5. Principal Passes.--Though the Alps form a barrier they have

never formed an impassable barrier, since, from the earliest

days onwards, they have been traversed first, perhaps, for

purposes of war or commerce, and later by pilgrims, students and

tourists. The spots at which they were crossed are called

passes (this word is sometimes though rarely applied to gorges

only), and are the points at which the great chain sinks to

form depressions, up to which deep-cut valleys lead from the

plains. Hence the oldest name for such passes is Mont

(still retained in cases of the Mont Cenis and the Monte

Moro), for it was many ages before this term was especially

applied to the peaks of the Alps, which with a few very rare

exceptions (e.g. the Monte Viso was known to the Romans as

Vesulus) were long simply disregarded. The native inhabitants

of the Alps were naturally the first to use the alpine

passes. But to the outer world these passes first became known

when the Romans traversed them in order to conquer the world

beyond. In the one case we have no direct knowledge (though

the Romans probably selected the passes pointed out to them

by the natives as the easiest), while in the other we hear

almost exclusively of the passes across the main chain or

the principal passes of the Alps. For obvious reasons the

Romans, having once found an easy direct pass across the main

chain, did not trouble to seek for harder and more devious

routes. Hence the passes that can be shown to have been

certainly known to them are comparatively few in number: they

are, in topographical order from west to east, the Col de

l'Argentiere, the Mont Genevre, the two St Bernards, the

Splugen, the Septimer, the Brenner, the Radstadter Tauern, the

Solkscharte, the Plocken and the Pontebba (or Saifnitz). Of

these the Mont Genevre and the Brenner were the most frequented,

while it will be noticed that in the Central Alps only two passes

(the Splugen and the Septimer) were certainly known to the

Romans. In fact the central portion of the Alps was by far

the least Romanised and least known till the early middle

ages. Thus the Simplon is first certainly mentioned in

1235, the St Gotthard (without name) in 1236, the Lukmanier

in 965, the San Bernardino in 941; of course they may have

been known before, but authentic history is silent as regards

them till the dates specified. Even the Mont Cenis (from the

15th to the 19th century the favourite pass for travellers

going from France to Italy) is first heard of in 756 only.

In the 13th century many hitherto unknown passes came into

prominence, even some of the easy glacier passes. It should

always be borne in mind that in the Western and Central Alps

there is but one ridge to cross, to which access is gained

by a deep-cut valley, though often it would be shorter to

cross a second pass in order to gain the plains, e.g. the

Mont Genevre, that is most directly reached by the Col du

Lautaret; and the Simplon, which is best gained by one of the

lower passes over the western portion of the Bernese Oberland

chain. On the other hand, in the Eastern Alps, it is generally

necessary to cross three distinct ridges between the northern

and southern plains, the Central ridge being the highest

and most difficult. Thus the passes which crossed a single

ridge, and did not involve too great a detour through a long

valley of approach, became the most important and the most

popular, e.g. the Mont Cenis, ihe Great St Bernard, the St

Gotthard, the Septimer and the Brenner. As time went on the

travellers (with whatever object) who used the great alpine

passes could not put up any longer with the bad old mule

paths. A few passes (e.g. the Semmering, the Brenner, the

Tenda and the Arlberg) can boast of carriage roads constructed

before 1800, while those over the Umbrail and the Great St

Bernard were not completed till the early years of the 20th

century. Most of the carriage roads across the great alpine

passes were thus constructed in the 19th century (particularly

its first half), largely owing to the impetus given by

Napoleon. As late as 1905, the highest pass over the main

chain that had a carriage road was the Great St Bernard (8111

ft.), but three still higher passes over side ridges have

roads---the Stelvio (9055 ft.), the Col du Galibier (8721

ft.), in the Dauphine Alps, and the Umbrail Pass (8242

ft.). Still more recently the main alpine chain has been

subjected to the further indignity of having railway lines

carried over it or through it---the Brenner and the Pontebba

lines being cases of the former, and the Col de Tenda, the

Mont Cenis (though the tunnel is really 17 m. to the west), the

Simplon and the St Gotthard, not to speak of the side passes

of the Arlberg, Albula and Pyhrn of the latter. There are

also schemes (more or less advanced) for piercing the Splugen

and the Hohe Tauern, both on the main ridge, and the Lotschen

Pass, on one of the external ranges. The numerous mountain

railways, chiefly in Switzerland, up various peaks (e.g.

the Rigi and Pilatus) and over various side passes (e.g.

the Brunig and the Little Scheidegg) do not concern us here.

6. Divisions.---The Alps, within the limits indicated under

(2) above, form a great range, consisting of a main chain, with

ramifications, and of several parallel minor chains. They thus

form a single connected whole as contrasted with the plains

at their base, and nature has made no breaks therein, save at

the spots where they sink to comparatively low depressions or

passes. But for the sake of practical convenience it has

long been usual to select certain of the best marked of

these passes to serve as limits within the range, whether to

distinguish several great divisions from each other, or to

further break up each of these great divisions into smaller

groups. As these divisions, great or small, are so to speak

artificial, several systems have been proposed according

to which the Alps may be divided. We give below that which

seems to us to be the most satisfactory (based very largely

on personal acquaintance with most parts of the range),

considering, as in the case of the limits of the chain,

only its topographical aspect, as it exists at the present

day, while leaving it to geologists, botanists and zoologists

to elaborate special divisions as required by these various

sciences. Our selected divisions relate only to the High Alps

between the Col de Tenda and the route over the Radstadter

Tauern. while in each of the 18 subdivisions the less

elevated outlying peaks are regarded as appendages of the

higher group within the topographical limits of which they

rise. No attempt, of course, has been made to give a

complete catalogue of the peaks and passes of the Alps, while

in the case of the peaks the culminating point of a lower

halfdetached group has been included rather than the loftier

spurs of the higher and main group; in the case of the passes,

the villages or valleys they connect have been indicated,

and also the general character of the route over each pass.

As regards the main divisions, three are generally distinguished;

the Western Alps (chiefly French and Italian, with a small

bit of the Swiss Valais) being held to extend from the Col de

Tenda to the Simplon Pass, the Central Alps (all but wholly

Swiss and Italian) thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass,

and the Eastern Alps (wholly Austrian and Italian, save the

small Bavarian bit at the northswest angle) thence to the

Radstadter Tauern ro:ite, with a bend outwards towards the

south-east, as explained under (2) in order to include the

higher summits of the SouthEastern Alps. Strictly speaking,

we should follow the Reschen Scheideck route down the

Adigevalley, but as this would include in the Central Alps the

Ortler and some other of the highest Tirolese summits, it is

best (remembering the artificial character of the division)

to draw a line from Mals southwards either over the Umbrail

Pass (the old historical pass) or the Stelvio (wellknown

only since the carriage road was built over it in the first

quarter of the 19th century) to the head of the Valtellina,

and then over the Aprica Pass (as the Bergamasque Alps properly

belong to the Central Alps) to the Oglio valley or the Val

Camonica, and down that valley to the Lake of Iseo and Brescid.

Assuming these three main divisions, we must now consider in

detail the 18 sub-divisions which we distinguish; the first 5

forming the Western Alps, the next 7 the Central Alps, and the

rest the Eastern Alps, the heights throughout being, of course,

given in English feet and representing the latest measurements.

I. WESTERN ALPS

1. Maritime Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Col de

l'Argentiere).

Punta dell' Argentera . . . . . 10,794 Mont Tinibras. . . . . . . . . . .9,948

Cima dei Golas. . . . . . . . . 10,286 Mont Enchastraye . . . . . . . . .9,695

Monte Matto . . . . . . . . . . 10,128 Monte Bego . . . . . . . . . . . .9,426

Mont Pelat. . . . . . . . . . . 10,017 Mont Monnier . . . . . . . . . . .9,246

Mont Clapier. . . . . . . . . . 9,994 Rocca dell' Abisso . . . . . . . .9,039

Chief passes of the Maritime Alps.

Passo del Pagarin (Vosubie Valley to Valdieri), snow . . . . . . . . . . .9,236

Col di Fremamorta (Tinee Valley to the Baths of Valdieri),

bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,688

Bassa di Druos (same to same), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,629

Passo di Collalunga (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path. . . . . . .8,531

Coll dell' Agnel (Tenda to Yaldieri), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,426

Col della Ciriegia (St Martin Vesubie to the Baths of Valdieri),

bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,370

Col des Granges Communes (St Etienne de Tinee to Barcelonnette),

bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,242

Col de Pourriac (Tinee Valley to Argentera), foot path. . . . . . . . .8,222

Col della Finestre (St Martin de Vesubie to Valdieri), bridle

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,107

Col di Guercia (Tinee Valley t0 Vinadio), foot path . . . . . . . . . .8,042

Col della Lombarda (same to same), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,858

Col de la Cayolle (Var Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage

road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,717

Col di Santa Anna (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path. . . . . . . .7,605

Col del Sabbione (Tenda to Valdieri), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,428

Col d'Allos or de Valgelaye (Verdon Valley to Barcelonnette),

carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,382

Col de l'Argentiere (Barcelonnette to Cuneo), carriage road . . . . . .6,545

Col de Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road, railway beneath. . . . . . .6,145

2. Cottian Alps (from the Col de l'Argentiere to the Mont Cenis

and westwards to the Col du Galibier).

Chief Peaks of the Cottian Alps.

Monte Viso . . . . . . . . . . 12,609 Dents d'Ambin. . . . . . . . . . 11,096

Viso di Vallante . . . . . . . 12,048 Mont d'Ambin . . . . . . . . . . 11,080

Aiguille de Scolette . . . . . 11,500 Pointe de la Font Sancte . . . . 11,057

Aiguille de Chambeyron . . . . 11,155 Punta Ferrant. . . . . . . . . . 11,037

Grand Rubren . . . . . . . . . 11,142 Visolotto. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,001

Bree de Chambeyron . . . . . . 11,116 Rochebrune . . . . . . . . . . . 10,906

Rognosa d'Etache . . . . . . .11,106 Punta Sommeiller . . . . . . . . 10,896

Bric Froid . . . . . . . . . . 10,860 Tete des Toillies . . . . . . 10,430

Grand Glavza . . . . . . . . . 10,781 Monte Granero. . . . . . . . . . 10,401

Rognosa di Sestrieres . . . 10,758 Mont Chaberton . . . . . . . . . 10,286

Panestrel. . . . . . . . . . . 10,673 Tete de Moyse . . . . . . . . 10,204

Roche du Grand Galibier. . . . 10,637 Monte Meidassa . . . . . . . . . 10,187

Peou Roc. . . . . . . . . . 10,601 Pelvo d'Elva . . . . . . . . . . 10,053

Pic du Pelvat. . . . . . . . . 10,558 Mont Politri . . . . . . . . . . 10,009

Pointe Haute de Mary . . . . . 10,539 Mont Nlbergian . . . . . . . . . .9,974

Pic du Thabor. . . . . . . . . 10,316 Brio Bouchet . . . . . . . . . . .9,853

Mont Thabor. . . . . . . . . . 10,440 Punta Cournour . . . . . . . . . .9,410

Pointe des Cerces. . . . . . . 10,434

Chief Passes in the Cottian Alps.

Col Sommeiller (Bardonneche to Bramans), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,718

Col de la Traversette (Crissolo to Aliries), mainly bridle path

beneath pass tunnel made in 1478-1480 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,679

Col d'Ambin (Exilles to Bramans), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,364

Col de St Veran (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), foot

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,331

Col n'Etache (Bardonneche to Bramans), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .9,144

Col dell' Agnello (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), bridle

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,003

Col Girardin (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), bridle

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,855

Col de Sautron (Val Maira to Barcelonnette), bridle path . . . . . . . . .8,823

Col de Longet (Ubaye Valley to Val Varaita), bridle path . . . . . . . . .8,767

Col de Mary or de M iurin ( Ubaye Valley to Val Maira), bridle

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,708

Col d'Abries or de Prali (Perosa to Abries), bridle path . . . . . .8,695

Col de la Roue (Bardonneche to Modane), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .8,419

Col de Freius (same to same), carriage road, beneath which

Col de Clapier (Bramans to Susa), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,173

Col d'Izouard (Briancon to the Queyras Valley), carriage

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,835

Col de la Croix (Torre Pellice to Abries); bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,576

Petit Mont Cenis (Bramans to the Mont Cenis Plateau), bridle

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,166

Col de Vars (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), carriage

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,939

Mont Cenis (Lanslebourg to Susa), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,893

Col de Sestrieres (Pignerol to Cesanne), carriage road . . . . . . .6,631

Mont Genevre (Briancon to Cesanne), carriage road . . . . . . . .6,083

Col des Echelles de Planpipinet (Briangon to Bardonneche),

partly carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,774

3. Dauphine Alps (from the Col du Galibier, westwards and southwards).

Chief Peaks of the Dauphine Alps.

Pointe des Ecrins . . . . . 13,462 Pic Felix Neff. . . . . . . . 10,571

Meije. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,081 Vieux Chaillol . . . . . . . . . 10,378

Ailefroide . . . . . . . . . . 12,989 Tete de Vautisse. . . . . . . 10,375

Mont Pelvoux . . . . . . . . . 12,973 Grand Pinier . . . . . . . . . . 10,237

Pic Sans Nom . . . . . . . . . 12,845 Pic de Parieres . . . . . . . 10,007

Pic Gaspard. . . . . . . . . . 12,730 Mourre Froid . . . . . . . . . . .9,830

Pic Coolidge . . . . . . . . . 12,323 Belledonne (highest) . . . . . . .9,781

Grande Ruine . . . . . . . . . 12,317 Rocherblanc (Septlaux) . . . . . .9,617

Rateau. . . . . . . . . . . 12,317 Taillefer. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,387

Montagne des Agneaux . . . . . 12,oo8 Pic du Frene. . . . . . . . . .9,219

Les Bans . . . . . . . . . . . 11,979 Tete de l'Obiou . . . . . . . .9,164

Sommet des Rouies. . . . . . . 11,923 Grand Ferrand. . . . . . . . . . .9,059

Aiguille du Plat . . . . . . . 11,818 Pic de Bure (Aurouse). . . . . . .8,898

Pic d'Olan. . . . . . . . . . 11,735 Grand Veymont. . . . . . . . . . .7,697

Pic Bonvoisin. . . . . . . . . 11,680 Mont Aiguille. . . . . . . . . . .6,880

Aiguilles d'Arves (highest Chamechaude. . . . . . . . . . . .6,847

point). . . . . . . . . . . 11,529 Dent de Crolles. . . . . . . . . .6,779

Grandes Rousses. . . . . . . . 11,395 Grand Sore . . . . . . . . . . . .6,670

Roche de la Muzelle. . . . . . 11,349 Mont Granier . . . . . . . . . . .6,358

Sirac. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,280 Dent du Chat . . . . . . . . . . .4,593

Chief Passes of the Dauphine Alps.

