Agriculture, Manufacture and Architecture--Wheat Growing--The
Farm Laborer--His Condition, Implements, etc. The
Taj-Mahal--Jugglers--Snake Charmers--From My Journal.
A large majority of the Hindoos are agriculturists. The staple crops are
wheat, rice, and different species of pease. The wheat production of
India exerts a great influence on the grain market of Europe, and is one
of the most dangerous competitors to our American wheat. Having been
ordered by the United States government to report on the wheat growing
of India, I made this a special object of investigation and study, and
in December, 1882, sent a report to the government in Washington which
is our first reliable information on that subject; it elicited a great
deal of attention, and was a source of genuine surprise in this country.
I submit a few extracts from this report:
The annual wheat production of India now reaches two hundred and forty
million bushels, of which two hundred million may be exported, while
the natives make their bread from other kinds of grain. The total area
devoted to wheat each year is now a little over twenty million acres,
and the best average yield is thirteen and one-half bushels per acre.
Wheat growing is now receiving the special attention of the general
and local governments, and important works are being made and
projected for an extensive system of canal irrigation. One of these,
the Sirhind canal in the Punjab, has just been completed; it was built
mainly by prison labor, is five hundred and two miles long, and will
irrigate seven hundred and eighty thousand acres through two thousand
five hundred miles of minor channels.
The wheat is sown in the autumn and harvested in March or April; it
is usually sown in drills or rows, weeded like garden stuff, and in
quantities not much larger than garden patches in the United States.
The agricultural population numbers nearly two hundred millions; it is
the aggregate of innumerable little units which, in agriculture, as in
everything else in India, brings the country into importance; and this
fact is so closely interwoven with the whole social, industrial and
legal network of India, that it bears a strong influence even upon the
future question of Indian _versus_ American wheat.
[Illustration: PLOWING IN INDIA.]
The Indian agriculturist,--"Ryot,"--can in no sense be compared to the
American farmer, but rather to the late serf of Russia. He is a tenant
on hard conditions, and is by custom and bigotry almost a fixture on
the spot of land where he was born; his farming is done on a very
small scale and according to old methods, to which he clings with
religious veneration; his wants are very few, and he endures poverty
and even hunger with patience; he cultivates his patch of five to
fifteen acres on shares for the landed proprietor,--"zemindar,"--who
holds under rental to the government, and the better half of his gross
income generally goes to the zemindar, the priest (Brahmin) and the
usurer, in the form of rent, presents, offerings and interest, and if
he can net ten cents a day by his hard and hopeless labor, that will
suffice for the most pressing wants of his household. His home is a
mud, or bamboo-hut, his property a pair of small bullocks, a few cows,
calves and goats, a wooden cart, and a few brass and earthen pots, in
all worth about fifty dollars, and his implements and tools are of the
rudest kind, such as his ancestors used a thousand years ago; and yet
he is making some progress under British rule, and finds his wants
increasing, and at the same time better outlets for his produce and
better recompense for his labor, and on the whole, is so independent
on ten cents a day, that he will eat or store his wheat rather than
sell it below a certain price. Of course he does not employ machinery
in farming, but plows his land with a crooked piece of iron-pointed
wood, harrows it with an instrument resembling a common ladder laid
flat on the ground and dragged by little bullocks crossways over the
field; he sows by hand, reaps with a rude sickle, carries the sheaves
home on his back or in the bullock cart, threshes them with a wooden
club, or lets the cattle tramp out the grain, and cleans it by
hand-winnowing.
[Illustration: LABORERS AT THE INDIGO PRESS.]
India of course yields a great number of other kinds of agricultural
products, especially the indigo plant, from which the renowned
dye-stuff is made; rape, mustard and other species of seeds from which
oils are pressed, the opium plant, etc.
