What the _land question_ was to the agricultural population of Ireland,
the labor question _is_ to the toiling masses of the United States--who,
in one or another form of manufacturing industry, in mines and shops, or
public employment, are honestly striving to "earn their bread by the
sweat of their brow."
In the case of the Irish people the question was one of life and death,
or, what was practically the same, starvation or exile.
An alternative so monstrous and so pitiful is not presented in the
United States to those who toil; but the conditions and prospects
presented to them are often harsh and bitter.
We have seen in the instances of labor strikes, and by the simultaneous
suspension of work in the great mills and factories, that tens of
thousands of men accustomed to subsist by the returns of their daily
toil, have been reduced, with their families, to want and wretchedness.
The accounts given in the public journals of the sufferings in Ohio and
Pennsylvania during the recent strikes amongst the miners, recalls the
widespread, and, in instances, awful distress which prevailed in the
districts in question.
The startling figures lately put forth by representatives of the Knights
of Labor, which is said to be a powerful and widely extended labor
organization, as to the number of unemployed men in the United States,
seem incredible in the face of the apparent activity of trade and the
general seeming prosperity; but there is no doubt the real figures are
great enough to excite deep concern on the part of the thoughtful and
reflecting observer.
It does not require that one should be either a philosopher or a
communist to see in the prevailing conditions of the labor element in
the United States, that something is seriously out of gear. With capital
everywhere concentrating in the form of monopolies,--whether it be in
the consolidation of railroads and telegraphs, or in mills and mines
where products are "pooled," or yet in the colossal stores and
factories, on every hand is seen the strengthening and solidifying of
capital in the hands of the few. And this consolidation, it is plain, is
only effected by sweeping out or swallowing up smaller enterprises. This
is the logical and perhaps inevitable result of our modern social
system--in which wealth and "greed of gain" is held to be the chief end
of life. But, with this visible agglomeration of wealth in the hands of
the comparatively few, what is to be said of the conditions and
prospects of the laboring masses? If, happily, in the acquisition and
accumulation of wealth by monopolists, we could hope for the rules and
application of Christian principles and a realizing sense of Christian
duties in its employment and distribution, there would then be less
occasion for concern and apprehension in considering the problems
presented in the questions of "Capital and Labor." However seductive and
alluring may be the dreams and vagaries of latter-day theorizers,
inequality of social and worldly conditions is and will remain the rule.
_Utopia_ will remain in the books; it cannot be realized, in fact, under
the conditions of our or any other known civilization. It can and may be
realized, but in a form and fashion outside the ken of the modern
"philosopher,"--and that will be by the universal acceptance of Divine
law and the general practice of the Divine commands.
The Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount contain the solution of
all the problems with which we are concerned in the discussion of this
question. When capital recognizes and acts up to _the duties_ involved
in and implied by the possession of wealth, labor will recognize and
respect _the rights_ of capital.
The philosophy of the question turns upon these two simple words,
"RIGHTS" and "DUTIES."
Adam Smith says: "The property which every man has in his own labor, as
it is the original foundation of all other property, so it is the most
sacred and inviolable. The patrimony of a poor man lies in the strength
and dexterity of his hands; and to hinder him from employing this
strength and dexterity in what manner he thinks proper, without injury
to his neighbor, is a plain violation of this most sacred property." A
distinguished Catholic authority--Cardinal Manning--gives a more concise
definition--"the honest exertion of the powers of our minds and of our
body for our own good, and for the good of our neighbors."
The rights of the workman to dispose of his own toil on his own terms
cannot be questioned, nor can his right to combine and unite with other
toilers for purposes of mutual protection be seriously questioned.
Indeed, such unions and combinations may be said to be a necessity in
the existing order.
How is it possible except through such union and combination to resist
the power of great corporations and exacting monopolies, which, as a
rule, little regard the rights of the day laborer. Capital is protected
by its own innate power, by its influence over legislation and
legislative bodies, and by the readiness with which "pools" and
"combinations" are formed to its bidding; but in its control over labor
it is more powerful still by reason of the helplessness of the working
masses, who must work in order to live. An autocratic order from the
chief of some great corporation will sometimes reduce the wages of tens
of thousands of employes from ten to twenty per cent in one swoop. And
the tens of thousands have no redress or alternative unless to "strike."
And here lies the difficulty. The public, as a rule, do not sympathize
with "strikes" and "strikers." Strikes are always inconvenient. They
upset the existing order, disturb business, and sometimes lead to
destruction of property.
There is, and can be, of course, no justification for lawlessness. If
the rights of the workman to fix a price for his labor, and other
conditions as to the hours of his service, cannot be disputed, the equal
rights of the employers to fix the terms and price to be paid is no less
certain. Between these often irreconcilable conditions lie only
submission, strikes, or arbitration. The former is often expedient, the
second sometimes necessary, the last is always wise. A leading mine
owner, widely known for his uniform practical sympathy with his
operatives, and for his public spirit and high character, Col. William
P. Rend, of Chicago, has lately put forward, in several public
conventions representing the mining interests, a method of arbitration
which would be invoked in case of differences between employers and
operatives.
The simple suggestion of arbitration as the true remedy carries on its
face the evident solution of this vexed labor problem.
