone marker the intersections of the section lines are
marked by a stake and the four sides facing the sections are blazed and
the data of sections, township and range marked and notched the same as
on the stone markers. Midway between the half section intersections the
markers will have but two pits--one on either side and representing the
quarter sections and marked 1-4-S-.
The United States Geological Survey topographic atlas sheets are the
standard and are designated by the name of the principal town or of some
prominent natural feature within its boundary. The names of the
adjoining published sheets are printed on the margins. They are the base
maps on which the geology and mineral resources of a quadrangle are
represented. Of these the hiker is likely not interested but the map to
him is invaluable because of the following: it represents to him:--
1. The distances which are shown by a scale based on a fractional
proportion between the land area and the map area. The scale most used
for thickly settled or industrially important parts of the country is
one linear mile to one linear inch, the proportion of which is 1:63,360
and the map represents a ground area of 15´ of latitude by 1´ of
longitude. The map used for the greater part of the country covers an
area of 30´ of latitude by 30´ of longitude with a scale of two miles to
the inch or a proportion of 1:125,000. In the desert regions of the far
west the map covers more territory hence the proportion is greater,
1:250,000. It covers an area of 1° of latitude by 1° of longitude with a
scale of four miles to an inch.
2. On the map will be found brown contour lines which are arbitrary
lines passing through points of like altitude, thus each represents but
one level, such as the shore line at the sea side, and the map presents
all the eccentric meanderings of the latter. Every few feet in elevation
above sea level or depression below sea level is represented by a
contour line and the contour interval or vertical distance between lines
is stated at the bottom of the map. This varies from five feet on
comparatively level country to 200 feet in the mountains. Usually on
about every fifth line appears the exact elevation of that point above
sea level. Contour lines close together indicate sudden rise or fall of
ground and when these lines are far apart a more gentle slope. Where
they bend abruptly inward they represent a valley.
From the contour lines we get the relative height of the hills and depth
of valleys, and whether they are concave or convex and thus they give
the data of the relief or profile of the land--the mountains, hills and
valleys.
3. Aside from presenting to us the distances of a region and the relief
data represented by the contours which are printed in brown the
topographic map pictures the water (sea, lakes, rivers and streams)
printed in blue and the cultural works of man printed in black. The
features are all indicated by conventional signs, a key to which usually
is printed on the back of the map.
In reading a map you first direct the upper edge to the north by the aid
of the compass or, if the sun shines, by the aid of a watch. Next you
locate the camp in relation to prominent landmarks, trails, roads,
streams and contours. Then as you travel you note the configuration of
the ground, the general direction, and the landmarks. If the general
course of the trail is south and west and you are to detour north of it
you will only have to run south to get back to your base line or camp.
If your course varies to the east or north it will be necessary to make
the same distance west or south to get back to your starting point.
After a little practice in map reading one becomes proficient and he
will be able if in unsurveyed territory to make his own map. Get the
compass directions from the camp of every prominent landmark with
particular attention to streams and the ridges separating them. If one
is out exploring it is a good idea to climb to the summit of some bare
faced promontory and there study the topography of the country:--the
location of the lakes, swamps, whither the streams run, the number and
direction of the ridges, etc. The mental map thus made will be vastly
useful later on.
In traveling over hilly or mountainous country follow the courses at the
heights of land. It shortens the way for if the streams are followed one
may have to cross many tributaries and make long detours.
THE COMPASS AND ITS USES
For the average woods hiker a compass is a necessity in laying out the
course of travel. Men whose business keeps them in the wilderness seldom
carry the instruments but in them is developed to a high degree the bump
of locality--that instinct that points the way--coupled with trained
observation of land signs along the trail.
Consult the compass often, otherwise you may swing so far from your
course in going only a short distance that you will be inclined to doubt
its accuracy. In choosing a compass one need not go beyond the price of
two dollars for a serviceable and accurate instrument. The size is not
so important, a ¾ to 1½ inch dial is large enough for sportsmen. The
needle or pointer should have an agate bearing or jewel firmly set in
the brass cap and to be accurately balanced on the fine tempered or
pointed pivot. It is very important to have the box water-proofed else
the needle will stick.