Col de la Lauze (St Christophe to La Grave), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,625

Col des Avalanches (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow. . . . . . . . . . 11,520

Col de la Casse Deserte (La Berarde to La Grave), snow . . . . . . 11,516

Col Emile Pic (La Grave to Vallouise), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,490

Col des Ecrins (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow . . . . . . . . . . 11,205

Col du Glacier Blanc (La Grave to Vallouise), snow . . . . . . . . . . . 10,854

Col du Sele (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow . . . . . . . . . . 10,834

Breche de la Meile (La Berarde to la Grave), snow. . . . . . . . . 10,827

Col de la Temple (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 10,772

Col des Aiguilles d'Arves (Valloire to St Jean d'Arvesl,snow . . . . . . 10,335

Col du Says (La Berarde to the Val Gaudemar), snow. . . . . . . . . . 10,289

Col du Clot des Cavales (La Berarde to La Grave), snow. . . . . . . . 10,263

Col du Loup du Valgaudemar (Vallouise to the Val

Gaudemar), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,210

Col Lombard (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,171

Breche des Grandes Rousses (Allemont to Clavans), snow. . . . . . . . 10,171

Col du Sellar (Vallouise to the Val Gaudemar), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 10,063

Col de la Muande (St Christophe to the Val Gaudemar),

snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,037

Col des Quirlies (St Jean d'Arves to Clavans), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,679

Col du Goleon (La Grave to Valloire), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,449

Pas de la Cavale (Vallouise to Champoleon), carriage road . . . . . . .8,990

Col d'Orcieres (Dormillouse to Orcieres), bridle path. . . . . . . .8,859

Col de l'Infernet (La Grave to St lean d'Arves), foot path . . . . . . . .8,826

Col du Galibier (Lautaret Hospice to St Michel de Maurienne),

carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,721

Breche de Valsenestre (Bourg d'Oisans to Valsenestre), foot

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,642

Col de Vallonpierre (Val Gaudemar to Champoleon), foot 8,596

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,596

Col de Val Estrete (same to same), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,596

Col de Vaurze (Val Gaudemar to Val souflrey), foot path. . . . . . . . . .8,531

Col de Martignare (La Grave to St lean d'Arves), foot path . . . . . . . .8,531

Col des Tourettes (Orcieres to Chateauroux), bridle path . . . . . .8,465

Col de la Muzelle (St Christophe to Valsenestre), foot path. . . . . . . .8,202

Col de l'Eychauda (Vallouise to Monestier), bridle path. . . . . . . . . .7,970

Col d'Arsine (La Grave to Monestier), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,874

Col des Pres Nouveaux (Le Frenev to St Jean d'Arves),

bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,523

Col dessept Lanx (Allevard to Bourg d'Oisans), bridle path . . . . . . . .7,166

Col du Lautaret (Briancon to Bourg d'Oisans), carriage

road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,808

Col de la Croix de Fer (Bourg d'Oisans to St Jean d'Arves),

carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,765

Col du Glandon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Chambre), carriage

road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,401

Col de l'Alpe de Venose (Venose to Le Freney), bridle path . . . . .5,446

Col d'Ornon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Mure), carrigae road . . . . . . . . . .4,462

Col Bayard (La Mure to Gap), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,088

Col de la Croix Haute (Grenoble to Veynes and Gap),

railway line over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,829

4. Graian Alps (from the Mont Cenis to the Little St Bernard

Pass). These are usually divided into three groups, the Central

(the watershed between the two passes named), the Western or

French, and the Eastern or Italian; in the following lists the

initials ``C,'' ``W,'' and ``E'' show to which group each peak

and pass belongs.

Chief Peaks of the Graian Alps.

Grand Paradis (E). . . . . . . 13,324 Grande Aiguille Rousse

Grivola (E). . . . . . . . . . 13,022 (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,424

Oirande Casse (W). . . . . . . 12,668 Granta Parey (C) . . . . . . . . 11,395

Mont Pourri (W). . . . . . . . 12,428 Roc du Mulinet (C) . . . . . . . 11,382

Mont Herbetet (E). . . . . . . 12,396 Aiguille Pers (C). . . . . . . . 11,323

Pointe de Charbonel (C). . . . 12,336 Pointe de la Sana (W). . . . . . 11,319

Aiguille de la Grande Cima dell' Auille (C). . . . . . 11,306

Sassiere (C) . . . . . 12,325 Pointe de l.Lchelle (W). . . . . 11,260

Dent Parrachee (W). . . . . 12,179 Punta Foura (E) . . . . . . . 11,188

Tour du Grand St Pierre Pointe des Sengies (E) . . . . . 11,182

(C) . . . . . . . . . . . 11,424 Pointe de la Gliere (W) . . . 11,109

Uja di Ciamareila (C). . . . . 12,061 Pointe de la Galise (C). . . . . 10,975

Cima di Charforon (E). . . . . 12,025 Pointe de la Traversiere

Grande Motte (W) . . . . . . . 12,018 (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,962

Albaron (C). . . . . . . . . . 12,915 Pointe de Mean Martin

Roccia Viva (E). . . . . . . . 11,976 (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,949

Levanna (C). . . . . . . . . . 11,943 Punta Lavina (E) . . . . . . . . 10,854

Bessanese (C). . . . . . . . . 11,917 Ormelune (C) . . . . . . . . . . 10,77i

Punta di Gaij (E). . . . . . . 11,887 Roche Chevriere (W) . . . . . 10,768

Dome de l'Arpont (W) . . . . . 11,874 Signaldu Montlseran (C). . . . . 10,634

Pointe de Ronco (C). . . . . . 11,871 Pointedela Rechasse (W) 10,575

Bec de l'lnvergnan (C) . . . . 11,838 Crand Assaly (C) . . . . . . . . .10,44

Tsanteleina (C). . . . . . . . 11,831 Roisebanque (E). . . . . . . . . 10,381

Dome de Chasseforet (W). 11,802 Bocca di Nona (E). . . . . . . . 10,309

Croce Rossa (C). . . . . . . . 11,703 Torre d'Ovarda (C) . . . . . . . 10,089

Aiguille de Peclot (W). . . 11,700 Pointe du Pousset (E). . . . . . .9,994

Mont Einilius (E). . . . . . . 11,677 Dome de Val d'Isere (C) . . . .9,951

Punta d'Arnas (C). . . . . . . 11,615 UJa di Mondrone (C). . . . . . . .9,725

Aiguille de Polset (W) . . . . 11,608 Bellagarda (C) . . . . . . . . . .9,643

Rochemelon (C) . . . . . . . . 11,605 Monte Marzo (E). . . . . . . . . .9,023

Mont Chalanson(C). . . . . . . 11,582 Petit Mont Blanc de

Tersiva (E). . . . . . . . . . 11,526 Pralognan (W).. . . . . . . .8,809

Grande Traversiere (C). . . 11,467 Mont Jouvet (W). . . . . . . . . .8,409

Tete du Rutor (C) . . . . . 11,438 Monte Civrari (C). . . . . . . . .7,553

Chief Passes of the Graian Alps.

Col de la Grande Rousse (Rhemes Valley to the Val

Grisanche), snow (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,483

Col de Gebroulaz (Arc Valley to Mofitiers Tarentaise), snow

(W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,385

Col de Monel (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,247

Col du Grand Paradis (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche),

snow (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,988

Col du Charforon (same to same), snow (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,929

Col de Teleccio (Cogne to Locana), snow (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,913

Col de Lauzon (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E) . . . . . . 10,831

Col du Bouquetin (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), snow (C). . . . . . . . . 10,827

Col de St Grat (Val Grisanche to La Thuille), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . 10,827

Col de l'Herbetet (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), snow (E). . . . . . . . 10,686

Col du Collerin (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,506

Col du Grand Etret (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E). . . . . . 10,361

Col de Bassac (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), snow (C). . . . . 10,345

Col du Carro (Bonneval to Ceresole), snow (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,302

Col d'Arbole (Comboe to Brissogne), snow (E) . . . . . . . . . . . 10,292

Col de la Goletta (Va Id'Isere to the Rhemes Valley), snow (C) . . 10,237

Col de Rhemes (same to same), snow (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,174

Col de la Grande Casse (Pralognan to the Premou Glen), snow (W) . . . 10,171

Col de Sea (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C). . . . . . . . . . . 10,115

Col de l'Autaret (Bessans to Usseglio), foot path (C). . . . . . . . . . 10,073

Col de Girard (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . .9,987

Col Rosset (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), bridle path (C) . . .9,922

Col d'Arnas (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,889

Col de la Galise (Ceresole to Val d'Isere), snow (C). . . . . . . . . .9,836

Col de Sort (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), partly bridle path .9,735

Quecees de Tignes (Val d'Isere to Termignon), snow (W) . . . . . . .9,646

Col della Nouva (Cogne to Pont Canavese), partly bridle path (E) . . . . .9,623

Col de Garin (Aosta to Cogne), foot path (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,411

Collarin d'Arnas (Balme to Usseglio), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,351

Finestra del Torrent (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path. .9,341

Fenetre de Champorcher (Cogne to Champorcher), bridle path (E). . . . .9,311

Col de Vaudet (Isere Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path (C). . . .9,305

Col de Bardoney (Cogne to Pont Canavese), snow (E) . . . . . . . . . . . .9,295

Col de Chaviere (Modane to Pralognan), foot path (W). . . . . . . . . .9,206

Col de la Leisse (Tignes to Termignon), snow (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,121

Col du Mont Iseran (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), bridle path (C) . . . . .9,085

Ghicet di Sea (Balme to Forno Alpi Graie), foot path (C) . . . . . . . . .8,973

Col de la Sachette (Tignes to Bourg St Maurice), foot path (W) . . . . . .8,954

Col du Palet (Tignes to Moutiers Tarentaise or Bourg St Maurice),

bridle path (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,721

Col du Mont (Ste Foy to the Val Grisanche), bridle path (C). . . . . . . .8,681

Col de la Croix de Nivolet (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), bridle

path (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,665

Col della Crocetta (Ceresole to Forno Alpi Graie), bridle path (C) . . . .8,649

Col de la Platiere (St Jean de Maurienne to Moutiers Tarentaise),

partly bridle path (W). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,531

Col de la Vanoise (Pralognan to Termignon), bridle path (W). . . . . . . .8,291

Col des Encombres (St Michel de Maurienne to Moutiers Tarentaise),

bridle path (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,668

Little St Bernard (Aosta to Moutiers Tarentaise), carriage road (C) . .7,179

Col de la Madeleine (La Chambre to Moutiers Tarentaise), bridle

path (W). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,509

5. Pennine Alps (from the Little St Bernard to the Simplon Pass).

This range contains all the highest peaks in the Alps, save the

Finsteraarhorn (14,026) in the Bernese Oberland.

Chief Peaks of the Pennine Alps.

Mont Blanc . . . . . . . . . . 15,782 Mont Blanc de Seilon . . . . . . 12,700

Monte Rosa (Dufourspitze). . . 15,217 Aiguille du Midi . . . . . . . . 12,609

Tour Noir. . . . . . . . . . . . 12,586

Nord End (Monte Rosa). . . . . 15,132 Aiguille des Glaciers. . . . . . 12,579

Dom (Mischabelhorner) . . . 14,942 Mont Dolent. . . . . . . . . . . 12,543

Lyskamm. . . . . . . . . . . . 14,889 Aiguille du Chardonnet . . . . . 12,540

Weisshorn. . . . . . . . . . . 14,804 Cima di Jazzi. . . . . . . . . . 12,527

Matterhorn . . . . . . . . . . 14,782 Balfrin. . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,474

Taschhorn . . . . . . . . . 14,758 Pigne d'Arolla . . . . . . . . . 12,471

Mont Maudit. . . . . . . . . . 14,669 Mont Velan. . . . . . . . . . 12,353

Dent Blanche . . . . . . . . . 14,318 Aiguille du Dru. . . . . . . . . 12,320

Dome du Gouter . . . . . 14,210 Tete Blanche. . . . . . . . . 12,304

Grand Combin . . . . . . . . . 14,164 L'Eveque. . . . . . . . . . . 12,264

Castor . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,879 Mont Pleureur. . . . . . . . . . 12,159

Zinal Rothhorn . . . . . . . . 13,856 Dome de Miage. . . . . . . . . . 12,100

Alphubel . . . . . . . . . . . 13,803 Lo Besso . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,058

Grandes Jorasses . . . . . . . 13,797 Aiguille de la Za. . . . . . . . 12,051

Rimpfischhorn. . . . . . . . . 13,790 Mont Collon. . . . . . . . . . . 11,956

Strahlhorn . . . . . . . . . . 13,751 Diablons . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,828

Dent d'Herens . . . . . . . 13,715 Aiguille de Tour . . . . . . . . 11,615

Zermatt Breithorn. . . . . . . 13,685 Mont Gele . . . . . . . . . . 11,539

Aiguille Verte . . . . . . . . 13,541 Bec de Luseney . . . . . . . . . 11,503

Ober Gabelhorn . . . . . . . . 13,364 Aiguille de Grepon. . . . . . 11,489

Aiguille de Bionnassay . . . . 13,341 Chateau des Dames . . . . . . 11,447

Allalinhorn. . . . . . . . . . 13,236 Aiguille des Charmoz . . . . . . 11,293

Weissmies . . . . . . . . . . 13,226 Aiguille du Tacul. . . . . . . . 11,280

Aiguille du Geant . . . . . 13,170 Grand Tournalin. . . . . . . . . 11,086

Laquinhorn . . . . . . . . . . 13,140 Pointe de Rosa Blanche . . . . . 10,985

Rossbodenhorn. . . . . . . . . 13,128 Mont Avril . . . . . . . . . . . 10,962

Grand Cornier. . . . . . . . . 13,022 Grande Rochere. . . . . . . . 10,913

Aiguille de Trelatete. . 12,832 Corno Bianco . . . . . . . . . . 10,893

Aiguille d'Argentiere . . . 12,819 Grauhaupt. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,876

Ruinette . . . . . . . . . . . 12,727 Pointe d'Orny. . . . . . . . . . 10,742

Aiguille de Triolet. . . . . . 12,717 Dent du Midi . . . . . . . . . . 10,696

Mont Favre . . . . . . . . . . 10,693 Tagliaferro. . . . . . . . . . . .9,725

Sasseneire . . . . . . . . . . 10,693 Riffelhorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,617

Grand Golliaz. . . . . . . . . 10,630 Pointe Percee du Reposoir . . .9,029

Tour Sallieres. . . . . . . 10,588 Crammont . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,980

Pizzo Bianco . . . . . . . . . 10,552 Pointe des Fours . . . . . . . . .8,921

Latelhorn. . . . . . . . . . . 10,523 Pointe du Colloney . . . . . . . .8,832

Schwarzhorn (Augstbord). . . . 10,512 Catogne. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,527

Gornergrat . . . . . . . . . . 10,289 Monte Bo. . . . . . . . . . . .8,386

Pointe de Lechaud . . . . . 10,260 Mont Joly. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,291

Buet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,201 Brevent . . . . . . . . . . . .8,284

Mont Ruan. . . . . . . . . . . 10,099 Pointe de Salles . . . . . . . . .8,183

Mont Neri . . . . . . . . . 10,073 Aiguille de Varens . . . . . . . .8,163

Bella Tola . . . . . . . . . . 9,935 Mont Chetif . . . . . . . . . .7,687

Pointe de Tanneverge . . . . . 9,784 Mole. . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,132

Belvedere (Aigs. Rouges) 9,731 Saleve (highest point). . . . .4,528

Chief Passes of the Pennine Alps.

Sesiajoch (Zermatt to Alagna), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,515

Col de la Brenva (Courmayeur to Chamonix), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,217

Domjoch (Randa to Saas), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,062

Lysjoch (Zermatt to Gressoney), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,033

Mischabeljoch (Zermatt to Saas), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,651

Alphubel Pass (same to same), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,474

Adler Pass (same to same), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,461

Moming Pass (Zermatt to Zinal), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,287

Schwarzthor (Zermatt to Ayas), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,274

Col de Triolet (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,110

Ried Pass (St Niklaus to Saas), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,800

New Weissthor (Zermatt to Macugnaga), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,746

Allalin Pass (Zermatt to Saas), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,713

Col de Valpelline (Zermatt to Aosta), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,687

Biesjoch (Randa to Turtmann), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,644

Triftjoch (Zermatt to Zinal), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,615

Col d'Argentiere (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 11,536

Col du Sonadon (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow. . . . . . . 11,447

Col de Talefre (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,430

Col d'Herens (Zermatt to Evolena), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,418

Col Durand (Zermatt to Zinal), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,398

Col des Maisons Blanches (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow. . 11,241

Col de Bertol (Arolla to the Col d'Herens), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 11,200

Col de Miage (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,077

Col du Geant (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,060

Col du Mont Rouge (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow . . 10,962

Col du Chardonnet (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,909

Col de St Theodule (Zermatt to Chatillon), snow. . . . . . . . . . 10,899

Col du Tour (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,762

Fenetre de Saleinaz (Saleinaz Glacier to Trient Glacier), snow. . . . 10,709

Col de Tracuit (Zinal to Turtmann), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,670

Zwischbergen Pass (Saas to Gondo), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,657

Col d'Oren (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow . . . . . . . . . . . 10,637

Col de Seilon (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow . . . . 10,499

Col du Cret (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow. . . . 10,329

Col de Valcournera (Val Tournanche to the Valpelline), snow . . . . . 10,325

Col de Collon (Arolla to Aosta), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,270

Col de Valsorey (Bourg St Pierre to Aosta), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,214

Col de Chermontane (Val de Bagnes to Arolla), snow . . . . . . . . . . . 10,119

Cimes Blanches (Val Tournanche to Ayas), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .9,777

Col de Torrent (Evolena to the Val de Torrent), bridle path. . . . . . . .9,593

Augstbord Pass (St Niklaus to Turtmann), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .9,492

Col de Crete Seche (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow . . . . .9,475

Col de Breuil (Bourg St Maurice to La Thuille), snow . . . . . . . . . . .9,446

Col d'Olen (Alagna to Gressoney), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,420

Monte Moro (Saas to Macugnaga), partly bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,390

Pas de Chevres (Arolla to the Val d'Heremence), foot path . . . .9,354

Antrona Pass (Saas to Antrona), partly bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,331

Col de Sorebois (Zinal to the Val de Torrent), bridle path . . . . . . . .9,269

Col de Vessona (Valpelline to the St Barthelemy Glen), foot path. . . .9,167

Col de Fenetre (Val de Bagnes to Aosta), bridle path. . . . . . . . . .9,141

Z'Meiden Pass (Zinal to Turtmann), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,095

Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,977

Col de Fenetre (Great St Bernard to the Swiss Val Ferret),

bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,855

Bettafurka (Ayas to Gressoney), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,780

Col du Mont Tondu (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .8,498

Col Serena (Great St Bernard to Courmayeur). foot path . . . . . . . . . .8,327

Col Ferret (Courmayeur to Orsieres), carriage road in progress. . . . .8,311

Col de la Seigne (Chapieux to Courmayeur) bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .8,242

Col de Susanfe (Champery to Salvan), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,202

Col du Bonhomme (Contamines to Chapieux), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .8,147

Col de Valdobbia (Gressoney to the Val Sesia), bridle path . . . . . . . .8,134

Great St Bernard (Martigny to Aosta), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .8,111

Col de Sagerou (Sixt to Champery), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,917

Col de Moud (Alagna to Rima and Varallo), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .7,622

Col d'Anterne (Sixt to Servos), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,425

Col d'Egua (Rima to the Val Anzasca), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,336

Col de Balme (Chamonix to the Trient Valley), bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,221

Simplon Pass (Brieg to Domo d'Ossola), carriage road over,

railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,592

Col de Checouri (Courmayeur to the Lac de Combal),bridle path . . . . .6,431

Baranca Pass (Varallo to the Val Anzasca), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .5,971

Col de Voza (Chamonix to Contamines), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .5,496

Col de la Forclaz (Chamonix to St Gervais), bridle path. . . . . . . . . .5,105

Col de la Forclaz (Trient Valley to Martigny), carriage road . . . . . . .4,987

II. CENTRAL ALPS

6. Bernese Oberland (from the Lake of Geneva to the Furka, the

Reuss Valley and the Lake of Lucerne). This general name seems

best to describe the range in question, though, of course, portions of

it are in Cantons other than that of Berne, viz. Vaud, Fribourg, the

Valais, Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden.