It is not necessary to suggest details. The fundamental idea is that all
differences may and ought to be reconciled by frank and honest
arbitration. Where employers will meet operatives on this half-way
neutral ground, an adjustment may be confidently looked for in most
cases. The arts of the demagogue and the threats of the socialists will
no longer be effective with the laboring masses. Where arbitration by
mutual agreement is not practicable, legislative "Boards of Arbitration"
could be appealed to; and these should be provided for by law in every
state.
When corporations and individual employers shall, as very many to their
honor, be it said, undoubtedly do, show due regard and consideration for
the rights and necessities of workmen and operatives, there need be no
fear of the spectre of communistic disorder in the United States. Our
mechanics and workingmen are instinctively conservative and cannot be
led away permanently into dangerous societies and combinations, if only
capital will join in promoting the adoption of "arbitration" as the true
solution of the labor problem.
WM. J. ONAHAN in _Scholastic Annual_.
* * * * *
A CURE for tight shoes--go barefoot.
Senator Hayes.
A SKETCH OF HIS ANTECEDENTS IN IRELAND AND AMERICA--HIS BRILLIANT
ELECTION.
[Illustration: HON. JOHN J. HAYES.]
Among the forty gentlemen elected to serve in the Senate during the
present term of the General Court of Massachusetts, we hesitate not to
predict that it will be found that Hon. John J. Hayes, the subject of
this brief sketch, will bring to bear upon such questions for
legislative consideration and action as may devolve upon him a most
intelligent culture, a well-developed business training and thorough
uprightness of purpose. In choosing him as their senatorial
representative, the voters of the Eighth Suffolk District, embracing
Wards Twenty-two, Twenty-three, Twenty-four and Twenty-five--all
combined, having a preponderating majority of Republican votes--have
exhibited the soundest judgment, we are confident, in the exercise of
citizen-franchise. Mr. Hayes' election was a well-considered rebuke to
the narrow systems of legislation prevalent in most of the New England
States. Hon. William H. Spooner, the district Senator of last year, is,
in private and business life, an honorable and esteemed gentleman; but
being an extreme partisan in politics and a zealot in sectional
legislative efforts, when a fitting candidate was offered at the last
election to oppose him, a gentleman of adequate views of the needs and
requirements of his fellow-citizens to confront him, the voters
hesitated not at the polls whom to choose.
Among his fellow-citizens of Boston and vicinity, Senator Hayes is well
recognized as an uncompromising adherent of Home Rule principles in the
affairs of Ireland, his native land. These come naturally to him. His
father, Mr. John Hayes, now of Manchester, N. H., was a devoted
supporter of O'Connell and, though young in years, was in turn warmly
appreciated by the great liberator. From the most steadfast patriotism
he has never swerved, and the blood in his children's veins, with the
teachings he inculcated, impels them to tread in the same path of
patriotic purpose as their worthy sire.
Our Senator was born in Killarney, Kerry, January 26, 1845. His
childhood saw many days amidst the inspiring scenes of this grand and
most lovely portion of Ireland. He was educated in Dublin. Mr. Hayes
entered for the civil service examination for the war office department
before the noted Military Institute of Stapleton of Trinity College, and
readily passed the first examination. Pending the usual delay preceding
the second examination, the Bank of Ireland threw their appointments
open to public examination, and John J. received the first of fourteen
appointments, several hundred persons being competitors for these
places. He was assigned to serve in the Dublin office of the Bank, and
subsequently found rapid advancement in the Gorey and Arklow branches as
cashier, and later in the same capacity in the respectively more
responsible branches of the Bank in Drogheda and Cork. Mr. Hayes growing
restive under the naturally slow advancement in the Bank's services,
accepted a tempting offer from one of the strongest banks in Canada and
reached Boston en route thereto. Here, however, he was met with a
business offer which induced him to pitch his fortune in Boston business
circles, and after a few years became the junior member of the firm of
Brown & Hayes, importers, exporters and commission merchants, Broad
Street, and where he still continues to do the same business. His firm
changed to Hayes & Poppele in 1877 and as it is now to Hayes & Angle.
Under the new organization of the School Board, Senator Hayes served
five years, from 1876 to 1880, during which he won deserved confidence
by his independence and unremitting watchfulness in school matters.
During these years he held several chairmanships and membership in
committees on accounts, salaries and other executive duties of the
board. He was a pronounced advocate of proper compensation to teachers
in which work he has always felt and shown a great and sympathetic
interest. From the advent of his services on the board, the teachers had
reason to know him as a friend, who would do battle for them against
reduction of their salaries, as was many times attested by his minority
reports and speeches in session. He resisted the attempts to do away
with the Suburban High Schools, and the residents of the sections where
they are located should feel indebted to his leading opposition to such
attempts for the retention of these suburban schools.
Mr. Hayes has been a director in several insurance companies and has
been for many years on the executive committee of the Union Institution
for Savings. Senator Hayes resides in a handsome residence, surrounded
by ample grounds, in the Dorchester district, Ward Twenty-four. He is a
thorough Democrat in principle. It was, therefore, a most flattering
testimony to his personal popularity and of the great respect of his
usual political opponents that they voted for him. Particularly is this
the case in so far as his Dorchester Republican neighbors are concerned,
so many of these being of the ancient and wealthy families, descendants
of the earlier colonial settlers of Massachusetts Bay. The district also
embraces the homes of many retired merchants and strong business men of
Boston. In view of all the circumstances, Mr. Hayes' senatorial campaign
success, it must be conceded, was a most brilliant one.
Saints and Serpents.