The principle in use comprehends the presence of a theoretical magnetic
North Pole located northwest of Hudson’s Bay which attracts the blue end
of the compass needle from all parts of the northern hemisphere causing
it to point in that direction. Should one wish to lay a fairly accurate
course, have both hands at liberty, hold the compass in both hands at
half arm’s length from body with elbows resting against your sides so as
to bring the compass in direct line with the center of your body. To
settle the needle quickly tip the compass until the end of the needle
touches the glass to check the vibrations. Repeat this quickly two or
three times as needle passes the center of the arc it is making. Then
carefully level the box to stop the needle from vibrating. When the
needle swings free and finally stops the compass can be easily turned
until the letter _N_ is under the blue end of the needle and then one
has all parts of direction. It is well to remember that the needle is
affected by proximity to iron and steel.
Remember, when reading your map that the meridian marked thereon is the
true north. Your compass, as just explained, points to the magnetic
north. Therefore, you will have to apply a correction to your compass
reading, the amount necessary varying as you go east or west of a line
which passes, approximately, from Mackinac Island, in Lake Michigan, to
Savannah, Georgia. The further east you are of this line the more the
north end of your needle will point west of north; the further west you
are of this line the more your needle will point east of north, the
amount of the deviation amounting to one minute west for each mile east
of this line (or 1° for each 60 miles) and one minute east for each mile
west of this line.
WHAT TO DO WHEN LOST
The catastrophe of getting lost besets almost every lone woods traveler
sooner or later and frequently results in a panic as deadly as that
which drowns good swimmers. Even trained woodsmen sometimes get “turned
around” but they usually find their bearings soon because of the general
knowledge of the country and the main landmarks, shapes and heights of
mountains, the trend of the ridges, the prevailing winds, the general
direction and ultimate outlet of the streams, etc. The danger of getting
lost is further offset by a proper knowledge of taking one’s bearings,
by range finding, by the knack of traveling by direction and by correct
compass reading.
Perhaps the greatest cause of one’s being lost after separation from
party is that during ensemble travel the leader is the only one who sees
the landmarks. Upon leaving the camp place or headquarter’s point one
should note the landscape and know absolutely the direction he is
taking, otherwise his compass will be of little value even though he can
see the sun and knows that if, he points the hour hand of his watch to
it, half way between that point and twelve o’clock he is directed
south.
A lost man has a tendency to travel in a circle which is explained by
some as being due to the fact that most men step farther with one foot
than with the other. It can be avoided by selecting some distant object,
walking straight to it, picking out another in the same line of travel
and continuing to do this until one has arrived somewhere. One has the
satisfaction of knowing that he will not find himself at the place he
started from a short time previously. The compass then is invaluable and
its directions must under no circumstances be questioned.
To further prevent the possibility of losing one’s self he should blaze
the trail as he tries to travel out and keep straight with the compass
if there is no sun, moon or stars to act as guides. One cannot depend
much on Nature’s signs such as the preponderance of tree limbs on the
south side, moss on the north side, etc. In a country that has been
lumbered over old trails and woods roads should be followed down hill as
the lowlands and water courses are the invariable destination of logs
and these old trails and tote roads usually guide the traveler to some
lumber camp or clearing from which a well defined road is apt to lead.
As a last resort strike running water and follow it tenaciously. In it
and along its shore the wanderer may perchance find food, he may
possibly launch a raft upon it and he certainly will not die of thirst.
If you find yourself hopelessly lost the first thing to do is to keep
cool and avoid panic for the greatest danger is fear which robs one of
his judgment. If you are near a party and have a gun shoot twice in
succession repeating after long waits.[1] Smoke distress signals are
made by starting two green stuff fires about fifty feet apart. Get on a
high point for a lookout.
[1] The signal varies with the locality. In some sections it is
one shot, then a pause, and then two shots in quick succession; in other
localities it is two shots in quick succession, then a pause, and then a
single shot. Ascertain what the distress signal in any locality is
before venturing into the wilderness.
The back pack man is in no immediate danger so long as his outfit is
with him but let it be separated from him by mishap in a strange country
and his woodcraft ingenuity will be taxed. If night draws close build a
little bivouac fire and camp before dark, make yourself comfortable, get
in plenty of fresh wood to keep up the fire all night, build a wind
screen on three sides of fallen logs, brush and browse, and if possible
lay something on the bare ground to keep you off the dirt.
One should make it a rule never to leave the camp without taking a
small emergency bag along which would greatly assist in case of getting
lost. It should contain a compass, maps, First Aid packet, match box,
fish line and hooks, emergency ration and a knife.