Chief Peaks of the Bernese Oberland.

Finsteraarhorn . . . . . . . . 14,026 Wellhorn . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,486

Aletschhorn. . . . . . . . . . 13,721 Mettenberg . . . . . . . . . . . 10,194

Jungfrau . . . . . . . . . . . 13,669 Loffelhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,165

Monch . . . . . . . . . . . 13,468 Grand Muveran. . . . . . . . . . 10,043

Gross Schreckhorn. . . . . . . 13,386 Gross Wendenstock. . . . . . . . .9,987

Gross Fiescherhorn . . . . . . 13,285 Sparrhorn. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,928

Eiger. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,042 Torrenthorn. . . . . . . . . . . .9,853

Bietschhorn. . . . . . . . . . 12,970 Grande Dent de Morcles . . . . . .9,777

Gross Wannehorn. . . . . . . . 12,812 Schilthorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,754

Gross Nesthorn . . . . . . . . 12,533 Eggishorn. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,626

Lauterbrunnen Breithorn. . . . 12,399 Uri Rothstock. . . . . . . . . . .9,620

Balmhorn . . . . . . . . . . . 12,176 Schwarzhorn(Grindelwald) . . . . .9,613

Wetterhorn (Mittelhorn). . . . 12,166 Gross Siedelhorn . . . . . . . . .9,452

Wetterhorn (Hash Jungfrau) . . 12,149 Albristhorn. . . . . . . . . . . .9,069

Rothihorn.. . . . . . . . . . .9,052

Wetterhorn (Rosenhorn) . . . . 12,110 Faulhorn . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,803

Blumlisalphorn. . . . . . . 12,044 Gummfluh . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,074

Gross Doldenhorn . . . . . . . 11,966 Sulegg . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,914

Atels. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,930 Vanil Noir . . . . . . . . . . . .7,858

Dammastock . . . . . . . . . . 11,920 Niesen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,763

Galenstock . . . . . . . . . . 11,802 Brienzer Rothhorn. . . . . . . . .7,714

Sustenhorn . . . . . . . . . . 11,523 Tour d'Ai. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,658

Gspaltenhorn . . . . . . . . . 11,293 Hohgant. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,225

Fleckistock. . . . . . . . . . 11,214 Stockhorn. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,192

Gross Huhnerstock . . . . . 10,985 Kaiseregg. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,182

Ewigschneehorn . . . . . . . . 10,929 Pilatus (Tomlishorn) . . . . . . .6,995

Ritzlihorn . . . . . . . . . . 10,768 Chamossaire. . . . . . . . . . . .6,943

Wildhorn . . . . . . . . . . . 10,709 Gemmenalphorn. . . . . . . . . . .6,772

Wildstrubel. . . . . . . . . . 10,673 Rochers de Nave. . . . . . . . . .5,710

Diablerets . . . . . . . . . . 10,650 Moleson . . . . . . . . . . . .6,582

Titlis . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,627 Dent de Jaman. . . . . . . . . . .6,165

Gross Spannort . . . . . . . . 10,516 Napf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,629

Chief Passes of the Bernese Oberland.

Lauithor (Lauterbrunnen to the Eggishorn), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,140

Monchjoch (Grindelwald to the Eggishorn), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,680

Jungfraujoch (Wengern Alp to the Eggishorn), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,385

Strahlegg Pass (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,995

Grunhornlueke (Great Aletsch Glacier to the Fiescher

Glacier), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,844

Oberaarjoch (Grimsel to the Eggishorn), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,607

Gauli Pass (Grimsel to Meiringen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,519

Petersgrat (Lauterbrunnen to the Lotschenthal), snow. . . . . . . . . 10,516

Lotschenlucke (Lotschenthal to the Eggishorn), snow . . . . . . 10,512

Lauteraarsattel (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow . . . . . . . . . . . 10,355

Beichgrat (Lotschenthal to the Bel Alp), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,289

Lammernjoch (Lenk to the Gemmi), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,276

Triftlimmi (Rhone Glacier to the Gadmen Valley), snow. . . . . . . . . . 10,200

Sustenlimmi (Stein Alp to Goeschenen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,181

Gamchilucke (Kien Valley to Lauterbrunnen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,295

Tschiugel Pass (Lauterbrunnen to Kandersteg), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,265

Hohthurli Pass (Kandersteg to the Kien Valley), foot path . . . . . . .8,882

Lotschen Pass (Kandersteg to the Lotschenthal), snow . . . . . . . .8,842

Sefinenfurka (Lauierbrunnen to the Kien Valley), foot path . . . . . . . .8,583

Wendenjoch (Engelberg to the Gadmen Valley), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,544

Furtwangsattel (Guttannen to the Gadmen Valley), foot path . . . . . . . .8,393

Furka Pass (Rhone Glacier to Andermatt), carriage road . . . . . . . . . .7,992

Rawil Pass (Sion to Lenk), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,924

Gemmi Pass (Randersteg to Leukerbad), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,641

Surenen Pass (Engelberg to Altdorf), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,563

Susten Pass (Meiringen to Wassen), partly carriage road. . . . . . . . . .7,422

Sanetsch Pass (Sion to Saanen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,331

Joch Pass (Meiringen to Engelberg), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,267

Grimsel Pass (Meiringen to the Rhone Glacier), carriage road . . . . . . .7,100

Kleine Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Lauterbrunnen), railway over. . . . . . .6,772

Col de Cheville (Sion to Bex), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,723

Grosse Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Meiringen), bridle path . . . . . . . . .6,454

Col de Jaman (Montreux to Montbovon), mule path over, railway

tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,974

Brunig Pass (Meiringen to Lucerne), railway over. . . . . . . . . . . .3,396

7. Lepontine Alps (from the Simplon to the Splugen and south

of the Furka and Oberalp Passes). The eastern portion of this

range, from the St Gotthard Pass to the Splugen, is sometimes

named the Adula Alps.

Chief Peaks of the Lepontine Alps.

Monte Leone. . . . . . . . . . 11,684 Piz Blas . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,918

Rheinwaldhorn. . . . . . . . . 11,149 Monte Giove. . . . . . . . . . . .9,876

Guferhorn . . . . . . . . . 11,132 Pizzo Centrale . . . . . . . . . .9,853

Blindenhorn. . . . . . . . . . 11,103 Pizzas d'Annarosa. . . . . . . . .9,850

Basodino . . . . . . . . . . . 10,749 Piz Beverin. . . . . . . . . . . .9,843

Tambohorn. . . . . . . . . . . 10,749 Weisshorn (Splugen) . . . . . .9,817

Helsenhorn . . . . . . . . . . 10,742 Pizzo Lucendro . . . . . . . . . .9,708

Wasenhorn. . . . . . . . . . . 10,680 Piz Tomul . . . . . . . . . . .9,676

Ofenhorn . . . . . . . . . . . 10,637 Piz Cavel. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,659

Cherbadung . . . . . . . . . . 10,542 Barenhorn . . . . . . . . . . .9,620

Piz Medel. . . . . . . . . . . 10,509 Six Madun (Badus). . . . . . . . .9,619

Scopi. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,499 Piz Muraun . . . . . . . . . . . .9,512

Pizzo Rotondo. . . . . . . . . 10,489 Zervreilerhorn . . . . . . . . . .9,508

Pizzo dei Piani. . . . . . . . 10,361 Monte Cistella . . . . . . . . . .9,353

Piz Terri. . . . . . . . . . . 10,338 Piz Lukmanier. . . . . . . . . . .9,115

Piz Aul. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,250 Monte Prosa. . . . . . . . . . . .8,983

Pizzo di Pesciora. . . . . . . 10,247 Pizzo Columbe . . . . . . . . .8,363

Wyttenwasserstock. . . . . . . 10,119 Monte Camoghe . . . . . . . . .7,303

Campo Tencia . . . . . . . . . 10,089 Piz Mundaun. . . . . . . . . . . .6,775

Leckihorn. . . . . . . . . . . 10,069 Monte Generoso . . . . . . . . . .5,591

Bruschghorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,020 Monte San Salvatore. . . . . . . .3,004

Alperschellihorn . . . . . . . 9,991

Chief Passes of the Lepontine Alps.

Zapport Pass (Hinterrhein to Malvaglia and Biasca), snow . . . . . . . . 10,103

Guferlucke (Kanal Glen to the Lenta Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . .9,777

Lentalucke (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,692

Hohsand Pass (Binn to Tosa Falls), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,603

Lecki Pass (Wyttenwasser Glen to the Mutten Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . .9,554

Passo Rotondo (Airolo to Oberwald), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,449

Kaltwasser Pass (Simplon Hospice to Veglia Alp), snow. . . . . . . . . . .9,331

Scaradra Pass (Vals Platz to Olivone), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,088

Satteltelucke (Vals Platz to Vrin), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,082

Ritter Pass (Binn to Veglia Alp), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,832

Cavanna Pass (Realp to the Val Bedretto), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,566

Scatta Minoja (Devero to the Val Formazza), bridle path. . . . . . . . . .8,521

Bocca di Cadlimo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), foot path . . . . . . . .8,340

Valserberg (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,225

Safierberg (Splugen to Safien Platz), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .8,170

Geisspfad Pass (Binn to Devero), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,120

Gries Pass (Ulrichen to Tosa Falls), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,098

Passo di Naret (Fusio to Airolo), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,015

Nufenen Pass (Ulrichen to Airolo), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,006

Diesrut Pass (Vrin fo the Somvix Oolen), bad bridle path . . . . . . . . .7,953

Albrun Pass (Binn to Devero and Baceno), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .7,907

Greina Pass (Olivone to the Somvix Glen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .7,743

San Giacomo Pass (Airolo to Tosa Falls), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .7,573

Passo di Buffalora (Val Mesocco to the Val Calanca), foot path . . . . . .7,431

Passo dell' Uomo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), bridle path . . . . . . .7,258

Splugen Pass (Thusis to Chiavenna), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . .6,946

St Gotthard Pass (Andermatt to Airolo), carriage road over,

railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,936

San Bernardino Pass (Thusis to Bellinzona), carriage road. . . . . . . . .6,769

Lukmanier Pass (Disentis to Olivone), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .6,289

8. The Range of the Todi (from the Oberalp Pass to the Klausen Pass).

Todi. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,887 Piz Segnes . . . . . . . . . . . 10,178

Bifertenstock. . . . . . . . . 11,241 Piz Giuf . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,165

Piz Urlaun . . . . . . . . . . 11,060 Crispalt . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,105

Oberalpstock . . . . . . . . . 10,926 Bristenstock . . . . . . . . . . 10,086

Gross Scheerhorn . . . . . . . 10,814 Selbsanft. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,938

Claridenstock. . . . . . . . . 10,729 Vorab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,925

Dussistock. . . . . . . . . 10,703 Tschingelhorner (Elm) . . . . .9,351

Ringelspitz. . . . . . . . . . 10,667 Piz Sol (Grauehorner) . . . . .9,348

Brigelserhorner (highest) . 10,663 Calanda. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,213

Grosse Windgalle. . . . . . 10,473 Karpfstock. . . . . . . . . . .9,177

Hausstock. . . . . . . . . . . 10,342 Mageren. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,294

Gross Ruchen . . . . . . . . . 10,289 Murtschenstock. . . . . . . . .8,012

Chief Passes of the Range of the Todi.

Clariden Pass (Amsteg to Linththal), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,741

Planura Pass (same to same), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,646

Kammlilucke or Scheerjoch (Maderanerthal to Unterschachen), snow . .9,344

Sardona Pass (Flims to Ragaz), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,318

Sand Alp Pass (Disentis to Linththal), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,121

Brunni Pass (Disentis to Amsteg), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,977

Segnes Pass (Elm to Flims), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,613

Kisten Pass (Linththal to Ilanz), bad bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,203

Panixer Pass (Elm to Ilanz), bad bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,897

Kruzli Pass (Amsteg to Sedrun), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,710

Foo or Ramin Pass (Elm to Weisstannen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .7,290

Oberalp Pass (Andermatt to Disentis), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .6,719

Klausen Pass (Altdorf to Linththal), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . .6,404

9. The Alps of North-Eastern Switzerland (north of the Klausen Pass).

Chief Peaks of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps.

Glarnisch (highest) . . . . 9,580 Gross Mythen . . . . . . . . . . .6,240

Boser Faulen. . . . . . . . 9,200 Rigikulm . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,906

Santis. . . . . . . . . . . 8,216 Hoher Kasten . . . . . . . . . . .5,899

Altmann. . . . . . . . . . . . 7,999 Rossberg . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,194

Faulfirst. . . . . . . . . . . 7,925 Zugerberg (Hochwacht). . . . . . .3,255

Alvier . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,753 Albis Hochwacht. . . . . . . . . .2,887

Kurfursten (highest). . . . 7,576 Uetliberg. . . . . . . . . . . . .2,864

Speer. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,411

Chief Passes of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps.

Ruosalperkulm (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path. . . . .7,126

Karren Alp Pass (Muota Valley to Linththal), foot path . . . . . . . . . .6,877

Kinzigkulm Pass (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path. . . .6,811

Saasberg Pass (Einsiedeln to Glarus), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,227

Kamor Pass (Appcnzell to Ruti), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,512

Saxerlucke (Appenzell to Sax), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,417

Schwein Alp Pass (Waggithal to the Klon Glen), bridle path . . . . .5,158

Pragel Pass (Muotathal to Glarus), carriage road in progress . . . . . . .5,099

Hacken Pass (Schwyz to Einsiedeln), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,649

Holzegg Pass (same to same), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,616

Ibergeregg Pass (Schwyz to Iberg and Einsicdeln), carriage road. . . . . .4,613

Krazeren Pass (Nesslau to Urnasch), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .3,993

10. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the Reschen Scheideck and

the Stelvio, south and east of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine

and north of the Vultellina).

Chief Peaks of the Bernina Alps.

