ALKALINE EARTHS. The so-called alkaline earth-metals are

the elements beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and

barium. By the early chemists, the term earth was used to

denote those non-metallic substances which were insoluble in

water and were unaffected by strong heating; and as some of

these substances (e.g. lime) were found to be very similar in

properties to those of the alkalis, they were called alkaline

earths. The alkaline earths were assumed to be elements until

1807, when Sir H. Davy showed that they were oxides of various

metals. The metals comprising this group are never found in

the uncombined condition, but occur most often in the form

of carbonates and sulphates; they form oxides of the type RO,

and in the case of calcium, strontium and barium, of the type

RO2. The oxides of type RO are soluble in water, the solution

possessing a strongly alkaline reaction and rapidly absorbing

carbon dioxide on exposure; they are basic in character and

dissolve readily in acids with the formation of the corresponding

salts. As the atomic weight of the element increases, it is

found that the solubility of the sulphates in water decreases.

Beryllium to a certain extent stands alone in many of its

chemical properties, resembling to some extent the metal

aluminium. Beryllium and magnesium are permanent in dry air;

calcium, strontium and barium, however, oxidize rapidly on

exposure. The salts of all the metals of this group usually

crystallize well, the chlorides and nitrates dissolve readily

in water, whilst the carbonates, phosphates and sulphates

are either very sparingly soluble or are insoluble in water.

ALKALOID, in chemistry, a term originally applied to any

organic base, i.e. a nitrogenous substance which forms

salts with acids; now, however, it is usual to restrict

the term to bases of vegetable origin and characterized by

remarkable toxicological effects. Such bases occur almost

exclusively in the dicotyledons, generally in combination with

malic, citric, tartaric or similar plant-acids. They may

be extracted by exhausting the plant-tissues with a dilute

acid, and precipitating the bases with potash, soda, lime or

magnesia. The separation of the mixed bases so obtained

is effected by repeated fractional crystallization, or by

taking advantage of certain properties of the constituents.

A chemical classification of alkaloids is difficult on

account of their complex constitution. I. A. Wyschnegradsky,

and afterwards W. Konigs, expressed the opinion that the

alkaloids were derivatives of pyridine or quinoline. This

view has been fairly well supported by later discoveries;

but, in addition to pyridine and quinoline nuclei, alkaloids

derived from isoquinoline are known. The purely chemical

literature on the alkaloids is especially voluminous;

and from the assiduity with which the constitutions of

these substances have been and are still being attacked,

we may conclude that their synthesis is but a question of

time. Piperine, conine, atropine, belladonine, cocaine,

hyoscyamine and nicotine have been already synthesized; the

constitution of several others requires confirmation, while

there remain many important alkaloids--quinine, morphine,

strychnine, &c.--whose constitution remains unknown.

The following classification is simple and convenient; the

list of alkaloids makes no pretence at being exhaustive.

(1) Pyridine group. Piperine; conine; trigonelline;

arecaidine; guvacine; pilocarpine; cytisine; nicotine;

sparteine.

(2) Tropine group. Alkaloids characterized by containing

the tropine (q.v.) nucleus. Atropine; cocaine; hygrine;

ecgonine; pelletierine.

(3) Quinoline group. The alkaloids of the quina-barks:

quinine, &c.; the strychnos bases: strychnine, brucine;

and the veratrum alkaloids: veratrine, cevadine, &c.

(4) Isoquinoline group. The opium alkaloids: morphine,

codeine, thebaine, papaverine, narcotine, narceine, &c.;

and the complicated substances hydrastine and berberine.

In addition to the above series there are a considerable number

of compounds derived from purin which are by some writers

classed with the alkaloids. These are treated in the article

PURIN. There are also reasons for including such compounds

as muscarine, choline, neurine and betaine in this group.

The greater number of these substances are of considerable

medicinal value; this aspect is treated generally in the

article PHARMACOLOGY. Reference should also be made

to the articles on the individual alkaloids for further

details as to their medicinal and chemical properties.

The chemistry of the alkaloids is treated in detail by Ame

Pictet in his La Constitution chimique des alcatoides vegetaux

(Paris, 1897); enlarged and translated by H. C. Biddle wiih

the title The Vegetable Alkaloids (New Vork, 1904); and by

J. W. Bruhl, F. HJelt, and O. Aschan: Die Pflanzen-Alkaloide

(1900). A pamphlet, Die Alkaloidchemie in den Jahren

1900-1904, by Julius Schmidt, may also be consulted.

ALKAN, CHARLES HENRI VALENTIN MORHANGE (1813-1888), French

musical composer, was born and died in Paris. Alkan was his

nom de guerre. Admitted to the Conservatoire of Paris in his

sixth year, he had a distinguished career there until 1830.

He visited London in 1833, after which he settled in Paris as

a pianoforte teacher till his death. He is important as the

composer of a large number of pianoforte etudes, embodying

the most extravagant technical difficulties. His invention

was not modern enough to secure for these works that attention

which they deserve as representing a pianoforte technique

and sense of effect in some respects more advanced even

than that of Liszt, though lacking Liszt's economy and tact.

ALKANET (dim. from Span. alcana, Arab. al-hena = henna,

Egyptian privet, or Lawsonia inermis), a plant, Alkanna or

Anchusa tinctoria, of the order Boraginaceae, also known as

orchanet, dyer's bugloss, Spanish bugloss or bugloss of Languedoc,

which is grown in the south of France and on the shores of the

Levant. Its root yields a fine red colouring matter which

has been used to tint tinctures, oils, wines, varnishes, &c.