In the cities and towns the people devote themselves to trades and
handicrafts, in some of which they attain greater perfection than any
other people. Their beautiful carvings in wood and ivory, their
exquisite embroideries, their textiles and yarns exceed everything in
that line. But their ability is not due to any genius or ingenuity, but
to close observation and patient application. According to their
religious tenets the sons must learn the trade of their father, and they
begin to work at his side as soon as they can handle a needle, chisel,
or other tool, and continue the practice day after day, year after year,
until they also in turn, have taught their children and grandchildren
the same trade. Certain places are noted for certain industries, as
Dakka for its fine muslin; Benares for its embroideries, etc. The muslin
weavers of Dakka can with their hands spin and weave fabrics which are
almost as fine as cobweb, and a person who is not accustomed to such
work would not be able to feel the thread between his fingers; but the
sensitiveness of the Hindoo spinner in Dakka has been developed to such
an extraordinary degree during a hundred generations that he is able to
perform works which would be perfectly impossible for others. I have
seen a garment presented to a Hindoo king which was so fine in texture
that, although it was a complete suit, it was folded up and safely
packed into a mango shell, which is only a little larger than an almond
shell, and thus presented. I have in my possession a little box two
inches wide and four inches long, made of sandal-wood and adorned with
fine carvings; all the edges are inlaid with pieces of ivory, in which
are again inlaid more than two thousand separate pieces of different
metals so skilfully put together that the joints can not be detected
even by using a magnifying glass.
In architecture the Hindoos also distinguished themselves centuries ago
by the erection of buildings which are still objects of the admiration
of the world. One of these master works of architecture is regarded as
the most beautiful ever erected by the hands of men. It is the Taj-Mahal
at Agra, a mausoleum erected by emperor Shah Jehan over the remains of
his wife, Bengos Begum, who died in 1630. "During a period of seventeen
years after her death Shah Jehan collected building material of marble
and precious stones to be used in the construction of the mausoleum. All
parts of India contributed to this, as did the different parts of the
Holy Land to the temple of Solomon, and its estimated cost is
twenty-five million dollars. It is built in Moorish style, with slender
pillars, and its majesty and beauty profoundly impress the beholder.
Many buildings in the world excel this temple in size, but none can
rival it in ideal beauty and finish. It looks more like a temple of
thanksgiving and praise than an abode of sorrow, and the spirit of love
seems to fill its silent chambers, quickening and warming the cold
marble and transforming the whole building into a dream, into a psalm in
stone. It is rich in mosaics, and precious stones of different colors
assume the shape of fresh vines and living flowers. There it stands in
solemn silence on the banks of the Jumna, like an enchanted vision. It
seemed to grow in magnificent splendor before my eyes as I approached
it. The airy dome and the white marble pillars glittered in fabulous,
mystic beauty, and towered far above the gigantic cypress trees, which
stood in rows like sentinels around it. One enters the park in front of
the main building through a pillared archway of colossal dimensions,
built of red sand-stone and surmounted by twenty-six white cupolas. The
height of the arches is one hundred and forty feet.
[Illustration: TAJ-MAHAL.]
"Taj-Mahal is erected on a base of red sand-stone nine hundred and
sixty-four feet long and three hundred and twenty-nine feet wide, one
side of which is washed by the river Jumna, and on each of the four
corners is a tower of red sand-stone covered by a white marble kiosk.
Two mosques take up the east and west sides. From this ground rises a
fine terrace of white marble, three hundred and thirteen feet square, in
the center of which is the beautiful main building itself. At each angle
is an airy marble spire of exquisite style, surmounted by a noble cupola
resting on eight pillars. They are about one hundred and fifty feet
high, and a spiral stairway leads to the very top. The ground-plan of
Taj-Mahal forms a regular octangle. The four sides on which the
entrances are located are each about one hundred and thirty feet long,
and turn to the four cardinal points of the compass. The roof is seventy
feet above the base. Over each corner is a gorgeous spire, and over the
center towers a marble dome measuring seventy feet in diameter, and
rising to a height of one hundred and twenty feet. It is covered by a
gilt vault in the shape of a half-moon about two hundred and sixty feet
above the floor. All this is of the finest Jaypoor marble, carefully
polished, and still retaining its pure color.