Piz Bernina. . . . . . . . . . 13,304 Piz Languard . . . . . . . . . . 10,716

Piz Zupo . . . . . . . . . . . 13,131 Piz Sesvenna . . . . . . . . . . 10,568

Monte di Scerscen. . . . . . . 13,116 Piz Pisoc. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,427

Piz Roseg. . . . . . . . . . . 12,934 Piz Murtarol. . . . . . . . . 10,424

Piz Palu. . . . . . . . . . 12,835 Piz Quaiervals . . . . . . . . . 10,358

Crast' Aguzza . . . . . . . 12,704 Pizzo della Margna . . . . . . . 10,355

Piz Morteratsch. . . . . . . . 12,317 Cima di Redasco. . . . . . . . . 10,299

Monte della Disgrazia. . . . . 12,067 Piz Lischanna. . . . . . . . . . 10,204

Pizzo di Verona. . . . . . . . 11,359 Pizzo di Sena. . . . . . . . . . 10,099

Cima di Piazzi . . . . . . . . 11,283 Piz Casana . . . . . . . . . . . 10,079

Cima di Castello . . . . . . . 11,155 Monte Foscagno . . . . . . . . . 10,010

Cima Viola . . . . . . . . . . 11,103 Pizzo del Teo. . . . . . . . . . 10,007

Pizzo Cengalo. . . . . . . . . 11,070 Pizzo del Ferro. . . . . . . . . 10,007

Cima di Rosso. . . . . . . . . 11,060 Piz Umbrail. . . . . . . . . . . .9,955

Pizzo Scalino. . . . . . . . . 10,903 Zwei Schwestern. . . . . . . . . .9,784

Pizzo Badile . . . . . . . . . 10,863 Monte Braulio. . . . . . . . . . .9,777

Corno di Campo . . . . . . . . 10,844 Monte Spluga . . . . . . . . . . .9,321

Pizzo di Dosde. . . . . . . 10,762 Monte Massuccio. . . . . . . . . .9,239

Cima di Saoseo . . . . . . . . 10,752 Mont la Schera . . . . . . . . . .8,494

Chief Passes of the Bernina Alps.

Fuorcla Bellavista (Ponrresina to Chiesa, in Val Malenco), snow. . . . . 12,087

Fuorcla Crast' Aguzza (same to same), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,805

Fuorcla Tschierva (same to same), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,572

Fuorela Sella (same to same), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,840

Passo di Bondo (Bondo to the Baths of Masino), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 10,227

Passo di Castello (Maloja to Morbegno), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,171

Passo Tremoggia (Sils to Chiesa), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,912

Passo di Mello Chiareggio to Val Masino), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,813

Diavolezza Pass (Bernina road to the Morteratsch Glen), snow . . . . . . .9,767

Passo di Dosde (Val Grosina to Val Viola Bormina), foot path. . . . . .9,351

Passo di Sacco (Bernina road to Grosio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,026

Passo di Zocca (Vicosoprano to Val Masino), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,000

Casana pass (Scants to Livigno), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,832

Muretto pass (Maloja to Chiesa), partly snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,389

Umbrail Pass or Wormserjoch (Munster Valley to the

Stelvio road), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,242

Passo di Val Viola (Bernina road to Bormio), bridle path . . . . . . . . .7,976

Giufplan Pass (Ofen road to Fraele), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .7,723

Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Tirano), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . .7,645

Forcola di Livigno (Bernina Pass to Livigno), small carriage road. . . . .7,638

Cruschetta Pass (Schuls by Scarl to Taufers), bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,599

Passo di Verva (Bormio to Grosio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,592

Sursass or Schlinig Pass (Remus to Mals) foot path. . . . . . . . . . .7,540

Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Trepalle), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,517

Alpisella Lass (Uivigno to Fraule), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .7,497

Scarl Pass (Scarl to Santa Maria Munster), carriage road. . . . . . . .7,386

Dossradond Pass (Santa Maria Munster to Fraele), bridle path. . .7,349

Passo Dheira (Livigno to Trepalle) bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,248

Ofen Pass (Zernez to Mals), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,071

Fraele Pass (Bormio to the Ofen road), partly bridle path . . . . . . .6,398

Scale di Fraele (Borniio to Fraele), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .6,372

Maloja Pass (St Moritz to Chiavenna), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .5,935

11. Albula Range (from the Splugen Pass to the Fluela Pass.

north and west of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine).

Chief Peaks of the Albula Range.

Piz Kesch. . . . . . . . . . . 11,228 Pizzo Stella . . . . . . . . . . 10,375

Piz dellas Calderas. . . . . . 11,132 Fluela Schwarzhorn. . . . . . 10,355

Piz Platta . . . . . . . . . . 11,109 Pizzo della Duana. . . . . . . . 10,279

Piz Julier . . . . . . . . . . 11,106 Pizzo Gallegione . . . . . . . . 10,201

Piz d'Err. . . . . . . . . . . 11,093 Gletscherhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,191

Piz d'Aela . . . . . . . . . . 10,959 Cima di Lago . . . . . . . . . . 10,112

Cima da Flex . . . . . . . . . 10,785 Hoch Ducan . . . . . . . . . . . 10,060

Piz Uertsch. . . . . . . . . . 10,739 Piz Grisch . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000

Piz Forbisch . . . . . . . . . 10,689 Averser Weissberg. . . . . . . . .9,987

Piz Ot . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,667 Surettahorn. . . . . . . . . . . .9,971

Gross Piz Vadret . . . . . . . 10,584 Arosa Rothhorn . . . . . . . . . .9,794

Piz Timun or Emet. . . . . . . 10,502 Piz Curver . . . . . . . . . . . .9,761

Tinzenhorn . . . . . . . . . . 10,430 Pizzo Lunghino . . . . . . . . . .9,121

Piz Michel . . . . . . . . . . 10,378 Statzerhorn . . . . . . . . . .8,450

Chief Passes of the Albula Range.

Fuorcla Calderas (Molins to Bevers), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,270

Fuorcla d'Eschia (Madulein to Bergun), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,869

Passo della Duana (Avers Vnlley to the Val Bregaglia), snow. . . . . . . .9,187

Sertig Pass (Davos to Scanfs), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,062

Forcella di Prassignola (Avers Valley to Soglio), old paved

cattle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,924

Tinzenthor (Bergun to Savognino), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,918

Forcella di Lago or Madris Pass (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path . .8,793

Forcellina (Avers Valley to the Septimer Pass), foot path. . . . . . . . .8,770

Ducan Pass (Davos to Bergun), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,763

Passo di Lei (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,724

Forcella di Lunghino (Maloja to the Septimer Pass), foot path. . . . . . .8,645

Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,593

Suvretta Pass (St Moritz to Bevers), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,590

Fuorcla d'Alp Fontauna (Bergun to Scanfs), foot path. . . . . . . . . .8,580

Stallerberg (Avers Valley to Bivio-Stalla), foot path. . . . . . . . . . .8,478

Grialetsch Pass (Davos to Sus), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,353

Fluela Pass (Davos to Sus), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,838

Strela Pass (Davos to Langwies), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,799

Albula Pass (Bergun to Ponte), carriage road over,

railway tunnel beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,595

Septimer Pass (Bivio-Stalla to Casaccia), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .7,582

Julier Pass (Thusis to Silvaplana), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,504

Passo di Madesimo or d'Emet (Avers Valley to Madesimo), foot path. . . . .7,481

12. Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges (from the Fuela Pass to the

Reschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass).

Chief Peaks of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranpes.

Piz Linard . . . . . . . . . . 11,201 Vesulspitze. . . . . . . . . . . 10,145

Fluchthorn . . . . . . . . . . 11,165 Fluela Weisshorn. . . . . . . 10,132

Gross Piz Buin . . . . . . . . 10,880 Piz Minschun . . . . . . . . . . 10,079

Verstanklahorn . . . . . . . . 10,831 Patteriol. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,037

Muttler. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,821 Piz Faschalba. . . . . . . . . . 10,010

Piz Fliana . . . . . . . . . . 10,775 Hexenkopf. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,968

Stammerspitze. . . . . . . . . 10,689 Gemsbleiskopf. . . . . . . . . . .9,899

Silvrettahorn. . . . . . . . . 10,657 Pischahorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,784

Augstenberg. . . . . . . . . . 10,611 Scesaplana . . . . . . . . . . . .9,741

Plattenhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,568 Rothbleiskopf. . . . . . . . . . .9,640

Dreilanderspitze. . . . . . 10,539 Hohes Rad. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,554

Piz Tasna. . . . . . . . . . . 10,443 Schiltfluh . . . . . . . . . . . .9,482

Kuchenspitze . . . . . . . . . 10,401 Plattenpspitze . . . . . . . . . .9,449

Hoher Riffler. . . . . . . . . 10,368 Madrishorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,285

Piz Mondin . . . . . . . . . . 10,325 Drusenfluh . . . . . . . . . . . .9,282

Kuchelspitze. . . . . . . . 10,315 Sulzfluh . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,252

Gross Seehorn. . . . . . . . . 10,247 Zimbaspitze. . . . . . . . . . . .8,678

Vesilspitze. . . . . . . . . . 10,220 Naafkopf . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,445

Gross Litzner. . . . . . . . . 10,207 Falknis. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,419

Chief Passes of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges.

Jamjoch (Guarda to Galtur), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 112

Fuorcla del Confin (Silvretta Pass to the Vermunt Glacier), snow . . . . 10,033

Buinlucke (Guarda to Patenen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,020

Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,886

Zahnlucke (Jam Glen to the Fimber Glen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,712

Verstanklathor (Klosters to Lavin), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,682

Fuorcla d'Urezzas (Ardez to Galtur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,564

Fuorcla Tasna (Ardez to Ischgl), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,374

Fuorcla Maisas (Remus to the Samnaun Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,357

Vermunt or Fermunt Pass (Guarda to Patenen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,193

Futschol Pass (Ardez to Galtur), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,098

Fuorcla Zadrell or Vernela Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow. . . . . . . . .9,033

Cuolm d'Alp bella or Vignitz Pass (Samnaun Glen to Kappl), foot path . . .8,852

Schafbucheljoch (Mathon to St Anton), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,685

Fimber Pass (Remus to Ischgl), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,570

Scheien Pass (Klosters to the See Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,557

Vereina Pass or Pass da Val Torta (Klosters to Lavin), foot path . . . . .8,540

Zebles Pass (Ischgl to the Samnaun Glen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .8,350

Garnerajoch (Klosters to Gaschurn), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,153

Fless Pass (Klosters to Sus), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,045

St Antonien or Gargellenjoch (St Antonien to St Gallenkirch),

foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,792

Drusenthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,710

Verrajochl (Lunersee to the Schweizerthor), foot path. . . . . . . .7,648

Ofen Pass (Schweizerthor to Schruns), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,523

Cavelljoch (Bludenz and the Lunersee to Seewis), foot path. . . . . . .7,343

Gruben Pass (St Antonien to Schruns), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .7,333

Schlappinerjoch (Klosters to St Gallenkirch), bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,218

Schweizerthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 057

Bielerhohe (Patenen to Galtur), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .6,631

Zeinisjoch (Patenen to Galtur), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,076

Arlberg Pass (Landeck to Bludenz), carriage road over,

railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,912

III. EASTERN ALPS

13. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg (north of

the Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau, and the Enns valley).

Chief Peaks of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg.

Parseierspitze . . . . . . . . 9,968 Watzmann . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,901

Dachstein. . . . . . . . . . . 9,830 Rothewandspitze. . . . . . . . . .8,878

Zugspitze. . . . . . . . . . . 9,738 Gross Krottenkopf(Allgau) . . .8,718

Hochkonig . . . . . . . . . 9,639 Selbhorn . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,711

Valluga. . . . . . . . . . . . 9,223 Hohes Licht. . . . . . . . . . . .8,701

Rockspitze . . . . . . . . . . 9,059 Madelegabel . . . . . . . . . .8,681

E. Hohe Griesspitze. . . . . . 9,052 Hochvogel. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,511

Stanskogel . . . . . . . . . . 9,052 Elmauer Haltsspitze

Birkkarspitze (Karwendel). . . 9,042 (Kaisergebirge) . . . . . . .7,691

Chief Passes of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg.

Gentschel Pass (Oberstdorf to Schrocken), bridle path . . . . . . . . .6,480

Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Warth), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,538

Gerlos Pass (Zell to Mittersill), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,876

Pass Thurn (Kirzbuhel to Mittersill), carriage road . . . . . . . . . .4,183

Fern Pass (Reutte to Nassereit), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,026

Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass (Partenkirchen to Zirl), carriage road . . . . .3,874

Hirschbuhel Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage road . . . . .3,858

Hochfilzen Pass (Saalfelden to Kitzbuhel), railway over . . . . . . . .3,173

Pyhrn Pass (Linz to Liezen), carriage road over, railway tunnel

beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,100

Wagreinstattel (Radstadt to St Johann in Pongau), carriage road. . . . . .2,743

14. Central Tirol Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the Radstadter

Tauern Pass, north of the Drave Valley and south of the Pinzgau

and the Enns Valley). This division takes in the Zillerthal and

Tuern Ranges.

Chief Peaks of the Central Tirol Alps.

Gross Glockner . . . . . . . . 12,461 Ruthnerhorn(Rieserferner). . . . 11,024

Gross Venediger. . . . . . . . 12,008

Gross Wiesbachhorn . . . . . . 11,713 Hochalmspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,008

Hochfeiler (Zillerthal). . . . 11,559 Reichenspitze (Z). . . . . . . . 10,844

Dreiherrenspitze . . . . . . . 11,500 Gross Rotherknopf (Schober). . . 10,814

Mosele (Z). . . . . . . . . 11,438

Olperer (Z). . . . . . . . . . 1i,418 Gross Morchner (Z). . . . . . 10,785

Johannisberg . . . . . . . . . 11,375 Hochnarr (Goldberg). . . . . . . 10,689

Hochgall (Rieserferner). . . . 11,287 Ankogel. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,673

Thurnerkamp (Z). . . . . . . . 11,228 Hochschober. . . . . . . . . . . 10,663

Gross Loflier (Z) . . . . . 11,096 Kitzsteinhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,512

Fusstein (Z) . . . . . . . . . 11,090 Sonnblick. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,196

Schwarzenstein (Z) . . . . . . 11,057 Zsigmondyspitze. . . . . . . . . 10,122

Gross Geiger . . . . . . . . . 11,041 Reckner (Tuxergebirge) . . . . . .9,485

Chief Passes of the Central Tirol Alps.

Mitterbachjoch (Breitlahner to Taufers), snow (Z). . . . . . . . . . . . 10,270

Trippachsattel (Floiten Valley to Taufers), snow (Z) . . . . . . . . . . 10,020

Riffelthor (Kaprun to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,010

Bockkarscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,994

Sonnblickscharte (Rauris to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,774

Alpeinerscharte (Breitlahner to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z). . . .9,712

Vorder Umbalthorl (Pragraten to Kasern), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,607

Ober Sulzbachthorl (Pragraten to Wald), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,600

Keilbachjoch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . .9,410

Unter Sulzbachthorl (Wald to Gschloss), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,400

Schwarzkopfscharte (Bramberg to Gschloss), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,351

Pragraterthorl (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen),foot path . . .9,338

Glodisthorl (Lienz to Kals), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,292

Antholzerscharte (Rein Valley to the Antholz Valley), snow . . . . . . . .9,252

Krimmlerthorl (Krimml Glen to the Obersulzbach Glen) snow . . . . . . .9,233

Goldzechscharte (Heiligenblut to Rauris), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,220

Kalserthorl (Kals to Liens), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,197

Ober Tramerscharte (Rauris to Dollach), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,193

Kleine Elendscharte (Gastein to Gmund), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,987

Kleine Zirknitzscharte (Dollach to Fragant or Rauris), snow . . . . . .8,921

Dossener or Maunitzerscharte (Mallnitz to Gmund), snow . . . . . . .8,783

Grosse Elendscharte (Mallnitz to the Upper Malta Glen), snow . . . . . . .8,770

Unter Pfandlscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . .8,744

Heiliggeistjochl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . .8,721

Bergerthorl (Kals to Heiligenblut), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,695

Kaprunerthorl (upper Kaprun Glen to the upper Stubach Glen), snow . . .8,645

Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,642

Virgner or Defereggerthorl (Defereggen Glen to Virgen and

Pragraten), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,586

Backlenke or Trojerjoch (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen),

foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,573

Hochthor or Heiligenbluter Tauern (Heiligenblut to Rauris), foot path. . .8,442

Horndljochl (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z). . . . . . . . .8,383

Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrei to Mittersill), bridle path . . . . . . . .8,334

Kalser Tauern (Kals to Uttendorf), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,242

Hohe or Korn Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path over,

railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,081

Niedere or Mallnitzer Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path. . . . . .7,920

Fuscherthorl (Ferleiten to the Seidlwinkel Glen), foot path . . . . . .7,891

Lappacherjoch (Lappach to theahrn Valley), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . .7,763

Tuxerjoch or Schmirnjoch (Mayrhofen to St Jodok am Brenner),

foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,697

Klammljoch (Taufers to the Defereggen Valley), bridle path . . . . . . . .7,517

Arlscharte (St Johann in Pongau to Gmund), foot path. . . . . . . . . .7,386

Pfitscherjoch (Mayrhofen to Sterzing), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . .7,376

Kals Matreierthorl (Kals to Windisch Matrei), bridle path . . . . . . .7,238

Die Stanz (Gastein to Rauris), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,900

Stallersattel (Defereggen Glen to the Antholz Glen), bridle path (R) . . .6,742

Radstadter Tauern (Radstadt to Mautendorf), carriage road . . . . . . .5,702

15. Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Banges (from the Reschen

Scheideck and the Stelvio to the Brenner Pass, south of the Inn

Valley, and north of the Tonale Pass).