AL KASR AL KEBIR (``the great castle,'' in Span. ALCAZAR

KEBIR, in Port. ALCACER QUBIR), a town of Morocco, on the

river Lekkus, 80 m. N.W. of Fez. Pop. about 10,000. Its mud

and pantile dwellings are here and there relieved by a mosque

tower, but the aspect of the town is far from inviting. It

is frequently flooded in winter and in consequence fever is

prevalent. The weekly market, held on Sundays in the centre

of the town, gives to the place an appearance of bustle.

A vice-governor is appointed for the town by the basha of

Laraiche, one for the country round by the sultan of Morocco,

a condition which causes much confusion on market-days. Al

Kasr al Rebir was built, according to Leo Africanus, by Yakub

el Mansur (1186-1199). Not far from the town, by the banks

of the river Makhazan, is the site of the battle fought in

1578 between Dom Sebastian, king of Portugal, and the Moors

under Abd el Malek, in which the Moors were victorious, though

both kings perished, as well as the deposed Mahommed XI., who

had called in the Portuguese to his aid against Abd el Malek.

ALKMAAR, a town in the province of North Holland, kingdom of

Holland, 24 1/2 m. by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam, connected by

steam-tramway with Haarlem and Amsterdam, and on the North Holland

canal. Pop. (1900) 18,373. Alkmaar is a typical North Holland

town, with tree-lined canals and brightly coloured 17th-century

houses. The old city walls have been replaced by pleasant

gardens and walks, and there is a park in which stands a fine

monument (1876) by J. T. Stracke (1817- 1891), symbolizing

Alcmaria victrix, to commemorate the siege by the Spaniards in

1573. The Groote Kerk (1470-1498), dedicated to St Lawrence,

is a handsome building and contains the tomb of Floris

V., count of Holland (d. 1296), a brass of 1546, and some

paintings (1507). In the town hall (1507) are the library

and a small museum with two pictures by the 17th century

artist Caesar van Everdingen, who with his more celebrated

brother Allart van Everdingen (q.v.) was a native of the

town. The weigh-house (1582) is a picturesque building

with quaint gable and tower. Just outside the town lies the

Alkmaar wood, at the entrance to which stands the military

cadet school which serves as a preparatory school for the

royal military academy at Breda. Alkmaar derives its chief

importance from being the centre of the flourishing butter

and cheese trade of this region of Holland. It is also a

considerable market for horses, cattle and grain, and there is

a little boat-building and salt and sail-cloth manufacture.

Tramways connect Alkmaar with Egmond and with the pretty summer

resort of Bergen, which lies sheltered by woods and dunes.

The name of Alkmaar, which means ``all sea,'' first occurs

in the 10th century, and recalls its former situation in the

midst of marshlands and lakes. It was probably originally a

fishing-village, but with the reclamation of the surrounding

morasses, e.g. that of the Schermer in 1685, and their

conversion into rich meadow land, Alkmaar gradually acquired

an imporiant trade. In 1254 it received a charter from

William II., count of Holland, similar to that of Haarlem,

but in the 15in century duke Philip the Good of Burgundy

made the impoverishment of the town, due to ill-government,

the excuse for establishing an oligarchical regime, by

charters of 1436 and 1437. As the capital of the ancient

district of Kennemerland between den Helder and Haarlem,

Alkmaar frequently suffered in the early wars between the

Hollanders and the Frisians, and in 1517 was captured by the

united Gelderlaiiders and Frisians. In 1573 it successfully

sustained a seven-weeks' siege by 16,000 Spaniards under the

duke of Alva. In 1799 Alkmaar gave its name to a conxention

signed by the duke of York and the French general Brune, in

accordance with which the Russo-British army of 23,000 men,

which was defeated at Bergen, evacuated Holland. A monument

was erected in 1901 to commemorate the Russians who fell.

ALLACCI, LEONE [LEO ALLATIUS] (1586-1669), Greek scholar

and theologian, was born in the island or Chios. His early

years were passed in Calabria and at Rome, where he finally

settled as teacher of Greek at the Greek college, at the

same time devoting himself to the study of classics and

theology. In 1622, after the capture of Heidelberg by Tilly,

the elector Maximilian of Bavaria presented its splendid

library composed of 196 cases of MSS. (bibliotheca Palatina)

to Pope Gregory XV. Allacci was sent to superintend its

removal to Rome, where it was incorporated with the Vatican

library. On the death of Gregory, Allacci became librarian to

Cardinal Berberini, and subsequently (1661) librarian of the

Vatican, which post he held till his death on the 18th (or

19th) of January 1669. It is noteworthy that, although a Greek

by birth, he became an ardent Roman Catholic and the bitter

enemy of all heretics, including his own countrymen. Allacci

was a very industrious and voluminous writer, but his works,

although they bear ample testimony to his immense learning,

show an absence of the true critical faculty, and are full of

intolerance, especially on religious subjects. For a list

of these, J. A. Fabricius's Bibliotheca Graeca (xi. 437)

should be consulted, where they are divided into four classes:

editions, translations and commentaries on ancient authors; works

relating to the dogmas and institutions of the Greek and Roman

Churches; historical works; miscellaneous works. The number

of his unpublished writings is also very large; the majority

of them are included in the MSS. of the Vallicellian library.

The main source of our knowledge of Allatius is the incomplete

life by Stephanus Gradi, Leonis Allatii vita, published by

Cardinal Mai, in Nova Bibliotheca Patrum. A complete enumeration

of his works is contained in E. Legrand, Bibliographie

hellenique du XVIIeme siecle (Paris, 1895, iii.