"Notwithstanding the colossal size of Taj-Mahal, every part of it, from
the foundation to the dome, is adorned with artistically executed
designs, and the whole is as carefully wrought as the finest ebony
ornament. Thus the entire Koran is inscribed on it. Even to-day the
burial vault of the beautiful queen is filled with the fragrance of
roses, jasmines and sandal-wood. The graves of the empress and emperor
constitute sarcophagi of the purest marble, covered with elegant inlays
of agate, carnelians, lapis lazuli and other precious stones, and
surrounded by a six-foot-high gallery in the open net-work of which
lilies, roses and other flowers of gems are inlaid. The dome in
Taj-Mahal produces an echo which is more pleasant, pure and lasting than
any other. A single musical sound produced by the human voice seems to
flow or soar up there like a prolonged, pleasant modulation, which dies
away so slowly that one seems to hear it after it is silent, just as one
seems to see a lark after following it with the eyes after it has
disappeared. Twenty thousand workmen were engaged for twenty-two years
in erecting this mausoleum."
These recollections from India would be incomplete if I should omit to
describe some of the wonderful tricks which I saw performed by Hindoo
jugglers. As I was sitting one day in an open place before the hotel in
Benares, together with some English army officers, an ordinary looking
Hindoo of the lower classes, accompanied by a small boy, appeared before
us, and asked permission to show the mango trick. This being granted,
the boy scraped up some earth on the road before our eyes, and made a
little mound of it on the floor of the open veranda in front of the
hotel. The magician, who had no other garment on than a loosely wrapped
cotton cloth, usually worn by the men, and in his hand a white cloth and
a little bag containing a few sticks and other small implements, stooped
down beside the little mound of earth, and, with his eyes fixed on us,
took a mango kernel about twice the size of a peach stone, which he
planted in the little mound. Having smoothed the mound with his hands he
recited several prayers and incantations, and made some motions over the
mound with a magic wand, carefully assuming an air of expectancy. After
a minute or two we saw the mound slowly opening at the top and the
tender shoot of a plant coming up through the crack. The Hindoo sat with
folded hands, occasionally breathing on the plant, and every now and
then he would invoke some invisible being. Meanwhile the plant grew
taller and more solid, until it finally assumed the shape of a dwarf
tree, which kept growing and sent out branches and leaves. This
development took place gradually and slowly, until finally a ripe mango
fruit was seen hanging down from one of the branches. During this
wonderful performance the magician had only now and then for a moment
covered the plant with the cloth in his hand.
At another time, when I was on the deck of a large steamer, a Hindoo
accompanied by a little girl asked the passengers to permit him to
perform a trick. This being granted, he placed a round wicker basket,
resembling a paper wastebasket, on the deck, and the little girl sat
down in it so that her head and feet were flush with the edge of the
basket, which was thus fairly filled up by the girl. Thereupon the
Hindoo put the cover on and took a long, straight, double-edged sword
which he ran through the basket in all directions. It was a shocking
sight, some of the ladies screamed, others fainted. But when he removed
the cover from the basket the girl came out alive and without injury.
The sword was handed to us for inspection, and I am perfectly sure that
it was a straight, solid, honest infantry weapon. During all this time
the basket stood on the deck of the ship so that no springs, machinery
or other contrivance could be concealed under it.
Snake charmers are very common in India. "When one of these is to
perform a trick he asks for a piece of paper, which he puts in the
out-stretched hand of the spectator, and begins to play on his flute,
and stare with his eyes as if he sees something near the hand. His whole
body seems to be changed; writhing like a worm, he continually plays on
the instrument and keeps his eyes riveted on the hand. Suddenly he
rushes forward and points to the same. But the spectator sees nothing,
and the charmer again plays and contorts his body still more wildly. His
arms are bare up to the elbows, and he holds the flute with both hands.
Suddenly he throws his flute away, continues his motions and repeats
incantations. Again he points to the paper, and while the observer turns
his eyes in that direction without seeing anything unusual, the charmer
presses his folded hands down on it and pulls out three large cobras,
raising their heads and stretching out their poisonous tongues in
different directions while he holds them in his hand."
[Illustration: SNAKE CHARMERS.]
These and similar tricks are performed daily, yet no one has been able
to detect how they are done. The theory of hypnotism has recently been
advanced, and it does not seem improbable.
The following extract from my journal may be of interest:
Oct. 8, 1882.--Yesterday I witnessed one of the most important
expressions of public opinion ever recorded in Asia, in favor of
religious liberty. Three thousand prominent persons, mostly Hindoos
and Mohammedans, and a few Christians and Parsees, assembled in the
city hall of Calcutta, and brilliant speeches were made eliciting most
animated applause from the native non-Christian inhabitants as a
protest against the police prosecuting the salvation army, lately
arrived in Bombay. What do the American and European Christians think
of the necessity for Brahmins, Mohammedans, and Parsees to protest
against prosecutions by Christians against Christians?