Chief Peaks of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges.

Ortler . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,802 Zuckerhutl (Stubai) . . . . . 11,520

Konigsspitze. . . . . . . . 12,655 Schalfkogel. . . . . . . . . . . 11,516

Monte Cevedale . . . . . . . . 12,382 Schrankogel. . . . . . . . . . . 11,483

Wildspitze (Oetzthal). . . . . 12,382 Hochwildspitze . . . . . . . . . 11,418

Weisskugel . . . . . . . . . . 12,291 Sonklarspiize. . . . . . . . . . 11,405

Monte Zebru. . . . . . . . . . 12,254 Tuckettspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,346

Palon della Mare . . . . . . . 12,156 Wilder Freiger . . . . . . . . . 11,241

Funta San Matteo . . . . . . . 12,113 Veneziaspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,103

Thurwieserspitze . . . . . . . 11,946 Tscheugelser Hochwand. . . . . . 11,083

Hintere Schwarze. . . . . . 11,920 Monte Confinale. . . . . . . . . 11,057

Similaun . . . . . . . . . . . 11,821 Glockthurm . . . . . . . . . . . 11,011

Pizzo Tresero. . . . . . . . . 11,818 Fernerkogel. . . . . . . . . . . 10,827

Gross Ramolkogel . . . . . . . 11,651 Monte Sobretta . . . . . . . . . 10,814

Vtertainspitze . . . . . . . . 11,618 Habicht. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,758

Hochvernagtspitze. . . . . . . 11,585 Pflerscher Tribulaun . . . . . . 10,178

Chief Passes of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges.

Hochjoch (Sulden to the Zebru Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,602

Vioz Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,949

Sonklarscharte (Solden to Sterzing), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,916

Konigsjoch (Sulden to Santa Caterina), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,811

Cevedale Pass (Santa Caterina to the Martell Glen), snow . . . . . . . . 10,732

Gepatschjoch (Vent to the Kauns Valley), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,640

Ramoljoch (Vent to Gurgl), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.479

Langtaufererjoch (Vent to the Reschen Scheideck Pass), snow. . . . . . . 10,391

Bildstockljoch (Solden to Ranalt), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,296

Gurgler Eisjoch (Gurgl to the Pfossen Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,292

Eissee Pass (Sulden to the Martell Glen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,279

Langthalerjoch (Gurgl to Pfelders), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,033

Passo del Zebru (Santa Caterina to the Zebru Glen), snow . . . . . . . . .9,925

Sallentjoch (Martell Glen to Rabbi), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,913

Nederjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,899

Sforzellina Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,859

Pitzthalerjochl (Mittelbera to Solden), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,826

Eisjochl am Bild (Pfelders to the Pfossen Glen), snow . . . . . . . . .9,541

Venter Hochjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,465

Tabarettascharte (Sulden to Trafoi), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,459

Stelvio Pass (Trafoi to Bormio), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,055

Gavia Pass (Santa Caterina to Ponte di Legno), foot path . . . . . . . . .8,651

Timmeljoch or Timblerjoch (Solden to the Passeierthal and

Meran), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,232

Jaufen Pass (Sterzing to Meran), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,870

Reschen Scheideck Pass (Landeck to Meran), carriage road . . . . . . . . .4,902

Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Verona), railway over . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,495

16. Lombard Alps flrom the Lake of Como to the Adige Valley,

south of the Valtellina and the Aprica and Tonale Passes. This

division includes the Adamello, Presanella, Brenta and Bergamasque

ranges.

Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps.

Presanella. . . . . . . . . . 11,694 Pizzo del Diavolo. . . . . . . . .9,564

Adamello . . . . . . . . . . . 11,661 Re di Castello. . . . . . . . .9,482

Care Alto . . . . . . . . . 11,369 Recastello . . . . . . . . . . . .9,475

Dosson di Genova . . . . . . . 11,254 Monte Gleno. . . . . . . . . . . .9,459

Crozzon di Lares . . . . . . . 11,004 Monte Tornello . . . . . . . . . .8,819

Corno di Baitone . . . . . . . 10,929 Corno Stella . . . . . . . . . . .8,596

Busazza. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,922 Monte Legnone. . . . . . . . . . .8,563

Lobliia Alta . . . . . . . . . 10,486 Pizzo dei Tre Signori. . . . . . .8,380

Cima Tosa (Brenta) . . . . . . 10,420 Pizzo di Presolana . . . . . . . .8,239

Cima di Brenta . . . . . . . . 10,352 Grigna . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,907

Crozzon di Brenta. . . . . . . 10,247 Monte Baldo. . . . . . . . . . . .7,218

Pizzo di Coca (Bergamasque). . 10,014 Monte Spinale. . . . . . . . . . .7,094

Pizzo di Scais . . . . . . . . .9,974 Monte Gazza. . . . . . . . . . . .6,529

Pizzo di Redorta . . . . . . . .9,964 Monte Resegone . . . . . . . . . .6,155

Pietra Grande. . . . . . . . . .9,630

Chief Passes of the Lombard Alps.

Passo di Lares (Lares Glacier to the Lobbia Glacier), snow . . . . . . . 10,483

Passo di Cercen (gal di Genova to Fucine), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,984

Passo della Lobbia Alta (Lobbia Glacier to the Mandron

(Glacier), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,961

Passo di Presena (Val di Genova to the Tonale Pass), snow. . . . . . . . .9,879

Pisgana f'ass ()al di Genova to Ponte di Legno), snow . . . . . . . . .9,626

Bocca di Tuckett (Campiglio to Molveno), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,714

Passo di Val Morta or del Diavolo (Val Seriana to Sondrio),

foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,534

Ulocca di Brenta (Pinzolo or Campiglio to Molveno), snow . . . . . . . . .8,376

Passo del Groste fcampiglio to Clesl, foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,006

Passo di Veniua (kal Brembana to Sondrio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . .7,983

Passo del Salro (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .7,937

Passo del Venerocolo (Val di Scalvc to the Aprica road),

bridle path.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,595

Passo della Forcellina or di Campo (Cedegolo to the Val di

Fomo), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,507

V'asso di Idordona (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path. . . . . . . . . .6,824

Passo di San Marco (Bergamo to Morbegno), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .6,513

Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Bagolino in Val Caffaro), bridle

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,217

Tonale Tass (.Trent to Edolo), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,181

Passo di Zovetto (Val di Scalve to Edolo), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .5,968

Colle Maniva (Val Trompia to Bagolino), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .5,476

Campo or Ginevrie Pass (Oimaro by Campiglio to Pinzolo),

carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,407

Ciampenjoch (Cles to Meran), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,051

Mendel Pass (Botzen to Cles), railway on the E. slope. . . . . . . . . . .4,462

Passo di Castione or Presolana Pass (Clusone to the Val di

Scalve), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,219

Aprica Pass (Edolo to Tirano), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,875

17. The Dolomites of South Tirol (from the Brenner Pass to the

Monte Croce Pass, and south of the Pusterthal).

Chief Peaks of the Dolomites of South Tirol.

Marmolata. . . . . . . . . . 10,972 Pala di San Martino. . . . . . . .9,831

Antelao. . . . . . . . . . . 10,706 Rosengartenspitze. . . . . . . . .9,781

Tofana di Mezzo. . . . . . . 10,633 Marmarole. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,715

Sorapiss . . . . . . . . . . 10,594 Cima di Fradusta . . . . . . . . .9,649

Monte Civetta .. . . . . . . 10,564 Fermedathurm . . . . . . . . . . .9,407

Vernel . . . . . . . . . . . 10,319 Cima d'Asta. . . . . . . . . . . .9,344

Monte Cristallo. . . . . . . 10,496 Cima di Canali . . . . . . . . . .9,338

Cima di Vezzaoa. . . . . . . 10,470 Croda Grande . . . . . . . . . . .9,315

Cimon della Pala . . . . . . 10,453 Vajoletthurm (highest) . . . . . .9,256

Langkofel . . . . . .. . . . 10,427 Sass Maor. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,239

Pelmo . . . . . . . .. . . . 10,397 Cima di Ball . . . . . . . . . . .9,131

Dreischusterspitze . . . . . 10,375 Cima della Madonna

Boespitze . . . . . . . . 10,342 (Sass Maor) . . . . . . . . . .9,026

Croda Rossa (Hoher . . . . . 10,329 Rosetta. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,993

Caisl) . . . . . . . . 10,329 Croda da Lago. . . . . . . . . . .8,911

Piz Popena . . . . . . . . . 10,312 Central Grasleitenspitze . . . . .8,875

Elferkofel . . . . . . . . . 10,220 Schlern. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,406

Grohmannspitze . . . . . . . 10,207 Sasso di Mur . . . . . . . . . . .8,380

Zwolferkofel. . . . . . . 10,142 Cima delle Dodici. . . . . . . . .7,671

Sass Rigais(Geislerspitzen). .9,932 Monte Pavione. . . . . . . . . . .7,664

Drei Zinnen . . . . . . . . .9,853 Cima di Posta. . . . . . . . . . .7,333

Kesselkogel (Rosengarten). . .9,846 Monte Pasubio. . . . . . . . . . .7,323

Funffingerspitze. . . . . .9,833

Chief Passes of the Dolomites of South Tirol.

Passo d' Ombretta (Campitello to Caprile), foot path . . . . . . . . . . .8,983

Langhofeljoch (Groden Valley to Campirello), foot path. . . . . . . . .8,803

Tschagerjoch (Karersee to the Vnjolet Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . .8,675

Crasleiten Pass (Vniolet Glen to thegrasleiten Glen), foot path. . . . . .8,521

Passo di Pravitale (Rosetta Plateau to the Pravitale Glen),

foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,465

Passo delle Comelle (same to Cencenighe), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,462

Passo della Rosetta (San Martino di Castrozza to the great

limestone Rosetta plateau), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,442

Vajolet Pass (Tiers to the Vajolet Glen), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,363

Passo di Canali (Primiero to Agordo), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,193

Tiersalpljochl (Campitello to'I.iers), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,055

Passo di Ball (San Martino di Castrozza to the Pravitale Glen),

foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,038

Forcella di Giralba (Sexte11 to Auronzo), foot path . . . . . . . . . .7,992

Col dei Bos (F.alzarego Glen to the Travernanzes GIen), foot

path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,589

Forcella Grande (San Vito to Auronzo), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,422

Pordoi Pass (Caprile to Canipitello), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .7,382

Sellajoch (Groden Glen to Camphello), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .7,277

Tre Sassi Pass (Cortina to St Cassian), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,215

Mahlknechtjoch (Upper Duron Glen to the Seiser Alp), foot path . . . . . .7,113

Grodenerjoch (Groden Glen to Colfuschg), bridle path . . . . . . . .7,011

Falzarego Pass (Caprile to Cortina), small carriage road . . . . . . . . .6,946

Fedaja Pass (Campitello to Caprile), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,713

Passo di Valles (Paneveggio to Cencenighe), foot path. . . . . . . . . . .6,667

Rolle Pass (Predazzo to San Martino di Castrozza and

Primiero), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,509

Forcella Forada (Caprile to San Vito), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .6,480

Passo di San Pellegrino (Moena to Cencenighe), small carriage, path . .6,267

Forcella d'Alleghe (Alleghe to the Zoldo Glen), foot path. . . . . . . . .5,971

Tre Croci Pass (Cortina to Auronzo), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . .5,932

Karersee or Caressa Pass (WClschenofen to Vigo di Fassa),

Ndonte Croce Pass (Innichen and Sexten to the Piave Valley

and Belluno), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,374

Ampezzo Pass (Toblach to Cortina and Belluno), carriage path . . . . . . .5,066

Cereda Pass (Primiero to Agordo), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,501

Toblach Pass (Bruneck to Lienz), railway over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,967

18. South-Eastern Alos (east of the Monte Croce Pass). This

division includes three small groups, the J ulic, Carnic and Karawankas

Alps--each peak and pass being distinguished by one of the initial

letters ``J,'' ``C'' or ``K.''

Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps.

Terglou or Triglav (J) . . . . 9,400 Monte Cridola (C). . . . . . . . .8,468

Monte Coglians (C) . . . . . . 9,128 Grintovc (K) . . . . . . . . . . .8,429

Kellerwand (C) . . . . . . . . 9,105 Prestrelenik (J) . . . . . . . . .8,202

Jof del Montasio (J) . . . . . 9,039 Monte Cavallo (C). . . . . . . . .7,386

Cima dei Preti (C) . . . . . . 8,868 Krn (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,369

Monte Paralba (C). . . . . . . 8,829 Stou (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,346

Manhart (J). . . . . . . . . . 8,786 Dobratsch (C). . . . . . . . . . .7,120

Jalouc (J) . . . . . . . . . . 8,711 Velka Kappa (K). . . . . . . . . .5,059

Monte Canin (J). . . . . . . . 8,471

Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps.

Oefnerjoch (Forno Avoltri to St Lorenzen in the Gail Valley),

foot path (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,550

Wolayer Pass (same to Mauthen), foot path (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,306

Loibl Pass (Klagenfurt to Laibach), carriage road (K). . . . . . . . . . .4,495

Plocken Pass (.Tolmezzo to Mauthen), bridle path (C). . . . . . . . . .4,462

Predil Pass (Villach by d'arvis and Flitsch to Gorz), carriage road (J)3,183

Birnbaumerwald (Laibach to Gorz), carriage road (J) . . . . . . . . . .2,897

Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Pontebba

to Udine), railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2,615

Political History and Modern State of the Inhabitants

of the Alps.--We know practically nothing of the early

dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty acocunts preserved

to us by Roman and Greek historians and geographers. A few

details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the

Alpine tribes by Augustus, though not much more than their

names. The successive emigrations and occupation of the

Alpine region by divers Teutonic tribes from the 5th to the

6th centuries are, too, known to us only in outline, while to

them, as to the Frankish kings and emperors, the Alps offered

a route from one place to another rather than a permanent

residence. It is not till the final break up of the Carolingian

empire in the 10th and 11th centuries that it becomes possible

to trace out the local history of different parts of the Alps.

In the case of the Western Alps (minus the bit from the chain

of Mont Blanc to the Simplon, which followed the fortunes of

the Valais), a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region took

place between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphine and

Provence. In 1349 the Dauphine fell to France, while in

1388 the country of Nice passed from Provence to the house

of Savoy, which too held Piedmont as well as other lands

on the Italian side of the Alps. The struggle henceforth

was limited to France and the house of Savoy, but little by

France succeeded in pushing back the house of Savoy across the

Alps, thus forcing it to become a purely Italian power. One

turning-point in the rivalry was the treaty of Utrecht (1713),

by which France gave up to Savoy the districts (all forming

part of the Dauphine, and lying on the Italian slope of the

Alps) of Exilles, Bardonneche, Oulx, U.enestrelles, and

Chatean Dauphin, while Savoy handed over to France the valley

of Barcelonnette, situated on the western slope of the Alps

and forming part of the county of Nice. The final act in the

long-continued struggle took place in 1860, when France obtained

by cession the rest of the county of Nice and also Savoy,

thus remaining sole mistress on the western slope of the Alps.