Even among Catholics the story of St. Patrick's driving the snakes and
other reptiles out of Ireland has often been made the subject of, let us
say, good-natured jest. But, besides, among others than Irishmen the
legend has been laid to the score of the excessive credulity of
Irishmen. I myself have heard German Catholics instance this story as an
evidence of the excesses into which the Celtic mind is apt to run. And
yet, investigation shows that the Irish are not alone in their pious
belief. Father Chas. Cahier, a Jesuit, has compiled a work entitled
"_Caracteristiques des Saints dans l'Art Populaire_." It is a most
wonderful and valuable storehouse of information, illustration, and
explanation. Thus we find in that our saint is not only patron of
Ireland but also of Murcia in Spain, for the reason that on his feast,
17th of March, 1452, was won the battle of Los Alporchones. Turning to
the heading "Serpent," we meet with a long array of saints represented
in painting or sculpture with one or more of these reptiles in his
vicinity. Italy, Brittany, Germany, France, Syria, Egypt, and other
lands furnish legends as strange as that concerning our apostle. In
fact, comparatively small space is devoted to him by the erudite Jesuit.
He briefly says, "It is thoroughly admitted by the Irish that he drove
from their Isle the serpents and other venomous animals. It is even
added that the English have many times, but in vain, endeavored to
acclimate venomous animals in Ireland." In a footnote he continues as
follows:
"A prose of Saint Patrick (in the _Officia SS. Patritii,
Columbae, Brigidae_, etc., Paris, 1620, in 16, p. 110-112)
says:
"'Virosa reptilia
Prece congregata,
Pellit ab Hibernia
Mari liberata.'
"Cf. Molan Hist. SS. Imag., lib. iii. cap. x. (ed. Paquot, p.
265). _Nieremberg, De Miraculosis ... in Europa_, lib. ii.
cap. LXII. (p. 469, sq.); et cap. XVIII. (p. 429).
"Nevertheless, Father Theoph. Raynaud (Opp, t. viii. p. 513) says that
this might have been a fact existing in Ireland previous to the days of
her apostle."
In Jocelyn's "Life and Acts of Saint Patrick," Chap. CLXIX., we read,
"Even from the time of its original inhabitants, did Hibernia labor
under a three-fold plague: a swarm of poisonous creatures, whereof the
number could not be counted; a great concourse of demons visibly
appearing; and a multitude of evil-doers and magicians. And these
venomous and monstrous creatures, rising out of the earth and out of the
sea, so prevailed over the whole island that they not only wounded men
and animals with their deadly sting, but slayed them with cruel bitings,
and not seldom rent and devoured their members."
Chapter CLXX. continues: "And the most holy Patrick applied all his
diligence unto the extirpation of this three-fold plague; and at length
by his salutary doctrine and fervent prayer he relieved Hibernia of the
increasing mischief. Therefore he, the most excellent pastor, bore on
his shoulder the staff of Jesus, and aided of the angelic aid, he by its
comminatory elevation gathered together from all parts of the island,
all the poisonous creatures into one place; then compelled he them all
unto a very high promontory, which was then called Cruachan-ailge, but
now Cruachan-Phadring; and by the power of his word he drove the whole
pestilent swarm from the precipice of the mountain headlong into the
ocean. O eminent sign! O illustrious miracle! even from the beginning of
the world unheard, but now experienced by tribes, by peoples and by
tongues, known unto all nations, but to the dwellers in Hibernia
especially needful! And at this marvellous, yet most profitable sight, a
most numerous assembly was present; many of whom had flocked from all
parts to behold miracles, many to receive the word of life.
"Then turned he his face toward Mannia, and the other islands which he
had imbued and blessed with the faith of Christ and with the holy
sacraments; and by the power of his prayers he freed all these likewise
from the plague of venomous reptiles. But other islands, the which had
not believed at his preaching, still are cursed with the procreation of
those poisonous creatures."
The Rev. Mr. O'Farrell, in his "Popular life of Saint Patrick," says,
"Rothe in his elucidations upon this passage of Jocelyn, compared this
quality bestowed upon Irish soil, through the prayers of Saint Patrick,
with that conferred upon Malta by the merits of Saint Paul, with this
difference, he adds, 'that while in Malta serpents, adders, and other
venomous reptiles, retain their life and motion, and lose only their
poisonous power, in Ireland they can neither hurt nor exist, inasmuch as
not only the soil but the climate and atmosphere, are unto them instant
death.'"
Ribadeneira says that even the wood of Ireland is proof against
poisonous reptiles. He declares that King's College, Cambridge, is built
within of Irish oak, and consequently not even a spider can be found
within it.
In the first volume of Chambers' "Book of Days" is told the story of the
attempt made by James Cleland, an Irish gentleman, in 1831, to
introduce reptiles into the Holy Isle. He bought half a dozen harmless
English snakes (_natrix torquata_) in Covent Garden market, London, and
turned them loose in his garden in Rathgael, County Down. Within a week
one was killed at Milecross three miles distant. A peasant who found one
and thought it an eel, took it to Dr. J. L. Drummond, the celebrated
Irish naturalist, and was horrified to learn that it was a genuine
serpent. There was great excitement, and it was fortunate for Mr.
Cleland that his connection with the affair was not known. One clergyman
preached on the discovery of the reptile as a presage of the millennium;
another saw a relation between it and the cholera-morbus. Some energetic
men took the matter in hand and offered a reward for the dead bodies of
the snakes. Three were killed within a few miles of the garden, and the
others were never fully accounted for.