435-471). The accounts of C. N. Sathas in Neoellenvike

filologia (Athens, 1868), and of the pseudo-prince Demetrius

Rhodokanakis, Leonis Allatii Hellas (Athens, 1872, are

inaccurate and untrustworthy. For a special account of his

share in the foundation of the Vatican Library, see Curzio

Mazzi, Leone Allacci e la Palatina di Heidelberg (Bologna,

1893). The theological aspect of his works is best

treated by the Assumptionist Father L. Petit in A. Vacant's

Dictionnaire de theologie (Paris, 1900, cols. 830-833).

ALLAH, the Arabic name used by Moslems of all nationalities

for the one true God. It is compounded of al, the definite

article, and ilah, meaning a god. The same word is

found in Hebrew and Aramaic as well as in ancient Arabic

(Sabaean). The meaning of the root from which it is derived

is very doubtful; cf. Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon, p.

82, and the Oxford Hebrew and English Lexicon, pp. 61 ff.

ALLAHABAD, a city of British India, the capital of the United

Provinces of Agra and Oudh, giving its name to a district and a

division. The city is situated at the confluence of the

Ganges and the Jumna in 25 deg. 26' N. lat. and 81 deg. 50' E.

long., 564 m. from Calcutta by rail. Its most conspicuous

feature is the fort, which rises directly from the banks of the

confluent rivers and completely commands the navigation of both

streams. Within the fort are the remains of a splendid palace,

erected by the Emperor Akbar, and once a favourite residence of

his. A great portion of it has been destroyed, and its hall

is converted into an arsenal. Outside the fort the places

of most importance are the sarai and gardens of Khasru, the

son of the Emperor Jehangir, and the Jama Masjid or Great

Mosque. When the town first came into the hands of the

English this mosque was used as a residence by the military

officer commanding the station, and afterwards as an assembly

room. Ultimately it was returned to its former owners, but

the Mahommedans considered it desecrated, and it has never

since been used as a place of worship. Allahabad (Illahabad)

was the name given to the city when Akbar built the great

fort. To the Hindus it is still known by its ancient name

of Prag or Prayag (``place of sacrifice''), and it remains

one of the most noted resorts of Hindu pilgrimage. It owes

its sanctity to its being the reputed confluence of three

sacred streams--the Ganges, the Jumna and the Saraswati. This

last stream, however, actually loses itself in the sands of

Sirhind, 400 m. north-west of Allahabad. The Hindus assert

that the stream joins the other two rivers underground, and

in a subterraneous temple below the fort a little moisture

trickling from the rocky walls is pointed out as the waters

of the Saraswati. An annual fair is held at Allahabad at

the confluence of the streams on the occasion of the great

bathing festival at the full moon of the Hindu month of

Magh. It is known as the Magh-mela, lasts for a whole

month, and is attended by as many as 250,000 persons in

ordinary years, either for religious or commercial purposes.

Every twelfth year there is a special occasion called the

Kumbh-mela, which is attended by a million of devotees at one

time. Allahabad was taken by the British in 1765 from the

wazir of Oudh, and assigned as a residence to Shah Alam,

the titular emperor of Delhi. Upon that prince throwing

himself into the hands of the Mahrattas, the place was

resumed by the British in 1771 and again transferred to

the nawab of Oudh, by whom it was finally ceded together

with the district to the British in 1801, in commutation of

the subsidy which the wazir had agreed to pay for British

protection. During the Mutiny of 1857, Allahabad became

the scene of one of the most serious outbreaks and massacres

which occurred in the North-Western Provinces. The fort was

held by a little garrison of Europeans and loyal Sikhs, until

it was relieved by General Neill on June 11th of that year.

The modern buildings of Allahabad include Government House, the

High Court, the Mayo memorial and town hall, the Muir central

college, the Thornhill and Mayne memorial library and museum,

the Naini central jail, and the Anglican and Roman Catholic

cathedrals. The Jumna is crossed by a railway bridge and

there are two bridges of boats over the Ganges. The military

cantonments contain accommodation for all three arms and

are the headquarters of a brigade in the 8th division of

the eastern army corps. At Allahabad is published the

Pioneer, perhaps the best known English paper in India.

There is an American mission college. Here is the junction

of the great railway system which unites Bengal with Central

India and Bombay, and is developing into a great centre of

1nland and export trade. The population in 1901 was 172,032.

The DISTRICT OF ALLAHABAD has an area of 2811 sq. m. In

shape it is an irregular oblong, and it is very difficult to

define its boundaries, as at one extremity it wanders into

Oudh, while on the south the villages of the state of Rewa

and those of this district are hopelessly intermingled. The

Jumna and the Ganges enclose within their angle a fertile

tract well irrigated with tanks and wells. The East Indian

railway and the Grand Trunk road afford the principal means

of land communication. In 1901 the population was 1,489,358,

showing a decrease of 4% in the decade due to famine.

The division of Allahabad has an area of 17,270 sq. m. The

population in 1901 was 5,540,702, showing a decrease of 4% in the

decade due to the famine of 1896-1897, which was severely felt

throughout the division. It comprises the seven districts of

Cawnpore, Fatehpur, Banda, Hamirpur, Allahabad, Jhansi and Jalaun.

ALLAMANDA, named after J. N. S. Allamand (1713-1787), of

Leiden, a genus of shrubby, evergreen climbers, belonging

to the natural order Apocynaceae, and a native of tropical

America. Several species are grown in hot-houses for the

beauty of their folliage and flowers; the latter, borne in

many-flowered panicles, have a funnel-shaped corolla with

a narrow tube, and often yellow in colour. The plants

are of comparatively easy culture, and very effective

when trained to wires beneath the roof of the house.