In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of

the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1815 of the

Swiss Confederation, at least so far as regards the mountain

Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent

confederations of the Grisons and the Valais, which only

became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815

respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong

for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both

tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the

Milanese. The former, in the 15th century, won the Val

Leventina (down which the St Gotthard train now thunders)

as well as Bellinzona and the Val Blenio (though the Ossola

Valley was held for a time only), while the latter added to

the Val Bregaglia (which had been given to the bishop of Coire

in 960 by the emperor Otto I.) the valleys of Mesocco and of

Poschiavo. Further, in 1512, the Swiss Confederation as a

whole won the valleys of Locarno with Lugano, which, combined

with the 15th century conquests by the Forest Cantons, were

formed in 1803 into the new Canton of Ticino or Tessin. On

the other hand, the Grisons won in 1512 the Valtellina, with

Bormio and Chiavenna, but in 1797 these regions were finally

lost to it as well as to the Swiss Confederation, though

the Grisons retained the valleys of Mesocco, Bregaglia and

Poschiavo, while in 1762 it had bought the upper bit of the

valley of Munster that lies on the southern slope of the Alps.

In the Eastern Alps the political history is almost

monotonous, for it relates simply to the advance or retreat

of the house of Habsburg, which still holds all but the

whole of the northern portion (the exception is the small

bit in the north-west that belongs to Bavaria) of that

region. The Habsburgers, whose original home was in the

lower valley of the Aar, where still stand the ruins of their

ancestral castle, lost that district to the Swiss in 1415,

as they had previously lost various other bits of what is now

Switzerland. But they received a rich compensation in the

Eastern Alps (not to speak of the imperial crown), for they

there gathered in the harvest that numerous minor dynasties

had prepared for them, albeit unconsciously. Thus they won the

duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola in

1335, Tirol in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375 to

1523, not to speak of minor ``rectifications'' of frontiers

on the northern slope of the Alps. But on the other slope

their progress was slower, and finally less successful.

It is true that they early won Primiero (1373), as well as

(1517) the Ampezzo Valley and several towns to the south of

Trent. In 1797 they obtained Venetia proper, in 1803 the

secularized bishoprics of Trent and Briken (as well as that of

Salzburg, more to the north), besides the Valtellina region,

and in 1815 the Bergamasque valleys, while the Milanese had

belonged to them since 1535. But, as is well known, in 1859

they lost to the house of Savoy both the Milanese and the

Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia proper also, so that the Trentino

is now their chief possession on the southern slope of the

Alps. The gain of the Milanese in 1859 by the future king of

Italy (1861) meant that Italy then won the valley of Livigno

(between the Upper Engadine and Bormio), which is the only

important bit it holds on the non-Italian slope of the Alps,

besides the county of Tenda (obtained in 1575, and not lost

in 1860), with the heads of certain glens in the Maritime

Alps, reserved in 1860 for reasons connected with hunting.

Thus the Alpine states (Italy, Switzerland and Austria), other

than France and Bavaria, hold bits of territory on the slope

of the Alps where one would not expect to find them Roughly

speaking, in each of these five lands the Alpine population

speaks the tongue of the country, though in Italy there are a

few French-speaking districts (the Waldensian valleys as well

as the Aosta and Oulx valleys) as well as some German-speaking

and Ladin-speaking settlements. In Switzerland there are

Italian-speaking regions, as well as some spots (in the

Grisons) where the old Romance dialect of Romansch or Ladin

survives; while in Austria, besides German, Italian and Ladin,

we have a Slavonic-speaking population in the South-Eastern

Alps. The highest permanently inhabited village in the

Alps is Juf, 6998 ft. (Grisons); while in the French Alps,

L'Ecot, 6713 ft. (Savoy), and St Veran, 6726 ft. (Dauphine),

are rivals; the Italian Alps boast of Trepalle, 6788 ft.

(between Livigno and Bormio), and the Tirolese Alps of Ober

Gurgl, 6322 ft., and Fend, 6211 ft. (both in the Oetzthal).

8. Exploration of the High Alps.---The higher region of

the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the

men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers

(as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these

valleys. It is reckcned that about 20 glacier passes were

certainly known before 1600. about 25 more before 1700, and

yet another score before 1800; but though the attempt of

P. A. Arnod (an official of the duchy of Aosta) in 1689 to

``re-open'' the Col du Ceant may be counted as made by a

non-native, we do not come upon another case of the kind till

the last quarter of the 18th century. Nor did it fare mach

better with the high peaks, though the two earliest recorded

ascents were due to non-natives, that of the Rochemelon

in 1358 having been undertaken in fulfilment of a vow, and

that of the Mont Aiguihe in 1492 by order of Charles VIII.

of France, in order to destroy its immense reputation for

inaccessibility-- in 1555 Conrad Gesner did not climb Pilatus

proper, but only the grassy mound of the Gnepfstein, the lowest

and the most westerly of the seven summits. The two first

men who really systematically explored the regions of ice

and snow were H. B. de Saussure (1740-1799), as regards the

Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus

a Spescha (1752-1833, most of whose ascents were made before

1806), in the valleys at the sources of the Rhine. In the

early 19th century the Meyer family of Aarau conquered in

person the Jungfrau (1811) and by deputy the Finsteraarhorn

(1812), besides opening several glacier passes, their energy

being entirely confined to the Bernese Oberland. Their

pioneer work was continued in that district, as well as others,

by a number of Swiss, pre-eminent among whom were Gottlieb

Studer (1804-1890) of Bern, and Edouard Desor (1811-1882) of

Neuchatel. The first-known English climber in the Alps

was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1827), who in 1787 made an

ascent (the fourth) of Mont Blanc, a mountain to which his

fellow-countrymen long exclusively devoted themselves, with

a few noteworthy exceptions, such as Principal J. D. Forbes

(1809-1868), A. T. Malkin (1803-1888), John Ball (1818-1889),

and Sir Alfred Wills (b. 1828). Around Monte Rosa the Vincent

family, Josef Zumstein (1783-1861), and Giovanni Gnifetti

(1801--1867) did good work during the half century between

1778 and 1842, while in the Eastern Alps the Archduke John

(1782-1850), Prince F.J. C. von Schwarzenberg, archbishop

of Salzburg (1809-1885), Valentine Stanig (1774-1847), Adolf

Schaubach (1800-1850), above all, P. J. Thurwieser (1789-1865),

deserve to be recalled as pioneers in the first half of the 19th

century. In the early fifties of the 19th century the taste

for mountaineering 1apidly developed for several very different

reasons. A great stimulus was given to it by the foundation

of the various Alpine clubs, each of which drew together the

climbers who dwelt in the same country. The first was the

English Alpine Club (founded in the winter of 1857--1858),

followed in 1862 by the Austrian Alpine Club (which in 1873

was fused, under the name of the German and Austrian Alpine

Club, with the German Alpine Club, founded in 1869), in 1863

by the Italian and Swiss Alpine Clubs, and in 1874 by the

French Alpine Club, not to mention numerous minor societies

of more local character. It was by the members of these clubs

(and a few others) that the minute exploration (now all but

complete) of the High Alps was carried out, while much has

been done in the way of building club huts, organizing and

training guides, &c., to smooth the way for later comers,

who benefit too by the detailed information published in the

periodicals (the first dates from 1863 only) issued by these

clubs. Limits of space forbid us to trace out in detail

the history of the exploration of the High Alps, but the two

sub-joined lists give the dates of the conquest of about fifty

of the greater peaks (apart from the two climbed in 1358 and

in 1402, see above), achieved before and after 1st January

1858. As a proof of the rapidly-growing activity of Englishmen,

it may be pointed out that while before 1858 only four summits

(the Mittelhorn, or central peak of the Wetterhorner, the

highest point of Monte Rosa, Laquinhorn and Pelmo) were

first ascended by Englishmen, in the case of the second list

only five (Grand Combin, Wildspitze, Marmolata, Langkofel

and Meije) were not so conquered (if the present writer, an

American, be included among the English pro hac vice.)

(1) Before 1st January 1858:---Titlis (1744), Ankogel

(1762), Mont Velan (1779), Mont Blanc (1786), Rheinwaldhorn

(1789), Gross Glockner (1800), Ortler (1804), Jungfrau (1811),

V.insteraarhorn (1812), Zumsteinspitze (1820),Todi (1824),

Altels (1834), Piz Linard (1835), Gross Venediger (1841),

Signalkuppe (1842), Wetterhorner (1844-1845), Mont Pelvoux

(1848), Ieiablerets and Piz Bernina (both in 1850), highest

point of Monte Rosa (1855), Laquinhorn (1856) and Pelmo (1857).

(2) After 1st January 1858:--Dom (1858), Aletschhorn,

Bietschhorn and Grand Combin (all in 1859), Grand Paradis

and Grande Casse (both in 1860), Wbisshorn, Monte Viso, Gross

Schreckhorn, Lyskamm and Wildspitze (all in 1861), Dent

Blanche, Monte della Disgrazia and Taschhorn (all in 1862),

Marmolata, Presanella, Pointe des Ecrins and Zinal Rothhorn

(all in 1864), Matterhorn, Ober Gabelhorn, Aiguille Verte and

Piz Roseg (all in 1865), Langkofel (1869), Cimon della Pala

(1870), Rosengarten (1872), Meije (1877), Aiguilledu Dru

(1878), Punta dell' Argentera (1879), Aiguille des Charmoz

(1880), Aiguille de Grepon (1881) and Aiguille du Geant (1882).

9. GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS.--(1) Books.---For

a longer list than we can give see sohn Ball's Hints and

Notes for Travellers in the Alps (new ed., 1899) and also

A. Wuber's Landes- und Reisebeschreibungen der Schwelz

(1899, supplement in 1907). in general see s. Ball's The

Alpine Guide (3 vols., new ed. of vol. i., 1898 last ed. of

vol. ii., 1876, and of vol. iii., 1879); H. A. Berlepsch, Die

Alpen in Natur- und Lebensbildern (last ed., 1885, Eng.

trans., 1861); T. G. Bonney, The Alpine Regions of Switzerland

and the Neighbouring Countries (1868); A. Civiale, Les

Alpes au point de vue de ta geographie physique (1882);

Sir Martin Conway, The Alps (1904); W. A. B. Coolidge,

Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books (1889) and The Alps

(1908); R. von Lendenfeld, Aus den Alpen (2 vols., 1896); C.

Lentheric, L'Homme devant les Alpes (1896); F. Umlauft,

Die Alpen (1887, Eng. trans., 1889). On some special

subjects see W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Sport in the Alps

i1896); A. Mosso. Fisiologia dell' Uomo sulle Alpi (1897,

English trans., 1898); N. Zuntz and others, Hohenklima und

Bergwanderungen in ihrer Wirkungen auf den Menschen (1906);

G. Perndt, Der Fohn (1896, the south wind, so important

in mountain districts); and the article on GLACIER..''

As to Alpine legends, consult Maria Savi-Lopez, Leggende

delle Alpi (1889); M. Tscheinen, VLalliscr-Sagen (1872);

Th. Vernaleken, Alpensagen (1858); and I. V. Zingerle,

Sagen aus Tirol (1859); and as to Alpine poetry--J. Adam,

Der Natursinn in der deutschen Dichtung (1906); E. A.

Baker and F. E. Ross, The Voice of The Mountalns (1905,

an anthology in verse and prose); A. von Haller, Die Alpen

(1732, first ed., 1882, illustrated ed., 1902); and H. E.

Jenny, Die Alpendichtung in der deutschen Schweiz (1905).

As to Alpine dialects, consult J. Alton, Die ladinischen

Idiome in Ladinien, Groden, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo

(1879); J. A. Chabrand and A. de Rochas d'Aiglun, Patois des

Alpes cottiennes (1877).; Z. and E. Pallioppi, Dizionari dels

Idioms Romauntschs d'Engiadina ota e bassa, &c. (1895); A.

Socin, Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deutschen (1888); F.

J. Stalder, Die Landessprachen der Schweiz (1819), and J.

Zimmerli, Die deutsch-franzosische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz

(3 vols., 1891-1899); besides the great Swiss Dialect Dictionary

(Schweiz. Idiotikon) in course of publication since 1881.

As to the history of the Alps, the following works touch on

various aspects of the subject:---G. Allais, Le Alpi Occidentali

nell' Antichita 1891); W. Brockedon, Illustrations of the

Passes of the Alps (2 vols., 1828-1829); J. Grand-Carteret,

La Montagne a travers les ages (2 vols., 1902-1904); G.

Oberziner, Le Guerre di Augusto contro i populi alpini

(1900); E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpasse im Mittelalter (1878-1879);

R. Peinhard, Passe und Strassen in den Schweizer Alpen

(1903); and L. Vaccarone, Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali

negli antichi tempi (1884); while W. A. B. Coolidge's

Joslas Simler et les originies de l'alpinisme Jusqu'en

1600 (1904) summarises our knowledge of the Alps up to 1600.

Among works of a more or less descriptive nature (based

on actual travels), the following list includes all the

standard works dated before 1855:--Le Alpi che cingono

l'Italia (1845); J. G. Altmann, Versuch einer hist. u.

phys. Beschreibung der helvetischen Eisbergen (1751); A. C.

Bordier, Voyage pittoresque aux glacieres de Savoye (173);

P. J. de Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les Jrontieres

de la France, du Piemont, et de la Savoie (1801); M. T.

Bourrit, Descrip non des glacieres, glaciers, et amas de glace

du duche de Savoye (1773, Eng. trans., 1775), Description

des Alpes pennines et rhetiennes (2 vols., 178i, 3rd vol.,

1785), and Descriptioni des cols ou passages des Alpes (2

vols., 1803); W. Brockedon, Journals of Excursions in the

Alps (1833); U. Campell, Raetioe alpestris topographica

descriptio (finished in 1572, but publ. only in 1884, with a

supplement in 1900); J. A. Deluc and P. G. Dentan, Relation

de differents voyages dans les Alpes du Faucigny (1776);

E. Desor Excursions et sejours dans les glaciers (2 series,

1844-1845l; C. M. Engelhardt, Naturschilderungen aus den

hochsten Schweizer-Alpen (1840), and Das Monte-Rosa und

Matterhorn-Gebirg (1852); J. D. Forbes, Travels through

the Alps of Kivoy (1843: new ed., 1900): Sir John Forbes,

A Physician's Holiday (1849); J. Frobel, Reise in die

weniger bekannten Thaler auf der Nordseite der penninischen

Alpen (1840); G. Gnifetti, Nozioni topografiche del Monte

Rosa ed ascensioni su di esso (1845, 2nd ed., 1838); G.

S. Gruner, Die Eisgebirge des Schwelzerlandes (3 vols.,

1760); J. Hegetschweiler, Reisen in den Gebirgsstock

zwischen Glarus und Graubunden, 1819--1822 (1825); G.

Hoffmann, Wanderungen in der Gletscherwelt (1843); F. J.

Hugi, Naturhistorische Alpenreise (1830); C. J. Latrobe, The

Alpenstock (1829) and The Pedestrian (1832); J. R. and H.

Meyer, Reise auf den Jungjfrau-Gletscher und Ersteigung seines

Gipfels (1811): De Montannel, La Topographic militaire de

la frontiere des Alpes (written in 1777, but publ. in 1875

only); Operations geodesiques et astroniomiques pour

la mesure d'un arc du parallele moyen (2 vols., 1825-1827);

H. R. Rebmann, Ein poetisch Gastmal und Gesprach zweyer

Bergen, nemlich des Niesens und Stockhorns (1606); C.

Rohrdorf, Reise uber die Grindelwald-Vescher-Gletscher und

Ersteigung des Gletschers des Jungfrau-Berges (1828); H.

B. de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes (4 vols., 1779-1796);

A. Schaubach, Deutsche Alpen (4 vols., 1845-1847); J. J.

Scheuchzer, Helvetiae Stoicheiographia, Orographia, et

Oreographia (1716), and Itinera per Helvetiae alpinas

regiones facta annis 1702-1711 (4 vols., 1725); J. Simler.

Vallesiae Descriptio et de Alpibus Commentarius (1574, new

ed. in 1904, see Coolidge above); Albert Smith, The Story of

Mont Blanc (1853); G. Studer, Topographische Mitteilungen

aus dem Alpengebirge (1843); R. Topffer, Voyages en

zigzag (2 series, 1844 and 1853); Aegid. Tschudi, De

prisca ac vera alpina Rhaetia (1538, also in German,

same date); and L. von Weldon, Der Monte Rosa (1824).