But to return to Father Cahier. He tells us of the following, depicted
in sacred art in close proximity to serpents.
MOSES is not only represented raising the brazen serpent in the desert
to cure those who had been bitten by the reptiles (Num. xxi. 6-9), but
also casting his rod on the ground, that it may be changed into a
serpent--either at God's command before the burning bush as proof of his
divine mission (Exod. iv. 1-5), or before Pharaoh to obtain the
deliverance of the Israelites. (Exod. viii. 8-13.)
SAINT PAUL THE APOSTLE. A viper hanging from his hand and which he is
shaking off into the fire. (Acts. xxviii. 3-6.) This event, which
occurred in the island of Malta, has given rise to a devotion greatly in
vogue, especially among the Greeks. Earth taken from a cavern, wherein
it is alleged Saint Paul took refuge after his shipwreck on the coast of
that island, is carried to a distance as a preservative against the bite
of dangerous beasts and against fevers.
There was also in by-gone times a persuasion that any man born on the
25th of January (the day of the apostle's conversion) was guaranteed
against the reptile's tooth.
SAINT ANDREW THE APOSTLE. His apocryphal legend relates, that he cast
out devils, under the form of serpents or dragons. (_Legend aur._, cap.
ii.) This is found represented amongst other places, on a stained-glass
window of the Cathedral of Chartres.
SAINT PETER CELESTINE, Pope. I do not remember, says Father Cahier, ever
to have seen him painted with a dragon or a large serpent; but it is
probable that this may be met with, especially in Italy. For it is
related that, having retired into a grotto of the Abruzzi, he expelled
from it a venomous serpent, which had made great ravages in the
neighborhood.
SAINT ROMAIN or ROMANUS, Bishop of Rouen; 24th of October, 639. His
dragon, or serpent, gave rise to an annual procession, during which a
prisoner was released in memory of the service rendered to the country
by the holy bishop. Father Cahier adds that this legend probably
allegorized the destruction of Paganism by the bishop's efforts in his
diocese.
SAINT SPIRIDION, Bishop of Tremithontes in the island of Cyprus; 14th of
December, about 348. Offering a serpent to a poor man.
He had a great reputation for charity, so the needy confidently applied
to him for aid. But one day when a beggar asked him for assistance, the
saint, who had nothing to give him, picked up a serpent, which the poor
man hardly cared to accept. Nevertheless, encouraged by the bishop, he
held his hand out; and the beast was converted into gold. (Surius, 14th
December.)
SAINT NARCISSUS, Bishop of Gironu in Catalonia, and apostle of Augsburg;
18th of March, about 307. It is related in the country of the Julian
Alps that he destroyed a dragon, which was posted beside a spring, from
which all the inhabitants fled.
SAINT AMAND, Bishop of Maestricht, and apostle of Flanders; 6th of
February, 675. While still a child, he drove, it is said, from the
island of Oye (near La Rochelle) a serpent which he met in his way.
(_Acta Sanctorum_, Februar., t. i, p. 849.) Father Cahier says that the
original is a dragon, which artists have converted into a serpent, and
that it is quite likely it symbolizes the idols overthrown by the
saint's apostolic labors in the country about Ghent.
SAINT MODESTUS, Bishop of Jerusalem; 16th of December, seventh century.
Putting to death a serpent which infested a fountain; much like the
legend of Saint Narcissus. (Bagatta, _Admiranda orbis_, lib. vii. cap.
i, Sec.. 19, No. 29.)
SAINT HILARY, Bishop of Poitiers; 14th of January, about 368. Old
artists paint him with a staff around which is twined a serpent; or
serpents fleeing from that staff. This signifies, that during his exile,
he completely banished the reptiles which infested the island of
_Gallinaria_ in the Mediterranean, near Genoa (the Gallinara of the
present day). According to other versions he did not exactly rid the
entire island of those animals, but simply relegated them to a corner of
the land, where he planted his staff as a boundary which they were
nevermore to pass. (P. de Natal., libr. ii, cap. LXVIII.--AA. SS.,
_Januar._, t. i, p. 792.) Cl. Robert quotes an epitaph on the doctor of
Poitiers, found, he says, in an ancient manuscript, although the style
gives little indication of the Middle Ages.
"Hilarius cubat hac, pictavus episcopus, urna;
Defensor nostrae mirificus fidei.
Illius aspectum serpentes ferre nequibant,
Nescis quae in vultu spicula sanctus habet."
Might this be, asks Father Cahier, a way of expressing the fact that the
saint had banished Arianism from amongst his people?
It is elsewhere shown that the dragons of many legions may be
interpreted by the overthrow and expulsion of Paganism, that is, the end
of Satan's reign over hearts. The serpent seems to have had something of
this symbolism in ecclesiastical monuments, except that sometimes, here
or there, it probably denotes heresy instead of idolatry. (Cf. Manni,
_Osservazioni istoriche sopra i sigilli antichi dei secoli bassi_, t. V,
sigill. 15.)
SAINT PIRMIN, (_Pirminus_ or _Pirminius_) travelling bishop in Germany
(and a Benedictine, it is said); 3d November, 758. He is described as a
bishop of Meaux, who left his see in order to go and preach the Gospel
along the banks of the Rhine; and he is usually painted as putting a
multitude of serpents to flight. (_Calendar._ Benedict., 3d of
Nov.--Rader, _Bavaria Sancta_.) A sequence of Saint Gall (ap. Mone,
_Hymni ... media aevi_, t. III., p. 482, sq.) thus describes the marvel:
"Hic Augiensem insulam
Dei nutu intraverat,
Quam multitudo pessima
Destinebat serpentium.