ALLAN, DAVID (1744-1796), Scottish historical painter,

was born at Alloa. On leaving Foulis's academy of painting

at Glasgow (1762), after seven years' successful study, he

obtained the patronage of Lord Cathcart and of Erskine of Mar,

on whose estate he had been born. The latter furnished him

with the means of proceeding to Rome (1764), where he remained

for a number of years engaged principally in copying the old

masters. Among the original works which he then painted

was the ``Origin of Portraiture''--representing a Corinthian

maid drawing her lover's shadow--well known through Domenico

Cunego's excellent engraving. This gained for him the gold

medal given by the Academy of St Luke in the year 1773 for

the best specimen of historical composition. Returning

from Rome in 1777, he resided for a time in London, and

occupied himself in portrait-painting. In 1780 he removed

to Edinburgh, where, on the death of Alexander Runciman in

1786, he was appointed director and master of the Academy of

Arts. There he painted and etched in aquatint a variety of

works, those by which he is best known--as the ``Scotch

Wedding,'' the ``Highland Dance,'' the ``Repentance Stool,''

and his ``Illustrations of the Gentle Shepherd''--being

remarkable for their comic humour. He was called the ``Scottish

Hogarth''; but his drolleries hardly entitle him to this

comparison. Allan died at Edinburgh on the 6th of August 1796.

ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810-1882), Canadian financier, was

born on the 29th of September 1810, at Saltcoats, Ayrshire,

Scotland, the son of Captain Alexander Allan, a shipmaster.

He emigrated to Canada in 1826, and in 1831 entered the

employ of the chief shipbuilding and grain-shipping firm of

Montreal, of which he became a junior partner in 1835. In

1853 he organized the Allan Line of steamships, plying between

Montreal. Liverpool and Glasgow; till his death he was

closely associated with the commercial growth and prosperity

of Canada, and in 1871 was knighted in recognition of his

services. In 1872- 1873 he obtained from the Canadian government

a charter for building the Canadian Pacific railway, but the

disclosures made with reference to his contributions to the

funds of the Conservative party led to the Pacific scandal

(see CANADA, History), and that company was soon afterwards

dissolved. He died in Edinburgh on the 9th of December 1882.

See J. C. Dent, Canadian Portrait Gallery (1881).

ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782-1850), Scottish painter, was born at

Edinburgh, and at an early age entered as a pupil in the School

of Design established in Edinburgh by the Board of Trustees

for Arts and Manufactures, where he had as companions, John

Wilkie, John Burnet the engraver, and others who afterward

distinguished themselves as artists. Here Allan and Wilkie

were placed at the same table, studied the same designs, and

contracted a lifelong friendship. Allan continued his studies

for some time in London; but his attempt to establish himself

there was unsuccessful, and after exhibiting at the Royal

Academy (1805) his first picture, ``A Gipsy Boy and Ass,''

an imitation in style of Opie, he determined, in spite of his

scanty resources, to seek his fortune abroad. He accordingly

set out the same year for Russia, but was carried by stress of

weather to Memel, where he remained for some time, supporting

himself by his pencil. At last, however, he reached St

Petersburg, where the kindness of Sir Alexander Crichton,

the court physician, and other friends procured him abundant

employment. By excursions into southern Russia, Turkey,

the Crimea and Circassia, he filled his portfolio with vivid

sketches, of which he made admirable use in his subsequent

pictures. In 1814 he returned to Edinburgh, and in the two

following years exhibited at the Royal Academy ``The Circassian

Captives'' and ``Bashkirs tonducting Convicts to Siberia.''

The former picture remained so long unsold, that, thoroughly

disheartened, he threatened to retire to Circassia when,

through the kindness of Sir Walter Scott, a subscription of

1000 guineas was obtained for the picture, which fell by lot

into the possession of the earl of Wemyss. About the same time

the Grand Duke Nicholas, afterwards tsar of Russia, visited

Edinburgh, and purchased his ``Siberian Exiles'' and ``Haslan

Gheray crossing the River Kuban,'' giving a very favourable

turn to the fortunes of the painter, whose pictures were now

sought for by collectors. From this time to 1834 he achieved

his greatest success and firmly established his fame by the

illustration of Scottish history. His most important works

of this class were ``Archbishop Sharpe on Magus Moor''; ``John

Knox admonishing Mary Queen of Scots'' (1823), engraved by

Burnet; ``Mary Queen of Scots signing her Abdication'' (1824);

and ``Regent Murray shot by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh.''

The last procured his election as an associate of the Royal

Academy (1825). Later Scottish subjects were ``Lord Byron''

(1831), portraits of Scott and ``The Orphan'' (1834), which

represented Anne Scott seated near the chair of her deceased

father. In 1830 he was compelled, on account of an attack of

ophthalmia, to seek a milder climate, and visited Rome, Naples and

Constantinople. He returned with a rich store of materials,

of which he made excellent use in his ``Constantinople Slave

Market'' and other productions. In 1834 he visited Spain and

Morocco, and in 1841 went again to St Petersburg, when he

undertook, at the request of the tsar, his ``Peter the Great

teaching his Subjects the Art of Shipbuilding,'' exhibited

in London in 1845, and now in the Winter Palace of St

Petersburg. His ``Polish Exiles'' and ``Moorish Love-letter,''

&c., had secured his election as a Royal Academician in 1835;

he was appointed president of the Royal Scottish Academy

(1838), and royal limner for Scotland, after Wilkie's death

(1841); and in 1842 received the honour of knighthood. His

later years were occupied with battle-pieces, the last he

finished being the second of his two companion pictures of the

``Battle of Waterloo.'' He died on the 22nd of February 1850,

leaving a large unfinished picture--``Bruce at Bannockburn.''