As to works published after 1855 we can only give a short,

though carefully selected, list. C. Aeby and others, Das

Hochgebirge von Grindelwald (1865); W. A. Baillie-Grohmann,

Tyrol and the Tyrolese (1876), and Gaddings with a

Primitive People (2 vols., 1878); H. von Barth, Aus den

nordlichen Kalkalpen (1874); L. Barth and L. Pfaundler,

Die Stubaiergebirgsgruppe (1863); G. F. Browne, Off the

Mill (1895); Mrs H. W. Cole, A Lady's Tour round Monte

Rosa (1859); E. T. Coleman, Scenes from the Snow Fields

(1859); Sir Marrin Conway, The Alps from End to End (1895);

A. Daudet, Tartarin sur les Alpes (1885, Eng. trans., same

date); C. T. Dent, Above the Snow Line (1883); Miss A. B.

Edwards, Untrodden Peaks and Unfrequented Valleys (1873,

Dolomites); Max Forderreuther, Die Allgauer Alpen (1906);

D. W. Freshfield, Across Country from Thonon to Trent

(1865), and Italian Alps (1875); Mrs Henry Freshfield, Alpine

Byways (1861), and A Summer Tour in the Grisons (1862); H.

B. George, The Oberland and its Glaciers (1866); J. Gilbert

and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains (1854); A. G.

Girdlestone, The High Alps without Guides (1870); P. Grohmann,

Wanderungen in den Dolomiten (1877); P. Gussfeldt, In

den Hochalpen (1886), and Der Montblanc (1894); T. W.

Hinchliff, Summer Months among the Alps (1857); C. Hudson and

E. S. Kennedy, Where there's a Will there's a Way (1856); E.

Javelle, Souvenirs d' un Alpiniste (1886, Eng. trans.,

1899); S. W. King, The Italian Valleys of the Pennine Alps

(1858); Le V'alli di Lanzo (publ. by the Italian Alpine

Club in 1899); A. Lorria and E. A. Mariel, Le Mossif de

la Bernina (1894); J. Michelet, La Montagne (1868, Eng.

trans., 1872); A. W. Moore, The Alps in 1864 (1867, publ.

ed., 1902); A. F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps (1895);

Norman-Neruda, The Climbs of (1899); Peaks, Passes and

Glaciers (3 vols., 1859-1862); L. Purtscheller, Uber Fels

und Firn (1901); E. Rambert, Ascensions et flaneries (2

vols., 1888); G. Rey, Il Monte Cervino (1904); John Ruskin,

vol. iv. (On Mountain Beauty) of Modern Painters (1856); A.

von Ruthner, Aus den Tauern (1864) and Aus Tirol (1869);

V. Sella and D. Vallino, Monte Rosa e Gressoney (1890); F.

Simony, Das Dachsteingebict (1889-1896); L. Sinigaglia,

Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites (1896); K. von

Sonklar, Die Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe (1860), and Die

Glebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Tauern (1866); Sir L. Stephen,

The Playground of Europe (1871); B. Studer, Geschichte

der physischen Geographie der Schweiz bis 1815 (1863); G.

Studer and others, Berg- und Gletscherfahrten (2 series,

1859 and 1863); G. Theobald, Naturbilder aus den rhatischen

Alpen (1860), and Das Bundner Oberland (1861); F. F.

Tuckett, Hochalpenstudien (2 vols., 1873-1874); Miss L.

Tuckett, How we Spent the Summer (1864), Pictures in Tyrol

(1867), and Zigzagging amongst Dolomites (1871); J. Tyndall,

The Glaciers of the Alps (1860), Mountaineering in 1861

(1862), and Hours of Exercise in the Alps (1871); J. J.

Weilenmann, Aus der Firnenwelt (3 vols., 1872-1877); E.

Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps (1871); Sir A. Wills,

Wanderings among the High Alps (1856), and The ``Eagle's

Nest''in the Valley of Sixt (1860); G. Yeld, Scrambles in the

Eastern Graians (1900); H. Zschokke, Reise auf die Eisgebirge

des Kantons Bern und Ersteigung ihrer hochsten Gipfel

im Sommer von 1812 (1813); E. Zsigmondy, Im Hochgebirge

(1889); M. Zurbriggen, From the Alps to the Andes (1899).

Many useful practical hints as to climbing are to be found

in C. T. Dent and others, Mountaineering (1892, 3rd ed.,

1900, ``Badminton Library''); the Manuel d'Alpinisme

(1904, publ. by the French Alpine Club); J. Meurer, Handbuch

der alpinen Sport 1882), Katechismus fur Bergsteiger

(1892), and Der Bergsteiger im Hochgebirge (1893);

.and C. Wilson, Mountaineering (1893, ``All England''

series). As regards the dangers of Alpine climbing consult

C. Fiorio and C. Ratti, I Pericoli dell' Alpinismo (1889),

and E. Zsigmondy, Die Gefahren der Alpen (1885, Fr. trans.,

1889). There are also special guide-books for the use of

climbers in the Alps---the ``Climbers' Guides'' series,

edited by Sir Martin Conway and W. A. B. Coolidge (10 vols.,

1890--1894); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and F. Perrin,

Guide du Haut Dauphine (1887, with supplement in 1890, Eng.

trans., 1892 and 1905); L. Purtscheller and H. Hess, Der

Hochtourist in den Ostalpen (2 vols., 1894, 3 vols., 3rd

ed., 1903); the 3 vols. publ. (1902-1905) by the Swiss Alpine

Club under the name of Clubfuhrer to the Alps of Glarus and

Uri, and V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfuhrer (1898).

As regards the early history of Alpine exploration consult W.

A. B. Coolidge, Josias Simler et les origines de l'alpinisme

jusqu'en 1600 (1904), and F. Gribble, The Early Mountaineers

(1899). For the later period see, besides the more general

works of travel mentioned above, the publications (that date

from 1863) of the various Alpine Clubs--the Alpine Journal

(English A. C.), the Annuaire, Bulletin, La Montagne, and

Revue alpine (French A. C.), the Jahrbuch, Mitteilungen,

Verhandlungen, and Zeitschrift (German and Austrian A. C.),

the Alpinista, Bollettino, and Rivista Mensile (Italian A.

C.), and the Alpina, Echo des Alpes, Jahrbuch, Schweizer

Alpen-Zeitung (Swiss A. C.), besides those of the smaller

societies, such as the Osterreichische Alpen-Zeitung

(Austrian A. C.), the Annuaire (Societe des Touristes du

Dauphine), and the Anunuario (Societa degli Alpinisti

Tridentini). Summaries of the Alpine history of the three

great divisons of the Alps are given in (W. Alps) L. Vaccarone,

Statistica delle Prime Ascensioni nelle Alpi Occidentali

(3rd. ed., 1890--this work omits the Dauphine Alps, as to

which see the 1887 work or its Eng. version 1905, mentioned

above); (Central and Swiss Alps) G. Studer, Uber Eis

und Schnee (2nd ed. 3 vols., 1896-1899); and (E. Alps) G.

Groger and J. Rabi, Die Entwickelung der Hochtouristik

in den osterreichischen Alpen (1890), and E. Pichter, Die

Erschliessung der Ostalpen (3 vols., 1894). The detailed

history of Mont Blanc has been written by Ch. Durier, Le

Mont Blanc (1877, 4th ed., 1897), and C. E. Mathews, The

Annals of Mont Blanc (1898). Lives of some of the most

celebrated mountain guides have been written in C. D. Cunningham

and W. de W. Abney, Pioneers of the Alps (2nd ed., 1888).

(2) Maps--There is no good modern and fairly large-scale

map of the entire chain of the Alps. But L. Ravenstein's

maps (scale 1:250,000) of the Swiss Alps (2 sheets) and

of the Eastern Alps (8 sheets) include the whole chain,

save that portion south of the range of Mont Blanc.

All the countries which include Alpine districts have now

issued official Government maps. The French map on a scale of

1:80,000 is clearer and more accurate than that on a scale of

1:100,000. The Italian Government has published maps on

scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000. the Austrian on a scale

of 1:75,000, and the Bavarian on a scale of 1:50,000.

But the most splendid Government map of all is that put

forth by the Swiss Federal Topographical Bureau, under the

title of Siegfried Atlas (scale 1:50,000 for the Alpine

districts), which has quite superseded the Dufour Map (scale

1:100,000), the history of which was published in 1896. For

maps of the Swiss Alps and their neighbours, see J. H. Graf,

Literatur der Lalndesvermessung (1896 with a supplement).

A few of the best special maps of certain districts may

be mentioned-- such as H. Duhamel's maps of the Dauphine

Alps (4 sheets on a scale of 1:i oo,ooo, 1889, 2nd ed.,

1892), and that of the range of Mont Blanc (scale 1:50,000,

1896, 2nd ed., 1905), by X. Imfeld and L. Kurz. The German

and Austrian Alpine Club is publishing a very fine set of

maps (scale 1:50,000) of the Eastern Alps, which are clearer

and better than the Austrian Government's Topographische

Detailkarten (11 sheets, scale 1:50,000). (W.. A. B. C.)

10. Geology.---The Alps form but a small portion of a great

zone of crumpling which stretches, in a series of curves, from

the Atlas Mountains to the Himalayas. Within this zone the

crust of the earth has been ridged up into a comolex system

of creases or folds, out of which the great mountain chains

of southern Europe and Asia have been carved by atmospheric

agencies. Superficially, the continuity of the zone is broken

at intervals by gaps of greater or less extent; but these

are due, in part at least, to the subsidence of portions of

the folded belt and their subsequent burial by more recent

accumulations. Such a gap is that between the Alps and the

Carpathians, but a glance at a geological map of the region

will show that the folding was probably at one time continuous.

Leaving, however, the larger question of the connexion

between the great mountain ranges of Europe and Asia, we find

that the Alps are formed cf a series of wrinkles or folds,

one behind another, frequently arranged en echelon. The

folds run, in general, in the direction of the chain, and

together they form an arc around the plain of Lombardy and

Piedmont. Outside this arc lies a depression along which

the waters of the upper Danube and the lower Rhone find their

way towards the sea; and beyond rise the ancient crystalline

masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau

of France, together with the intervening Mesozoic beds of

southern Germany and the Jura. The depression is filled by

Miocene and later beds, which for the most part lie flat and

undisturbed as they were laid down. Beyond the depression

also, excepting in the Jura Mountains, there is no sign of

the folding which has raised the Alpine chain. Some of the

older beds indeed are crumpled, but the folding is altogether

different in age and in direction from that of the Alps.

To assist in forming a clear idea of the relations of the

Alps to the surrounding regions, a simple illustration will

suffice. Upon a table covered by a cloth lay two books in the

relative positions shown in figure. The book A represents the

central plateau of France and the book B represents the rocks

of Bohemia and southern Germany. If the two hands be placed

flat upon the table, in the angle between the two books, and

the cloth pushed towards the corner, it will at once be rucked

up into a fold which will follow a curve not unlike that of the

Alps. The precise character and form of the folds produced

will depend upon the nature of the cloth and other accidental

circumstances; but with a little adjustment not only a

representation of the chain of the Alps, but even a subsidiary

fold in front in the position of the Jura Mountains may be

obtained. Imperfect though this illustration may be, it will

serve to explain the modern conception of the forces concerned

in the formation of the Alps. Within the crust of the earth,

whether by the contraction of the interior or in any other

way, tangential pressures were set up. Since the crust is

not of uniform strength throughout, only the weaker portions

yielded to the pressure; and these were crumpled up against

the more resisting portions and sometimes were pushed over

them. In the case of the Alps it seems natural enough that

the crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the

central plateau of France should be firmer than the more modern

sedimentary deposits; but it is not so easy to understand why

the Mesozoic rocks of southern Germany resisted the folding,

while those of the Jura yielded. It should, however, be borne

in mind that the resisting mass is not necessarily at the

surface. Such is in outline the process by which the Alps

were elevated; but when the chain is examined in detail, it

is found that its history has not been uniform throughout;

and it will be convenient, for purposes of description,

to divide it into three portions, which may be called

the Eastern Alps, the Swiss Alps, and the Western Alps.

The Eastern Alps consist of a central mass of crystalline and

schistose rocks flanked on each side by a zone of Mesozoic

beds andon the north by an outer band of Tertiary deposits.

On the Italian side there is usually no zone of folded

Tertiaries and the Mesozoic band forms the southern border

of the chain. Each of these zones is folded within itself,

and the folding is more intense on the Bavarian side than

on the Italian, the folds often leaning over towards the

north. The Tertiary zone of the northern border is of

especial significance and is remarkable for its extent and

uniformity. It is divided longitudinally into an outer zone

of Molasse and an inner zone of Flysch. The line of

separation is very clearly defined; nowhere does the Molasse

pass beyond it to the south and nowhere does the Flysch extend

beyond it to the north. The Molasse, in the neighbourhood

of the mountains, consists chiefly of conglomerates and

sandstones, and the Flysch consists of sandstones and shales;

but the Molasse is of Miocene and Oligocene age, while the

Flysch is mainly Eocene. The relations of the two series

are never normal. Along the line of contact, which is

often a fault, the oldest beds of the Molasse crop out,

and they are invariably overturned and plunge beneath the

Flysch. A few miles farther north these same beds rise

again to the surface at the summit of an anticlinal which

runs parallel to the chain. Beyond this point all signs of

folding gradually cease and the beds he flat and undisturbed.

The Flysch is an extraordinarily thick and uniform mass of

sandstones and shales with scarcely any fossils excepting

fucoids. It is intensely folded and is constantly separated

from the Mesozoic zone by a fault. Throughout the whole

extent of the Eastern Alps it is strictly limited to

the belt between this fault and the marginal zone of

Molasse. Eocene beds, indeed, penetrate farther within

the chain, but these are limestones with nummulites or

lignite-bearing shales and have nothing in common with the

Flysch. But although the Flysch is so uniform in character,

and although it forms so well defined a zone, it is not

everywhere of the same age. In the west it seems to be

entirely Eocene, but towards the east intercalated beds with

Inoceramus, &c., indicate that it is partly of Cretaceous

age. It is, in fact, a facies and nothing more. The most

probable explanation is that the Flysch consists of the detritus

washed down from the hills upon the flanks of which it was

formed. It bears, indeed, very much the same relation to the

Alps that the Siwalik beds of India bear to the Himalayas.

The Mesozoic belt of the Bavarian and Austrian Alps consists

mainly of the Trias, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds playing

a comparatively subordinate part. But between the Trias

of the Eastern Alps and the Trias of the region beyond the

Alpine folds there is a striking contrast. North of the

Danube, in Germany as in England, red sandstones, shales and

conglomerates predominate, together with beds of gypsum and

salt. It was a continental formation, such as is now

being formed within the desert belt of the globe. Only the

Muschelkalk, which does not reach so far as England, and

the uppermost beds, the Rhaetic, contain fossils in any

abundance. The Trias of the Eastern Alps, on the other

hand, consists chiefly of great masses of limestone with

an abundant fauna, and is clearly of marine origin. The

Jurassic and Cretaceous beds also differ, though in a less

degree, from those of northern Europe. They consist largely

of limestone; but marls and sandstones are by no means

rare, and there are considerable gaps in the succession

indicating that the region was not continuously beneath the

sea. Tithonian fossils, characteristic of southern Europe,

occur in the upper Jurassic, while the Gosau beds, belonging

to the upper Cretaceous, contain many of the forms of the

Hippuritic sea. Nevertheless, the difference between the

deposits on the two sides of the chain shows that the central

ridge was dry land during at least a part of the period.

The central zone of crystalline rock consists chiefly of

gneisses and schists, but folded within it is a band of

Palaeozoic rocks which divides it longitudinally into two

parts. Palaeozoic beds also occur along the northern and

southern margins of the crystalline zone. The age of a

great part of the Palaeozoic belts is somewhat uncertain,

but Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian fossils

have been found in various parts of the chain, and it is

not unlikely that even the Cambrian may be represented.

The Mesozoic belt of the southern border of the chain extends

from Lago Maggiore eastwards. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds

play a larger part than on the northern border, but the Trias

still predominates. On the west the belt is narrow, but

towards the east it gradually widens, and north of Lago di

Garda its northern boundary is suddenly deflected to the

north and the zone spreads out so as to include the whole of

the Dolomite mountains of Tirol. The sudden widening is due

to the great Judicaria fault, which runs from Lago d'Idro

to the neighbourhood of Meran, where it bends round to the

east. The throw of this fault may be as much as 2000 metres,

and the drop is on its south-east side, i.e. towards the

Adriatic. It is probable, indeed, that the fault took a large

share in the formation of the Adriatic depression. On the whole,

the Mesozoic beds of the southern border of the Alps point to a

deeper and less troubled sea than those of the north. Clastic

sediments are less abundant and there are fewer breaks in the

succession. The folding, moreover, is less intense; but in

the Dolomites of Tirol there are great outbursts of igneous

rock, and faulting has occurred on an extensive scale.