Intrante illo ...
Statim squammosus
Hestinanter exercitus
Aufugit, ampli lacus
Natatu tergus
Tegens per triduum."
Amongst other abbeys of his foundation, he established that of Reichenau
in the island of Constance, vanishing from the island the vipers or
adders which had enormously multiplied in it. The legend even goes on to
say that, for three days, the surrounding water was covered with these
reptiles which forsook their old abode.
Was this story the legend or the consequence of an invocation of Saint
Pirmin against unwholesome drinks? Besides people recommended themselves
to this saint against the plague and the consequences of dangerous food.
Furthermore, his dalmatic and his cincture were considered powerful to
assuage the sufferings of pregnant women. An ancient seal of Saint
Pirmin is found with these two verses used in certain provinces of
Germany:
"Sanctificet nostram sanctus Pirminius escam,
Dextera Pirmini benedicat pocula nostra."
SAINT SAMSON, Bishop of Dol, in Brittany; 28th of July, about 564. Some
say he slew a dragon, and Father Cahier says this may be symbolic of the
many victories he gained over the enemy of men. According to several, it
was a serpent which he drove from a grotto on the banks of the Seine
(Cf. Longueval, _Histoire de l'Eglise gallicane_, livre IX.)
SAINT MELLON (Melon, _Mellonus_, _Mallonus_, _Mello_, _Melanius_?) first
Bishop of Rouen; 22d of October, about 214. A serpent of which his
legend speaks may be only the dragon of the saints who preached the
Gospel to idolatrous nations. An old office of his says:
"Manum sanat arescentem
Morsum curat, et serpentem
Sese cogit perdere."
His legend further relates that he overthrew in the city of Rouen the
idol _Roth_, and that the devil complained to him of the trouble he had
caused in his empire. (AA. SS. _Octobr._, t. IX., p. 572, sq.)
SAINT CADO (or Kadok, Cadout, Cadog, Catrog-Doeth, Cadvot), bishop and
martyr in Brittany; 1st of November, about 580. The Bretons relate that
on a little island off the coast of Vannes, between Port-Louis and
Auray, he drove the serpents away and they never appeared there again
(_Vie des Saints de la Bretagne_, p. 666). The island retains the name
of Enis-Cadvod or Inis-Kadok, that is, the island of Saint Cado.
A SAINT PATERNUS, bishop, whom Father Cahier cannot locate, is mentioned
as having warded off the bites of serpents. He cannot say, too, but that
there is more of symbolism than of real history in the story.
SAINT PEREGRINUS, bishop, martyred at Auxerre, 16th of May, third
century, driving out serpents. Though one may consider this
representation a manner of expressing the earnestness he displayed in
extirpating idolatry from the people of Auxerre, it is admitted that in
the Nivernais country (especially at Bouhy where he took refuge),
serpents are never seen. People even come to the church of that village
to take earth out of a hole habitually dug _ad hoc_; and that earth is
carried away as a preservative against the bite of reptiles. It is
besides regarded as an understood fact at Bouhy that a certain family
there always has the figure of a serpent on the body of some one
belonging to it. They are, according to the story, the descendants of a
pagan, who, striving to drive the saint away by hitting him with a whip,
saw the lash change into a serpent which "landed" near the rock where
Saint Peregrinus had sought refuge against persecution.
SAINT HONORATUS OF ARLES, or OF LERINS; 16th of January, about 430. When
he retired into the island which still bears his name, near the coast of
Provence, vainly was it represented to him that it was a receptacle of
venomous animals. The man of God exactly wanted a shelter, a refuge from
all visitors, and drove out all the serpents which had long multiplied
there without any obstacle. A palm-tree is still shown there, on which,
it is alleged, our saint waited until Heaven came to his aid, by having
the waves sweep away all that "vermin" which had rendered the island
uninhabitable until then. (Surius, 16 Januar.; and AA. SS. _Januar._, t.
II., p. 19.) Observe that the islands of Saint-Honorat and
Sainte-Marguerite are held in that country to have formed but one in
olden days, which was the real Lerins, Pliny and Strabo to the contrary
notwithstanding.
SAINT PROTUS OF SARDINIA, priest; 25th of October, under Diocletian. He
was martyred with the deacon Saint Januarius and Saint Gavinus, a
soldier converted by them. Protus, exiled at first to the island of
Asinara(?) drove from it, it is said, all the venomous beasts. Many even
would have it that this privilege was extended to the whole of Sardinia,
for which, however, Father Cahier says he would not make himself
responsible. (Cf. _Hagiolog. italic._, t. II., p. 256). Hence a reptile
is often represented at the feet of the saint, while artists often
associate him with his two companions in martyrdom. In this case they
may be easily distinguished by their costumes of priest, deacon, and
soldier, which indicate the profession of each.
SAINT FLORENCE OF NORCIA (_Florentius_ or _Florentinus_), monk; 23d of
May, about 547. He has been confounded, rightly or wrongly, with Saint
Florence of Corsica. But Saint Gregory the Great (_Dialog._, III., 15,
ed Galliccioli, t. VI., p. 202) speaks of him only as a simple monk, and
relates that he destroyed a multitude of serpents by his prayer.