ALHAN-DESPREAUX, LOUISE ROSALIE (1810-1856), French

actress, was ``discovered'' by Talma at Brussels in 1820, when

she played Joas with him in Athalie. At his suggestion she

changed her surname, Ross, for her mother's maiden name, and, as

Mlle. Despreaux, was engaged for children's parts at the

Comedie Francaise. At the same time she studied at the

Conservatoire. By 1825 she had taken the second prize for

comedy, and was engaged to play inigenue parts at the Comeedie

Francaise, where her first appearance in this capacity was as

Jenny in L'Argent on the 8th of December 1826. In 1831 the

director of the Gymnase succeeded in persuading her to join his

company. Her six years at this theatre, during which she

married Allan, an actor in the company, were a succession of

triumphs. She was then engaged at the French theatre at St

Petersburg. Returning to Paris, she brought with her, as

Legouve says, a thing she had unearthed, through a Russian

translation, a little comedy never acted till she took it up,

a production half-forgotten, and esteemed by those who knew it

as a pleasing piece of work in the Marivaux style--Un Caprice

by Alfred de Musset, which she had played with success in St

Petersburg. Her selection of this piece for her reappearance

at the Theatre Francaise (1847) laid the corner-stone

of Musset's lasting fame as a dramatist. In the following

year his comedy Il ne faut jurer de rien was acted at the

same theatre, and thus led to the production of his finer

plays. Among plays by other authors in which Mme. Allan won

special laurels at the Theatre Francaise. were Par droit

de conquete, Peril en la demeure, La joie fait peur,

and Lady Tartuffe. In the last, with a part of only fifty

lines, and playing by the very side of the great Rachel, she

yet held her own as an actress of the first rank. Mme. Allan

died in Paris, in the height of her popularity, in March 1856.

/NH-CH-NH-CO-NH2 ALLANTOIN, C4H6N4O3 or CO |

\NH-CO

the diureide of glyoxylic acid. It is found in the allantoic

liquid of the cow, and in the urine of sucking calves. It

can be obtained by the oxidation of uric acid by means of lead

dioxide, manganese dioxide, ozone or potassium permanganate:

C5H4N4O3 + H2O + O = C4H6N4O3 + CO2.

It has been synthesized by E. Grimaux by heating one part of

glyoxylic acid with two parts of urea for ten hours at 100 deg.

C.: 2CO(NH2)2 + CH(OH)2COOH = 3H2O + C4H6N4O3. It

forms glancing prisms of neutral reaction slightly soluble in

water. On standing with concentrated potassium hydroxide solution

it gives potassium allantoate C4H7N4O4K. On heating with

water it undergoes hydrolysis into urea and allanturic acid

C3H4O3N2. It is reduced by sodium amalgam to glycouril

C4H6N4O2, whilst with hydriodic acid it yields urea and hydantoin

C3H4N2O2. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes

allantoin, with production of ammonia, and carbon monoxide and

dioxide. By dry distillation it gives ammonium cyanide.

ALLEGHANY, or THE ALLEGHANIES (a spelling now more common

than Allegheny), a name formerly used of all the Appalachian

Mountains (q.v.), U.S.A., and now sometimes of all that

system lying W. and S. of the Hudson river, being steep

and narrow-crested in Pennsylvania (1500-1800 ft.), and in

Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia higher (3000 ft.-4473

ft). and with broader crests. Another usage applies to

the ridges ( ``the Alleghany Ridges'') parallel to the Blue

Ridge; the north-western part of this region is sometimes

called the Alleghany Front or the Front of the Alleghany

Plateau. The Alleghany Plateau is the north-westernmost

division of the Appalachian system; it is an eroded mass of

sedimentary rock sloping north-westward to the Prairie and

Lake Plains and reaching south-west from the south-western

part of New York state through Tennessee and into Alabama.

ALLEGHENY, formerly a city of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Allegheny and Ohio rivers.

opposite Pittsburg; since 1907 a part of Pittsburg.

Pop. (1890) 105,287; (1900) 129,896, of whom 30,216 were

foreign-born and 3315 were negroes; of the foreign-born 12,022

were from Germany, 5070 from Ireland, 3929 from Austria, and

2177 from England; (1906, estimate) 145,240. Allegheny is

served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pittsburg & Western

railways, by the Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago, the Western

Pennsylvania, the Buffalo & Allegheny Valley, the Cleveland &

Pittsburg, the Erie & Pittsburg, the Pittsburg, Youngstown &

Ashtabula, and the Chautauqua divisions of the Pennsylvania

railway system, and by Ohio river freight and passenger

boats. Extending along the river fronts for about 6 1/2 m.

are numerous large manufactories and the headquarters of

the shipping interests; farther back are the mercantile

quarters and public buildings; and on the hills beyond are

the residence districts, commanding extensive views of the

valley. Two of the principal thoroughfares, Federal and Ohio

streets, intersect at a central square, in which are the city

hall, public library, post office and the marketplace; and

surrounding the main business section on the E., N. and W.