Swiss Alps.

West of a line which runs from Lake Constance to Lago Maggiore

the zones already described do not continue with the same

simplicity. The zone of the Molasse is little changed,

but the Flysch is partly folded in the Mesozoic belt and

no longer forms an absolutely independent band. The Trias

has almost disappeared, and what remains is not of the

marine type characteristic of the Eastern Alps but belongs

rather to the continental facies which occurs in Germany and

France. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form the greater part

of the Mesozoic band. On the southern side of the chain the

Mesozoic zone disappears entirely a little west of Lago Maggiore

and the crystalline rocks rise directly from the plain.

Perhaps the strangest problem in the whole of Switzerland

is that presented by the so-called Klippen. Within the

Alps, when normally developed, we may trace the individual

folds for long distances and observe how they arise,

increase and die out, to be replaced by others of similar

direction. But at times, within or on the border of the

northern Eocene trough, the continuity of the folds is

suddenly broken by mountain masses of quite different

constitution. These are the Klippen, and they are especially

important in the Chablais and between the Lakes of Geneva

and Thun. Not only is the folding of the Klippen wholly

independent of that of the zone in which they lie, but the

rocks which form them are of foreign facies. They consist

chiefly of Jurassic and Triassic beds, but it is the Trias

and the Jura of the Eastern Alps and not of Switzerland.

Moreover, although they interrupt the folding of the zone

in which they occur, they do not disturb it: they do not, in

fact, rise through the zone, but lie upon it like unconformable

masses -- in other words, they rest upon a thrust-plane.

Whence they have come into their present position is by no

means clear; but the character of the beds which form them

indicates a distant origin. It is interesting to note, in this

connexion, that the pebbles of the Swiss Molasse are not generally

such as would be derived from the neighbouring mountains, but

resemble the rocks of the Eastern Alps. The Klippen are, no

doubt, the remains of a much larger mass brought into the

region upon a thrust-plane, and much of the Molasse has been

derived from its destruction. Although the explanation here

given of the origin of the Swiss Klippen is that which now is

usually accepted, it should be mentioned that other theories

have been proposed to account for their peculiarities.

Western Alps.

In the Western Alps the outer border of Molasse persists; but it

no longer forms so well-defined a zone, and strips are infolded

amongst the older rocks. The Eocene has altogether lost

its independence as a band and occurs only in patches within

the Mesozoic zone. The latter, on the other hand, assumes a

greater importance and forms nearly the whole of the subalpine

ranges. It consists almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous

beds, the Trias in these outer ranges being of very limited

extent. The main chain is formed chiefly of crystalline

and schistose rocks, which on the Italian side rise directly

from the plain without any intervening zone of Mesozoic

beds. But it is divided longitudinally by a well-marked

belt of stratified deposits, known as the zone of the

Brianconnais, composed chiefly of Carboniferous, Triassic

and Jurassic beds. The origin of the schistose rocks has

long been under discussion, and controversy has centred

more particularly around the schistes lustres, which

are held by some to be of Triassic age and by others to be

pre-Carboniferous and even, perhaps, Archaean. Partly in

consequence of the uncertainty as to the age of these and

other rocks, there is considerable difference of opinion as

to the structure of the Western Alps. According to the view

most widely accepted in France the main chain as a whole

forms a fan, the folds on the eastern side leaning towards

Italy and those on the western side towards France. The

zone of the Brianconnais lies in the middle of the fan.

Asymmetry of the Alps.

From the above account it will at once appear that between

the convex and the concave margins of the Alpine chain

there is a striking difference. Upon the outer side of

the arc the central zone of crystalline rocks is flanked by

Mesozoic and Tertiary belts; towards the west, indeed, the

individuality of these belts is lost, to a large extent,

but the rocks remain. Upon the inner side the Tertiary

band is found only in the eastern part of the chain, while

towards the west, first the Tertiary and then the Mesozoic

band disappears against the modern deposits of the low

land. The appearance is strongly suggestive of faulting;

and probably the southern margin of the chain lies buried

beneath the plain of northern Italy.

Age of the Alps.

The chain of the Alps was not raised by a single movement

nor in a single geological period. Its growth was gradual

and has not been uniform throughout. In the Eastern Alps

the central ridge seems to have been in existence at least

as early as Triassic times, but it has since been subject

to several oscillations. The most conspicuous folding, that

of the Mesozoic and Tertiary belts, must have occurred in

Tertiary times, and it was not completed till the Miocene

period. The structure of the zones in the Bavarian Alps

seems to suggest that the chain grew outwards in successive

stages, each stage being marked by the formation of a boundary

fault. A precisely similar structure is seen in the Himalayas.

AUTHORITIES. -- The literature is very extensive. The

following list includes a few selected works on each portion

of the chain: -- F. Frech, ``Die karnischen Alpen,'' Abh.

naturf Ges Halle, xviii (1892 and 1894); A. Rothpletz, Ein

geologischer Querschnitt durch die Ost-Alpen (Stuttgart,

1894); C. Diener, ``Bru und Bild der Ostalpen unrides

Karstgebietes,'' in Bau und Bild Osterreichs (Vienna and

Leipzig, 1903): Livret-guide geologique dans le Jura et les

Alpes de la Suisse (Paris and Lausanne, 189h); A. Helm,

Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung (Basel, 1878); D. Zaccagna,

``Riassunto di osservauoni geologiche fatte sul versante

occidentale delle Alpi Graie,'' Boll. R. Com. Geol. Ital.

vol. xxiii. (1892), pp. 175-244; C. Diener, Der Glebirpsbau

der West-Alpen (1894); M. Bertrand, ``Etudes dans les Alpes

francaises,'' Bull. Soc. Geol France, ser. 5, vol. xxii

(1894), pp. 69-162; S. Franchi, ``Sull' eta mesozoica della

zona delle pietri verdi nelle Alpi Occidentali,'' Boll. R.

Geol. Ital. vol. xxix. (1898), pp. 173-217, 325-482, pts.

v.-ix. For the broader question of the relation of the

Alps to other regions, E. Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde

Vienna, 1885) (English translation, Oxford, 1904) should

be consulted. The Geologischer Fuhrer durch die Alpen,

published by Borntraeger, Berlin, are handy guides. (P. LA.)

11. Flora. -- The Alps owe the richness and beauty of

their plant life partly to their position as the natural

boundary between the ``Baltic'' flora on the north and the

``Mediterranean'' flora on the south, but chiefly to the

presence on their heights of a third flora which has but

little in common with either of the others. The stronghold

of this last, the distinctively ``Alpine'' flora, is the

region above the tree-limit. Its closest relationship

is with the flora of the Pyrenees; but an alpine flora

is characteristic of all the lofty mountains of central

Europe. According to J. Ball, 2010 well-marked species of

flowering plants occur within the limits of the Alps. If

now we confine our attention to the alpine and higher regions

of the Alps and exclude from our list all those plants

which, however abundant in these regions, are not less so

in the adjacent lowlands, we have left some 700 species

(693, according to Dr Christ). We must observe, as regards

the plants of the lower alpine region, that it is the actual

presence of a forest vegetation, rather than the theoretical

tree-limit, which affects their vertical distribution; so

that, e.g. they overflow into the extensive clearings made

by man in the primeval mountain forests. Indeed, an analysis

of the composition of the alpine flora as a whole leads

to the conclusion that the chief bond of union between its

members consists in the treeless character of their habitat.

We may broadly distinguish two main geographical elements in

the alpine flora, namely, the northern element and the endemic

element. This division (which is not, however, strictly

exhaustive) directs special attention to what is undoubtedly

the most striking feature of the flora -- namely, that of

its 693 species no less than 271 reappear in the extreme

north. This relation of the arctic to the alpine flora is all

the more remarkable in view of the very important differences

between the arctic and alpine climates. The following

circumpolar species are common, and widely diffused throughout

the whole of the Alps: Silene acaulis, Dryas octopetala,

Saxifsaga oppositifolia, S. aizoides, S. steliaris, Erigeron

alpinus, Azalea procumbens, M. yosotis alpestris, Polygonum

viviparum, Salix retusa, S. herbacea, Phleum alpinum, Juniperus

nana. The proportion of northern forms, as regards both

species and individuals, increases as we ascend to the higher

regions. In the highest vegetation-zone, the snow-region --

i.e. on islands of rock above the snow-line -- they attain

to an equality with the endemic forms. As examples of northern

flowers which are characteristic of the snow-region, we may

mention Silene acaulis, Eritrichium nanuin and Arenaria

ciliata. On the other hand, typical endemic species of

this highest zone are Androsace helvetica, A. glacialis,

Petrocallis pyrenaica and Cherleria sedoides. All the

plants just named, we may observe, are ``cushion-plants.''

Their compact, moss-like growth and general structural

peculiarities are not an expression of mutual affinity, but

are in adaptation to the combined cold and dryness of their

habitat. It is noteworthy that among the northern plants of

the alpine zone, in the narrower sense of the term (i.e.

of the region between the tree-limit and the snow-line),

there is a marked predominance of species that affect moist

localities; and conversely, the majority of alpine flowers

of wet habitat are found also in the north. For example,

in the genus Primula, a highly characteristic genus of

the alpine flora, whose members are among the most striking

ornaments of the rocks, the single northern species, P.

Jarinosa, grows only in marshy meadows. On the whole, then,

adaptation to cold and wet is the note of the northern element.

As for the explanation of the community between the alpine

and arctic floras, all authorities are agreed that the key

to the problem is furnished by the occurrence of the glacial

period. In the ice-free belt, between the northern ice-sheet

and the vastly extended glaciers of the Alps, the two floras

must have found a common refuge and congenial conditions of

existence; and this view is confirmed by direct palaeontological

evidence. With the return of a milder climate, the so-called

northern forms of the present alpine flora were split in

two, one portion following close on the northern ice in

its gradual retreat to the Arctic, the other following the

shrinking glaciers till the plants were able to establish

(or re-establish) themselves on the slopes of the Alps. The

same explanation covers the case of the similarity of the

flora (not merely as regards the northern element) on all the

high mountains of central Europe. So much seems to be beyond

reasonable doubt. But at this point disagreement begins

between the most eminent writers on the subject. While some

(e.g. Sir J. D. Hooker, Heer) regard the Arctic, and some

(e.g. Wettstein) the Alps, as the original home of at

least the bulk of the ``northern'' element, others (e.g.

Ball, Christ) locate this in the highlands of temperate

Asia. For it is a remarkable fact that, of the 230 northern

species which are most typical of the far north, 182 are found

also in the Altai (taking this as a collective name for the

mountains that form the southern boundary of Siberia). In

any case, however, the migration of these plants to the Alps

must for the most part have taken place via the Arctic. The

possibility of any extensive east to west migration having

taken place direct from the Altai to the Alps seems excluded

by the fact that 50% of the arctico-altaic alpine plants are

absent from the Caucasus. A score of species, it is true --

not such a number, be it observed, as was formerly supposed

-- are common to the Alps and Altai, but absent from the

Arctic. But the species composing this Altaic element

are not so numerous as the arctico-alpine species that

are absent from the Altai. On the whole, a common origin

in the north for at least the arctico-altaic group of

alpine plants seems to be the most reasonable hypothesis.

Side by side with the northern element (which in some respects,

we may observe to point the contrast, would be better named

the tundra-element) we find a group of species usually spoken

of as the xerothermic or meridional element. These do not,

however, form an ``element,'' in the strict geographical

sense in which this term is otherwise used here. They are

those species which, on general phyto-geographical grounds,

must be regarded as having originated under steppe-like

conditions. Their affinities are chiefly, though not

exclusively, with the present Mediterranean flora -- about

fifty are of presumably Mediterranean origin -- and a large

proportion of them are restricted to the southern slopes

of the Alps. The following, however, among others, are

distributed throughout the whole, or a great part, of the

range: Colchicum alpinain, Crocus vernus, Orchis globosa,

Petroeallis pyrenaica, Astragalus depressus, A. aristatus,

Oxytropis Halleri, Erynigium alpinum, Erica carnea, Linaria

alpina, Globularia nudicaulis, G. cordifolia, Leontopodium

alpinum. The last named (the well-known ``edelweiss'')

is at the present day characteristic of the Siberian

steppes. The presence of these plants among the alpine flora

is traceable to the steppe-like conditions which prevailed

in central Europe both during the warmer inter-glacial

periods and (probably) for a time after the close of the

ice-age. Subsequently, as the climate of the plains

assumed a colder and more humid character, they retired

before the invading forests to the high mountains. Here,

in the intenser insolation which they enjoy on the alpine

slopes, they seem to find a compensation for the drawbacks

incidental to the altitude of their present station.

As regards now the endemic element as a whole, the question as

to the time and place of its origin is of a highly complicated

and controversial nature. The question, too, in the case of

this element, is necessarily of genetic rather than purely

geographical scope. It must suffice to say that the weight

of scientific opinion inclines to the view that at least the

majority of endemic species are of pre-glacial origin, and

are either strictly indigenous or products of the neighbouring

lowlands. About 40% of the endemic element in the alpine

flora are endemic also in the narrower sense, i.e. they

are confined to the Alps. Many of them are restricted to

some one small portion of the chain; these occur chiefly in

the southern and eastern Alps. It is an interesting fact

that the centrally situated Bernese Alps produce hardly a

single peculiar species. The greater richness of certain

districts in the matter of species is partly due to the

variety of soils encountered therein; but in part may be

explained by the fact that these districts were the first to

be freed from the ice-sheet at the end of the glacial period.

The following is a list of the most thoroughly characteristic

alpine plants -- all of them ipso facto members of the

endemic element -- which are at once peculiar to the Alps (or

practically so) and widely distributed within the limits of the

chain. These are: Festuca pulchella, Carex microstyla, Salix

caesia, Rumex nivalis, Alsine aretioides, Aquilegia alpina,

Thlaspi rotundifolium, Saxifeaga Seguieri, S. aphylla,

Astragalus leontinus, Daphne striata, Eryngium alpinum,

Bupleurum stellatum, Androsace helvetica, A. glacialis, Gentiana

bavarica, Phyteuma humile, Campanula thyrsoidea, C. cenisia,

Achillea atrata, Cirsium spinosissimum, Crepis Terglouensis.

AUTHORITIES. -- Among the voluminous literature on Alpine

flora, the following works are particularly noteworthy: --

Ball, ``On the Origin of the Flora of the European Alps,''

in proceed. of the Roy. Geog. Soc., 1879; Bennett, The

Flora of the Alps, 2 vols. with 120 coloured plates (1896);

Briquet, ``Les Colonies vegetales xerothermiques des alpes

lemaniennes,'' in Bull. d. l. Murithienne, soc. valaisienne

des sciences nat., xxvii. and xxviii. (1898-1899); Alph.

de Candolle, ``Sur les causes de l'ineaale distribution des

Plantes rares dans la chaine des Alpes,'' Extr. des Actes

du Congres botan. internat. de Florence (1875); Chodat

u. Pampanini, ``Sur la distribution des plantes des alpes

austro-orientales,'' Extr. du Globe, organe de la soc. de

geographie de Geneve, tome xli. (1902); H. Christ, Das

Pflanzenleben der Schweiz (1882) -- the chief classic

on the subject; Engler, Die Pfanzenformationen und die

pflanzengeographische Gliederung der Alpenkette (1901);

Heer, Uleber die nivale Kora der Schweiz (1885); Jerosch,

Geschichte und Herkunft der schweizerischen Alpenfforal

cine Ubersicht uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Frage

(1903). Schroter, Das Pflanzenleben der Alpen (Zurich,

1908); R. von Wettstein, Die Geschichte unserer Alpenflora

(1896). The best book of coloured plates is the Atlas

der Alpemflora, in 5 vols., pub. by the Deutscher

u. Oesterreichischer Alpenverein (2nd. ed., 1897).

12. Fauna. -- The fauna of the lower zones in the Alps

is, on the northern side of the chain, practically identical

with that of central Europe, and on the southern side with

that of the Mediterranean basin. But in the higher regions

it presents many features of special interest alike to the

zoologist and the traveller. It seems therefore best to treat

here principally of the animal inhabitants of the high Alps.