SAINT FLORENCE OF GLONNE, priest, patron of Saumur and Roye; 22d of
September, fourth century. He is sometimes said to have thrown a dragon
or serpent into the Loire, but the Bas-Bretons give the credit to Saint
Mein, abbot of Gael, who lived more than a century later.
SAINT AMANTIUS OF CITTA-DI-CASTELLO, priest; 26th of September, towards
the end of the sixth century. He became famous in his lifetime by
numerous miracles, especially by delivering the people of the country in
which he dwelt from serpents. (Gregor. M., _Dialog._, III., 35. Brantii
_Martyrol poeticum_.)
SAINT JULIUS, priest; 31st of January, about 399. The island of Orta,
near Novara, was delivered by him from a quantity of serpents when he
went there to build the last church he erected. According to some, these
reptiles, put to flight by the holy man's blessing, plunged into the
lake; others say that the serpents took refuge on Mount Camocino near
there, but that they never hurt any one any more. (Labus, _Fasti_, 31
gennajo.--AA. SS. Januar., t. II., p. 1103.) The lake of Orta is still
called _Lago de san Giulio_, by the people of the country around Milan.
SAINT MAGNUS (_Magnoaldus_), abbot of Fuessen, and apostle of Algan; 6th
of September, about 660. At Kempten this saint is credited with having
expelled venomous animals; as for the dragon, he is said to have caused
its death by his prayers at _AEqui caput_. However this may be, his staff
was employed at Abthal against field rats, and in Brisgan against all
kinds of insects that might injure the crops. (Cf. Wilh. Mueller, _Gesch
... der altdentschen Religion_, p. 113.--_Calendar. benedict._, 6th of
Septembr.--Rader, _Bavaria sancta_.)
SAINT DIDYMUS, in the East. Father Cahier cannot say whether it is
Didymus of Alexandria (28th of April) or Didymus of Laodicea (11th of
September). Several modern German authors, copying one another, say that
he is represented walking on serpents and nailed to the cross. Either,
says Father Cahier, I greatly mistake, or the martyr of Laodicea, who
was torn on a stake (_Menolog. graec._, t. I., p. 29,) is confounded with
the hermit of the same name who used to walk amongst the most dangerous
reptiles (scorpions, horned vipers, etc.), without ever being injured by
them. (Rosweyde, _Vitae PP._, p. 479.)
SAINT PHOCAS OF ANTIOCH, in Syria, martyr; 5th March, time disputed. He
is famed in the East as a signal protector against the bite of reptiles.
These reptiles are often represented near the church which is dedicated
to him, because it is acknowledged that they lose their venom as soon as
they approach it, and that those bitten by them there recover health.
(Cf. _Martyrol. Rom._, 5 mart.)
SAINT CHRISTOPHER OF LYCIA, martyr; 25th of July, about 560. A serpent
is sometimes placed near him, either because reptiles were used without
effect to torture him, or on account of some miracle due to his
intercession long after his death. (AA. SS. _Jul._, t. VI., p. 137-139.)
Father Cahier adds, in a note, if, as Servius says, the word _anguis_
was used to denote reptiles which live in water, consequently amphibious
animals, it becomes easier to understand that inundations may have been
expressed by a dragon or a serpent; so many writers have thought, the
Bollandists amongst others. So, in many cases, it may have been a
symbolic picture, whose significance was lost in the lapse of time. A
serpent near Saint Christopher might indicate that the saint had crossed
deep water.
SAINT LEONTIUS, martyr; honored at Muri in Switzerland, as one of the
soldiers of the Theban legion. A serpent is given him as attribute, with
a little phial. Father Cahier says he has failed to discover the
significance of the emblems.
SAINT AMABLE OF RIOM, priest; 19th of October, fifth century. Near him
serpents and venomous animals, because it is said that he drove all
maleficent beasts out of the neighborhood of Riom.
SAINT BRIAC, abbot; 17th of December, about 609. He banished a serpent
with the sign of the cross. This saint met a man who was already stung
by a dangerous reptile and fleeing from the animal, which was in pursuit
of him. The servant of God, by giving his blessing, cured the wounded
man and put the animal to flight. (_Vies des Saints de la Bretagne._)
SAINT MAUDEZ, hermit; 18th of November, seventh century. Driving out of
an island, in which he had established his hermitage, a number of
reptiles that lived in the place. The custom is preserved in Brittany of
using earth taken from the island as a remedy for serpents' bites.
(_Vies des Saints de la Bretagne_, p. 724, 725.)
SAINT JOHN OF REOMEY, founder of this abbey, which afterwards took the
name of Montier-Saint-Jean; 28th of January, about 545. He is generally
represented beside a well and holding a sort of dragon chained. His
legend relates that he caused the death of a basilisk which made the
water of a well or fountain dangerous. (_Calend. benedict._, 28 januar.)
Sometimes instead of this dragon (winged) there is placed near him a
chained serpent. (Cf. Aug. de Bastard, _Memoire sur les crosses_, p.
776.)
SAINT BEAT OR BEATUS OF VENDOMOIS, hermit; 9th of May, year difficult to
determine. The story goes that, finding a reptile in the grotto into
which he desired to retire, near the Loire, he drove the animal out with
the sign of the cross. (AA. SS., _Maii_, t. II., p. 365. D. Piolin,
_Hist. de l'Eglise du Mans_, t. I., p. 62.)