is City Park of 100 acres, with lakes and fountains, and

monuments to the memory of Alexander von Humboldt, George

Washington and T. A. Armstrong. Farther out is Riverview

Park (219 acres), in which is the Allegheny Astronomical

Observatory, and elsewhere are a soldiers' monument and a

monument (erected by Andrew Carnegie) in memory of Colonel Johnes

Anderson. In Allegheny are the following institutions of

higher learning:--the Allegheny Theological Seminary (United

Presbyterian), opened in 1825; the Western Theological

Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, opened in 1827; and

the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Presbyterians,

opened in 1856. There is a fine Carnegie library with a

music-hall. Among penal and charitable institutions are the

Riverside State Penitentiary, three hospitals, three homes

for orphans, a home for the friendless and an industrial

school. Six bridges spanning the river and electric lines

crossing them have brought Allegheny into close industrial and

social relations with the main part of Pittsburg, and on the

hills of Allegheny are beautiful homes of wealthy men. As a

manufacturing centre Allegheny was outranked in 1905 by only

two cities in the state--Philadelphia and Pittsburg; among

the more important of its large variety of manufactures are

the products of slaughtering and meat-packing establishments,

iron and steel rolling mills, the products of foundries and

machine- shops, pickles, preserves and sauces, the products of

railway- construction and repair shops, locomotives, structural

iron and plumbers' supplies. In 1905 the total value of

Allegheny's factory products was $45,830,272; this showed an

apparent decrease (exceeded by one city only) of $7,365,106,

from the product-value of 1900, but the decrease was partly

due to the more careful census of 1905, in which there were not

the duplications or certain items which occurred in the 1900

census. But in the live years there was a decrease of 3865

in the average number of wage-earners, and the iron and

steel output was much less. In 1905 Allegheny ranked first

among the cities of the United States in the manufacture of

pickles, preserves and sauces, the product ($6,216,778) being

20.9% of that for the whole country. An important industry

is the shipment of coal, especially on barges down the Ohio.

Allegheny was laid out in 1788 on a portion of a tract which

the state had previously reserved opposite Pittsburg, with a

view to bringing some valuable land into the market for the

payment of its soldiers' claims. When ordered by the state to

be laid out, it was also named as the site of the county-seat

of the newly erected county of Allegheny, but the opposition

of Pittsburg was so strong that by a supplementary act in the

following year that town was made the county-seat. In 1828

Allegheny was incorporated as a borough and in 1840 it was

chartered as a city. The city suffered severely in 1874 from

a fire started by a fire-cracker on the 4th of July and from

a flood caused by a great rain-storm on the 26th of the same

month, but these calamities were followed by years of great

prosperity and rapid growth. In 1906 the question of uniting

Allegheny with Pittsburg under one municipal government was

submitted to a joint vote of the electorate of the two cities,

in accordance with an act of the state legislature, which had

been passed in February of that year, and a large majority

voted for the union; but there was determined opposition in

Allegheny, every ward of the city voting in the negative;

the constitutionality of the act was challenged; the supreme

court of the state on the 11th of March 1907 declared the

act valid, and on the 18th of November 1907 this decision

was affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States.

See J. E. Parke, Recollections of Seventy Years and Historical

Gleanings of Allegheny, Pennsylvania (Boston, 1886).

ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia,

&c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with

another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr.

allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from

``liege,'' of which the derivation is given under that heading;

the connexion with Lat. ligare, to bind, is erroneous),

the duty which a subject or a citizen owes to the state or to

the sovereign of the state to which he belongs. It is often

used by English legal commentators in a larger sense, divided

by them into natural and local, the latter applying to the

deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions

of the country in which he happens to live; but it is in

its proper sense, in which it indicates national character

and the subjection due to that character, that the word is

important. In that sense it represents the feudal liege

homage, which could be due only to one lord, while simple

homage might be due to every lord under whom the person in

question held land. The English doctrine, which was at one

time adopted in the United States, asserted that allegiance

was indelible:-- Nemo potest exuere patriam. Accordingly,

as the law stood before 1870, every person who by birth or

naturalization satisfied the conditions described in the article

ALIEN, though he should be removed in infancy to another

country where his family resided, owed an allegiance to the

British crown which he could never resign or lose, except by

act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence

or the cession of the portion of British territory in which he

resided. By the Naturalization Act 1870, it was made possible

for British subjects to renounce their nationality and

allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are

defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized in

a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such

naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized

before the passing of the act, they have declared their desire

to remain British subjects within two years from the passing

of the act. Persons who from having been born within British

territory are British subjects, but who at birth became under

the law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also

persons who though born abroad are British subjects by reason of

parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid of British

nationality. Emigration to an uncivilized country leaves British

nationality unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states

to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is

one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion.

The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance

without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in

the United States, and in 1868 congress declared that ``the

right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all

people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of

life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,'' and one of

``the fundamental principles of the republic'' (United

States Revised Statutes, sec. 1999). Every citizen of a

foreign state in America owes a double allegiance, one to it

and one to the United States. He may be guilty of treason

against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns

upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the

United States have the paramount authority in American law.

The oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign

taken by all persons holding important public office and as a

condition of naturalization. By ancient common law it might

be required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it was

repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In England it

was first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth (1558)

and its form has more than once been altered since. Up to

the time of the revolution the promise was, ``to be true and

faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to

bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or

hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him

therefrom.'' This was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute

non-resistance, and accordingly the convention parliament

enacted the form that has been in use since that time--``I

do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and

bear true allegiance to His Majesty . . .'' (see OATH.)

See also the articles CITIZEN, NATURALIZATION: and

Salmond on ``Citizenship and Allegiance,'' in the Law

Quarterly Review (July 1901, January 1902). (JNO. W.)