Darjieling, Oct. 17, 1882.--Here dwells a tribe of mountaineers who
are polyandrists, the reverse of polygamists. Each woman has several
husbands, who are generally brothers or near relatives. This practice
has locally decreased the population, while in all other Hindoo sects
it is rapidly increasing.
The English aristocracy is strongly represented here. The summer
residence of the Bengal government, which is located here, as well as
the excellent sanitarium, attract thousands of travelers. Excursions,
dinners, balls and other festivities follow each other in rapid
succession. This afternoon I was present at one of these gatherings,
and met the Greek merchant Patochi, and made other interesting
acquaintances. This evening shall attend a ball given by the governor
of Bengal. At all these parties "simkim," or champagne, flows in
streams. Life is gay and luxurious among the aristocracy in India.
Nov. 23, 1882.--Was present at a quiet and select entertainment with
the king of Kutch Behar, in his palace in Calcutta. His wife is a
daughter of the great Hindoo reformer Keshub-Chunder-Sen; she is a
well educated, beautiful woman, who, together with her husband, the
young and elegant king, defies the Hindoo caste restrictions, and
appears publicly in company with other ladies and gentlemen.
Dec. 28, 1882.--Attended the decennial missionary conference; five
hundred missionaries from all parts of Asia, Africa and Australia were
present, and made it a most interesting religious convention. It was a
gathering of highly cultivated, intelligent, courageous men and women,
from the gray haired veteran to the young novice fresh from college.
The American missionaries took a most prominent part, notable among
whom was Dr. Thoburn, since made a bishop in the Methodist church.
There were also three Swedes, with whom I formed an
acquaintance,--Ungert, Edman and Erikson.
Jan. 18, 1883.--Attended the great state ball in the palace of the
viceroy. Fifteen hundred guests were present, and the throng formed a
brilliant picture of beauty, fashion and royal splendor. There were
many native nobles, princes and rulers, the most prominent ones being
the gawkwar (king) of Baroda, and the Kahn of Khelat. Wherever the
gawkwar went he was closely followed by half a dozen turbaned
attendants and four body guards armed with daggers and cimeters, or
Damascus blades. His garment consisted of blue and green plush and
satin, and the many-colored turban was almost covered with diamonds.
It was claimed that the jewels he wore that evening on his breast and
turban had a value of two million dollars.
Feb. 10, 1883.--In spite of all efforts to live quietly I am
incessantly drawn into the whirl of social life; yesterday I attended
one of the most pleasant festivities of the season. It was a
magnificent fete given by the Mohammedan prince Raja Rajendra Naryan
Bahadur in his gorgeous palace and parks in Shova Bazar in honor of
the British victory in Egypt. Three thousand guests were present.
All kinds of amusements were arranged, such as dancing, concerts, a
circus with uninterrupted performances, nautches or dances performed
by native dancing girls, etc. In different parts of the palace
refreshments were served, all in the same grand style as the rest of
the entertainment. The parks and gardens were illuminated by thousands
of Chinese lanterns and many electric lights.
The following is also taken from my journal:
* * * Received visits from the Reverend Phillips Brooks and Joseph
Cook, and from a young Swedish count, Wachtmeister by name, who was on
his way through Asia, and also from a young prince from Madagascar, a
son of the queen of that country, who, under the guidance of Ludvig
Larson, a Norwegian sea captain, made a voyage through the seas of
Asia for the purpose of learning practical navigation. The young
prince spoke English fluently, and was a very intelligent man.
Attended a great festival at a masonic lodge where about one hundred
and fifty members of the order were present, among whom were men of
nearly every nationality and religion. The Master's degree was
conferred on three brothers who knelt before the same altar. One was a
Christian, and took his obligation with the hand on the Bible; one was
a Mohammedan, who took it with the hand on the Koran; the third, a
Hindoo, with his hand on the Shastra. The obligation was dictated by
an English lord, judge of the supreme court, assisted by the secretary
of the Grand Lodge, my friend Rustomji, a Parsee and fire-worshiper.