SAINT LIFARD (_Liphardus_, _Liethphardus_), hermit, afterwards abbot at
Meun-sur-Loire; 3d of June, about 540. Near him in pictures is a staff
planted in the earth, and bitten at top by a serpent, which is broken in
the middle of the body. It is related that near his cell an enormous
serpent prevented the people of the locality from having access to a
fountain. Urbitius, a disciple of the holy man, ran one day to him,
telling him that he had met the dreadful reptile. Lifard smiled and bade
Urbitius be ashamed of his lack of faith, and gave him his staff with
orders to plant it in the ground in front of the beast. This being done,
and while the hermit was praying to God, the monster sprang upon the
staff, which he bit with madness. The weight of the monstrous beast made
it burst in the middle, and the country was delivered from him. (Surius,
3 jun.)
Outside of France, this is sometimes represented by an empaled dragon
from which issue a number of little dragons flying away. (_Calendar.
benedict._, 4 jun.)
SAINT LEONARD THE YOUNGER, abbot of Vendeuve; 15th of October, about
570. He is represented with a serpent near him, because one of these
serpents having crawled towards the holy man while he was at prayer,
stopped without being able to hurt him. He is also represented with a
serpent dying at his feet or twined around his body. (AA. SS., Octobr.,
t. VII., p. 48, sq.) It is asserted that a serpent has never since
appeared in that place.
SAINT MEMIN (or Maximin), abbot of Micy; 15th of December, 520. He is
painted holding a serpent, because he is said to have driven a dangerous
reptile from the banks of the Loire. (Aug. de Bastard, _Crosses_, p.
776.)
SAINT DOMINIC OF SARA, abbot of the order of Saint Benedict; 22d of
January, about 1031. A present of fish sent to the holy man having been
abstracted on the way, the rogues were rather surprised to find only
snakes instead of the fish they had stolen. (_Calendar. benedict._, 22
januar.,--Brantii, _Martyrol. poetic._)
"Qui missos sancto pisces abscondit, in angues
Mutatos, rediens vidit et obstupuit."
SAINT VINCENT OF AVILA, with Saint Sabina and Saint Christeta, his
sisters; 27th of October, under Diocletian. The bodies of these martyrs
having been abandoned to beasts of prey, an enormous serpent protected
their remains from any insult. A Jew, even, who had come to see the
corpses, ran such danger from the reptile that he made a vow to receive
baptism. (_Espana sagrada_, t. XIV., p. 32.)
SAINT GORRY (Godrick, Godrich, _Godricus_), hermit in England; 21st of
May, 1170. He put himself under the direction of the monks of Durham,
and passed the latter part of his life in a solitude. He is represented
surrounded by serpents, because those venomous animals gathered around
him and did him no harm. (_Calend. benedict._, 29 mai.--AA. SS., _Maii_,
t. V., p. 68, sqq.)
The Blessed BONAGIUNTA MANETTI, Servite and first general of his order;
31st of August, 1257. Father Cahier says that in France pictures of the
Servites are seldom found, and then with no particular emblem. He,
however, found one in which the blessed Bonagiunta is blessing loaves
which break, and bottles from which serpents escape. In the art of the
Middle Ages a serpent is the emblem of poison, and so it seems to be
here. As the holy man, while asking alms for his community, did not
hesitate to rebuke sinners, he gave offence to a Florentine merchant.
Pretending to be repentant and charitable, he sent poisoned bread and
wine to the Servite monastery. The Blessed Bonagiunta received the man
who brought the pretended alms, and said to him, "I know well that thy
master would take my life. But tell him that no evil will happen us, and
that death will soon strike himself." The prophecy was accomplished.
(Cf. Brocchi, _Vite dei SS. Fiorentini_, t. I., p. 246.)
SAINT HELDRADUS, abbot of Novalese (13th of March, 875), is said to have
expelled the serpents that infested the valley of Briancon where the
saint wanted to establish a colony of his monks. (AA. SS., Mart., t.
II., p. 334.)
SAINT THECLA, virgin and martyr; 23d of September, Apostolic age. This
saint is called a martyr, and even the first of martyrs, because
although her life was not taken in torments, she seems to be the first
Christian woman who was given over to the barbarity of Pagan public
power. It is related that she was thrown into a ditch filled with
vipers, but a ball of fire fell from heaven and killed all those
venomous animals. So she is sometimes painted with a fiery globe in her
hand or near her. Father Cahier adds that her Acts have not come to us
with sufficient indications of authenticity; but the church, in her
prayers for the dying, retains the memory of the three tortures (flames,
wild beasts, and venomous animals), from which the saint was delivered
by assistance from on high. She prays: "As thou didst deliver that most
blessed virgin Thecla from three most cruel torments, so vouchsafe to
deliver the soul of this Thy servant," etc.[3]
SAINT CHRISTINA, virgin and martyr in Tuscany; 24th of July, towards the
end of the third century. Same attribute and same reason as for as Saint
Thecla. (Bagatta, _Admiranda orbis_, lib. VII., cap. I., 19, No. 3.)
SAINT ANATOLIA, virgin, martyred with Saint Audax, 9th of July, about
250. She was confined in a narrow dungeon, with a venomous serpent,
which was expected to kill her. When it was thought that she was slain,
Audax, one of those Marsi who prided themselves on being able to charm
reptiles, was sent into the prison. But the virgin was unhurt, and the
serpent flung itself on the pretended charmer, who was delivered only at
Anatolia's command. Audax was converted to Christianity, and gave his
life for Jesus Christ some time after the death of the saint, who was
pierced by a sword. (_Martyrol. Rom._, 9 Jul.--Bagatta, _Admiranda
orbis_, lib. VII., cap. I., Sec. 19, No. 17.)