ALLEGORY (allos, other, and agoreuein, to speak), a

figurative representation conveying a meaning other than and in

addition to the literal. It is generally treated as a figure of

rhetoric, but the medium of representation is not necessarily

language. An allegory may be addressed to the eye, and is

often embodied in painting, sculpture or some form of mimetic

art. The etymological meaning of the word is wider than that

which it bears in actual use. An allegory is distinguished

from a metaphor by being longer sustained and more fully

carried out in its details, and from an analogy by the fact

that the one appeals to the imagination and the other to the

reason. The fable or parable is a short allegory with one

definite moral. The allegory has been a favourite form in

the literature of nearly every nation. The Hebrew scriptures

present frequent instances of it, one of the most beautiful

being the comparison of the history of Israel to the growth

of a vine in the 80th psalm. In classical literature one

of the best known allegories is the story of the stomach and

its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa (Livy ii. 32);

and several occur in Ovid's Metamorphoses. Perhaps the

most elaborate and the most successful specimens of allegory

are to be found in the works of English authors. Spenser's

Faerie Queene, Swift's Tale of a Tub, Addison's Vision

of Mirza, and, above all, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, are

examples that it would be impossible to match in elaboration,

beauty and fitness, from the literature of any other nation.

ALLEGRI, GREGORIO, Italian priest and musical composer,

probably of the Correggio family, was born at Rome either

in 1560 or in 1585. He studied music under G. Maria

Nanini, the intimate friend of Palestrina. Being intended

for the church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of

Fermo. Here he composed a large number of motets and sacred

pieces, which, being brought under the notice of Pope Urban

VIII., obtained for him an appointment in the choir of the

Sistine Chapel at Rome. He held this from December 1629

till his death on the 18th of February 1652. His character

seems to have been singularly pure and benevolent. Among

the musical compositions of Allegri were two volumes of

concerti, published in 1618 and 1619; two volumes of motets,

published in 1620 and 1621; besides a number of works still in

manuscript. He was one of the earliest composers for

stringed instruments, and Kircher has given one specimen

of this class of his works in the Musurgia. But the most

celebrated composition of Allegri is the Miserere, still

annually performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome. It is

written for two choirs, the one of five and the other of four

voices, and has obtained a celebrity which, if not entirely

factitious, is certainly not due to its intrinsic merits

alone. The mystery in which the composition was long

enshrouded, no single copy being allowed to reach the public,

the place and circumstances of the performance, and the added

embellishments of the singers, account to a great degree for

much of the impressive effect of which all who have heard

the music speak. This view is confirmed by the fact that,

when the music was performed at Venice by permission of the

pope, it produced so little effect that the emperor Leopold

I., at whose request the manuscript had been sent, thought

that something else had been substituted. In spite of the

precautions of the popes, the Miserere has long been public

property. In 1769 Mozart (q.v.) heard it and wrote it down,

and in 1771 a copy was procured and published in England by Dr

Burney. The entire music performed at Rome in Holy Week, Allegri's

Miserere included, has been issued at Leipzig by Breitkopf and

Hartel. Interesting accounts of the impression produced by

the performance at Rome may be found in the first volume of

Mendelssohn's letters and in Miss Taylor's Letters from Italy.

ALLEGRO (an Italian word, meaning ``cheerful,'' as in Milton's

poem), a term in music to indicate quick or lively time, coming

between andante and presto; it is frequently modified by

the addition of qualifying words. It is also used of a separate

piece of music, or of a movement in a sonata, symphony, &c.

ALLEINE, JOSEPH (1634-1668), English Nonconformist divine,

belonged to a family originally settled in Suffolk. As early

as 1430 some of them--sprung of Alan, lord of Buckenhall

--settled in the neighbourhood of Calne and Devizes, whence

descended the immediate ancestors of ``worthy Mr Tobie Alleine

of Devizes,'' father of Joseph, who, the fourth of a large

family, was born at Devizes early in 1634. 1645 is marked in

the title-page of a quaint old tractate, by an eye-witness,

as the year of his setting forth in the Christian race.

His elder brother Edward had been a clergyman, but in this

year died; and Joseph entreated his father that he might be

educated to succeed his brother in the ministry. In April

1649 he entered Lincoln College, Oxford, and on the 3rd of

November 1651 he became scholar of Corpus Christi College.

On the 6th of July 1653 he took the degree of B.D., and became

a tutor and chaplain of Corpus Christi, preferring this to a

fellowship. In 1654 he had offers of high preferment in the

state, which he declined; but in 1655 George Newton, of

the great church of St Mary Magdalene, Taunton, sought him

for assistant and Alleine accepted the invitation. Almost

coincident with his ordination as associate pastor came

his marriage with Theodosia Alleine, daughter of Richard

Alleine. Friendships among ``gentle and simple''--of the

former, with Lady Farewell, grand-daughter of the protector

Somerset--bear witness to the attraction of Alleine's private

life. His public life was a model of pastoral devotion. This

is all the more remarkable as he found time to continue his

studies, one monument of which was his Theologia Philosophica

(a lost MS.), a learned attempt to harmonize revelation and

nature, which drew forth the wonder of Baxter. Alleine was

no mere scholar or divine, but a man who associated on equal

terms with the founders of the Royal Society. These scientific

studies were, however, kept in subordination to his proper

work. The extent of his influence was, in so young a

man, unique, resting on the earnestness and force of his

nature. The year 1662 found senior and junior pastors

like-minded, and both were among the two thousand ejected

ministers. Alleine, with John Wesley (grandfather of the

celebrated John Wesley), also ejected, then travelled about,

preaching wherever opportunity was found. For this he was

cast into prison, indicted at sessions, bullied and fined. His

Letters from Prison were an earlier Cardiphonia than John

Newton's. He was released on the 26th of May 1664; and in

spite of the Conventicle, or Five Mile Act, he resumed his

preaching. He found himself again in prison, and again

and again a sufferer. His remaining years were full of

troubles and persecutions nobly borne, till at last, worn

out by them, he died on the 17th of November 1668; and the

mourners, remembering their beloved minister's words while

yet with them, ``If I should die fifty miles away, let me

be buried at Taunton,'' found a grave for him in St Mary's

chancel. No Puritan nonconformist name is so affectionately

cherished as is that of Joseph Alleine. His chief

literary work was An Alarm to the Unconverted (1672),

otherwise known as The Sure Guide to Heaven, which had

an enormous circulation. His Remains appeared in 1674.