With the religious intolerance in India, where all unite in hating the
Christians, it is only among the Free Masons, who know of no
nationality, race or other barrier, that such things are possible.
[Illustration: THE GODDESS KALI.]
Visited the temple of the goddess Kali in a suburb of Calcutta. Kali
is the goddess of hate and vengence, and this temple is one of the
most celebrated in India. One hundred and fifty Brahmin priests
officiate in the same. The chief priest, Roonish-Chunder-Mokerje, was
a young man with liberal education. He had spent several years in
American mission schools. His office is held by inheritance. He was a
most agreeable companion, well versed in western as well as Sanskrit
literature. Once upon telling him that I had an intimate friend in
Sweden who was a Christian priest, he gave me some pictures of the
goddess Kali and other idols to send him with his compliments. In
return, I had the pleasure a few months later to present him with a
Swedish Bible, with his name in golden letters on the cover, from my
friend, the Swedish minister, which present he cherished very highly.
This Bible is now kept in the temple of Kali.
At my request Mokerje prepared a brief extract of the religious
doctrine of the Hindoos, which reads as follows:
"We believe in heaven and hell as temporary abodes of reward and
punishment. When a man dies his good and evil deeds are weighed on the
scales. First he goes to heaven to receive his reward, then to hell to
suffer in proportion to his sins. When everything is squared up he
again returns to the world in the form of another being, the same
process is repeated again and again, and he can attain perfect bliss
only after he has reached such a stage of development that he can do
neither good nor evil deeds, but must lose himself in the
contemplation of God until he finally ceases to exist as an individual
being, and is reunited with God of whom he really constitutes a part."
[Illustration: ABDUL, MY MOHAMMEDAN SERVANT.]
Was invited to the home of Col. Gordon to see some proofs of
occultation, which is very wide-spread in India, and witnessed
phenomena, which were so strange, that I hesitate to write them down.
I saw heavy objects moving in the air through the room above our
heads, and a man with the chair on which he sat rising several feet
from the floor without the aid of any visible force whatever. I heard
a slate pencil, moved by an invisible power, writing on a slate, and
read in plain English what was written. I also saw in the same manner
a pen writing on paper with ink, and felt with my hand the moisture of
the ink. I know not wherein the invisible power consisted which caused
these phenomena, but that such a power does exist I know for certain,
for in this case, at least, there was no chance for deception.
At the home of the prince Tagore I met the renowned Madame Blavatsky,
and many Hindoo theosophists. She is a large, corpulent woman, with
intelligent, though rather coarse, features. She believes that she is
attended by Kut-Humis-Lal-Sing, a Buddhistic hermit who is claimed to
be two thousand years old, and have the power of moving his "astral
body" as swiftly as thought to the most distant places. For my part I
saw nothing remarkable among the theosophists, but it is a common
belief among the Hindoos that certain pundits, or learned men, who
for years have lived in the mountains as hermits, abstaining from food
and all sensual pleasures, thereby attain such a power of mind over
matter as to be able to separate the former from the body and let it,
untrammeled by the laws of matter, move from place to place, still
retaining the same form and ability to speak and act. Whether this is
so or not I cannot say, but this I know, that "there are more things
in heaven and earth than are dreamed of in our philosophy."
[Illustration: TYPES OF MOHAMMEDAN SERVANTS.]
[Illustration: SOBULLA, AN IDIOT.]
What luxuries one may enjoy here in the most pleasant company,--a
glorious nature, palatial residences, choice fruits, dishes and wines,
pleasures of all kinds, surrounded by a host of servants, who, in
snow-white garments and with bare feet, noiselessly and swiftly move
about in order to gratify one's desires upon the slightest sign,--and
still how I long for the home in the North, with the cool winds and
frost and snow which quicken the blood, give appetite, and fill one
with a feeling of surging vitality and energy, unknown in the
enervating climates of the South.
From my veranda I see a crowd of people on the street who seem to pay
homage to some one. It proves to be an idiotic beggar, Sobulla. The
Hindoos believe that when a person has lost his reason he is filled
with the spirit of God, and hence they always treat the insane with
respect and tender care.
This April heat makes it easy to realize the Hindoo proverb, which
says: "Never run when you may walk, never walk when you may stand
still, never stand when you may sit, never sit when you may lie down."