SAINT VERENA, virgin at Zurzach in Switzerland; 1st of September, about
the beginning of the fourth century. At her prayer, it is said, a
quantity of venomous serpents forsook the country and flung themselves
into the Aar.
SAINT VERDIANA (_Viridiana_), virgin of the Third Order of Saint
Francis, or of Valeambrosa at Castel-Fiorentino; 13th of February, 1242.
Living as a recluse with serpents. She imposed this sort of penance on
herself to overcome the horror that reptiles excited in her, and took
care to feed these strange guests herself so that they would not go
away. (Bagatta, _l. c._, ibid., No. 27.)
SAINT ISBERGA, (_Itisberga_), a hermit virgin near Aire in Artois,
afterwards abbess; 21st of May, about 770. As daughter of Pepin and
sister of Charlemagne, she is often represented with a crown and a
mantle covered with fleurs-de-lis. But she is particularly distinguished
by another emblem. An eel is put in her hand, sometimes on a dish, and
for this reason: A powerful prince had asked Isberga's hand in marriage;
but in order to preserve the vow of virginity which she had made, she
besought God to send her some disease which would disfigure her. Her
face was soon covered with pustules, and the suitor no longer insisted
upon marrying her. Heaven then revealed to Isberga that she would be
cured by eating the first fish that would be caught in the Lys. The men
whom she sent for that purpose toiled long without succeeding in taking
anything but an eel, along with which they brought up in their nets the
body of Saint Venantus, a hermit (the saint's director), who had been
slain and cast into the river by the princess's lover, for he blamed the
hermit for the resolution taken by the virgin whose hand he sought in
marriage. The discovery of the body brought the crime to light, and made
known the sanctity of Venantus, to whose merits Isberga ascribed the
efficacy of the fish in delivering her from disease. (AA. SS. _Maii_, t.
V., p. 44.--Dancoisne, _Numismatique bethunoise_, p. 165, sqq.)
SAINT ENIMIA OF GEVANDAN, virgin; 6th of October, about the seventh
century. She, too, is depicted with a serpent because she is said to
have delivered the country from that dangerous animal. (AA. SS.
_Octobr._, t. XI., p. 630, t. III., p. 306, sqq.)
SAINT CRESCENTIAN; 1st of June, 287. Coins of Urbino represent him armed
cap-a-pie, on foot or on horseback, and killing a dragon with his lance,
or carrying a flag; at other times he is seen in deacon's costume,
trampling a serpent under his feet. He is said to have been a Roman
soldier, and to have introduced the Gospel into Citta-di-Castello.
(Brantii _Martyrolog. poeticum_, 1 jun:
"Letifero Crescentinus serpente Tipherni
Occiso, gladio victima caesa cadit.")
Turning to another part of Father Cahier's work, we find that the
following saints are also represented with serpents:
SAINT JOHN THE EVANGELIST; 27th of December. He is represented holding a
sort of chalice surmounted by a little serpent or a dragon. The Golden
Legend says, that, to prove the truth of his teaching, he was compelled
to drink poison. Some of it was first given to two men condemned to
death and they died on the spot. The saint made the sign of the cross
over the cup, drank, suffered no inconvenience, and then restored the
two dead men to life. Father Cahier adds that this story seems to have
given rise to the custom especially prevalent among Germanic nations of
drinking to friends' health under pretense of honoring Saint John. He
says that this custom has sometimes been put under the protection of
Saint John the Baptist, but that it is not probable the Germans would
have cared about putting their _healths_ put under the protection of a
saint who drank only water.
SAINT CHARITON, hermit and abbot in Palestine; 28th of September, about
350. Near him is represented a serpent plunging its head in a cup. A
native of Lycaonia, and released by the Pagans after being tortured for
the faith, he went to Jerusalem, where he was taken by robbers, and
confined in the cave which was their retreat. A serpent came and drank
out of the vase in which their wine was, at the same time poisoning it
with his venom, and the robbers died in consequence, whereupon the saint
made the cave the cradle of a monastery. (_Menolog., graec_, t. I., p.
73.)
SAINT POURCAIN (_Portianus_), abbot in Auvergne; 24th of November, about
540. He is represented with a broken cup from which emerges a serpent.
King Thierry I. was ravaging Auvergne, and the holy abbot went to
intercede with him for the poor people. The King was still asleep when
he came, and the principal officer offered him a drink, which he refused
because he had not yet seen the king or celebrated the office. Pressed,
however, he blessed the vase which was brought him, it broke, and a
serpent came out of it. The whole court considered that he had been
saved from poison. (Gregor. Turon., _Vitae PP._, cap. V.)
SAINT JOHN OF SAHAGUN, Hermit of Saint Augustine; 12th of June, 1497. He
is represented amongst other ways, with a cup surmounted by a serpent.
This is because he was really poisoned by a dissolute woman in revenge
for the conversion of her lover by the saint and his consequent
dismissal of her. (AA. SS. _Jun._, t. II., p. 625.)
SAINT LOUIS BERTRAND, Dominican; 10th of October, 1581. A cup with a
serpent indicates that in his missions in America he had poison given
him more than once by the Pagans, without being injured by it.