See Life, edited by Baxter; Joseph Alleine: his

Companions and Times, by Charles Stanford (1861); Wood's

Athenae, iii. 819; Palmer's Nonc. Mem. iii. 208.

ALLEINE, RICHARD (1611-1681), English Puritan divine, was

born at Ditcheat, Somerset, where his father was rector. He

was a younger brother of William Alleine, the saintly vicar of

Blandford. Richard was educated at St Alban's Hall, Oxford,

where he was entered commoner in 1627, and whence, having

taken the degree of B.A., he transferred himself to New Inn,

continuing there until he proceeded M.A. On being ordained

he became assistant to his father, and immediately stirred

the entire county by his burning eloquence. In March 1641

he succeeded the many-sided Richard Bernard as rector of

Batcomb (Somerset). He declared himself on the side of the

Puritans by subscribing ``The testimony of the ministers

in Somersetshire to the truth of Jesus Christ,'' and ``The

Solemn League and Covenant,'' and assisted the commissioners

of the parliament in their work of ejecting unsatisfactory

ministers. Alleine continued for twenty years rector of

Batcomb and was one of the two thousand ministers ejected in

1662. The Five Mile Act drove him to Frome Selwood, and in

that neighbourhood he preached until his death on the 22nd

of December 1681. His works are all of a deeply spiritual

character. His Vindiciae Pietatis (which first appeared

in 1660) was refused licence by Archbishop Sheldon, and was

published, in common with other nonconformist books, without

it. It was rapidly bought up and ``did much to mend this

bad world.'' Roger Norton, the king's printer, caused a

large part of the first impression to be seized on the

ground of its not being licensed and to be sent to the royal

kitchen. Glancing over its pages, however, it seemed to

him a sin that a book so holy--and so saleable--should be

destroyed. He therefore bought back the sheets, says Calamy,

for an old song, bound them and sold them in his own shop.

This in turn was complained of, and he had to beg pardon on

his knees before the council-table; and the remaining copies

were sentenced to be ``bisked,'' or rubbed over with an inky

brush, and sent back to the kitchen for lighting fires. Such

``bisked'' copies occasionally occur still. The book was not

killed. It was often reissued with additions, The Godly

Man's Portion in 1663, Heaven Opened in 1666, The World

Conquered in 1668. He also published a book of sermons

Godly Fear, in 1664, and other less noticeable devotional compilations.

See Calamy, s.v.; Palmer's Nonconf: Mem. iii. 167-168;

C. Stanford's Joseph Ailleine; Researches at Batcomb

and Frome Selwood; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), iv. 13.

ALLEMANDE (Fr. for danse allemande, or German dance),

a name for two kinds of dance, one a German national dance,

in 2-4 time, the other somewhat resembling a waltz. The

movement in a suite following the prelude, and preceding

the courante (q.v.), with which it is contrasted in

rhythm, is also called an allemande, but has no connexion

with the dance. The name, however, is given to pieces

of music based on the dance movement, examples of which

are found in Beethoven's German dances for the orchestra.

ALLEN, ETHAN (1739--1789), American soldier, was born at

Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 10th of January 1739. He

removed, probably in 1769, to the ``New Hampshire Grants,''

where he took up lands, and eventually became a leader of those

who refused to recognize the jurisdiction of New York, and

contended for the organization of the ``Grants'' into a separate

province. About 1771 he was placed at the head of the ``Green

Mountain Boys,'' an irregular force organized for resistance

to the ``Yorkers.'' On the 10th of May 1775, soon after the

outbreak of the War of American Independence, in command of a

force, which he had assisted some members of the Connecticut

assembly to raise for the purpose, he captured Ticonderoga

from its British garrison, calling upon its commanding officer

--according to the unverified account of Allen himself-- to

surrender ``in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental

Congress.'' Seth Warner being elected colonel of the ``Green

Mountain Boys'' in July 1775, Allen, piqued, joined General

Philip Schuyler, and later with a small command, but without

rank, accompanied General Richard Montgomery's expedition

against Canada. On the 25th of September 1775 near Montreal

he was captured by the British, and until exchanged on the

6th of May 1778 remained a prisoner at Falmouth, England, at

Halifax, Nova Scotia, and in New York. Upon his release

he was brevetted colonel by the Continental Congress. He

then, as brigadier-general of the militia of Vermont, resumed

his opposition to New York, and from 1779 to 1783, acting

with his brother, Ira Allen, and several others, carried on

negotiations, indirectly, with Governor Frederick Haldimand of

Canada, who hoped to win the Vermonters over to the British

cause. He seems to have assured Haldimand's agent that

``I shall do everything in my power to make this state a

British province.'' In March 1781 he wrote to Congress, with

characteristic bluster, ``I am as resolutely determined to

defend the independence of Vermont as congress that of the United

States, and rather than fail will retire with the hardy Green

Mountain Boys into the desolate caverns of the mountains and

wage war with human nature at large.'' He removed to Burlington,

Vermont, in 1787, and died there on the 11th of February

1789. He was, says Tyler, ``a blustering frontier hero--an

able-minded ignoramus of rough and ready humour, of boundless

self-confidence, and of a shrewdness in thought and action

equal to almost any emergency.'' Allen wrote a Narrative of

Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity (1779), the most celebrated

book in the ``prison literature'' of the American revolution; A

Vindication of the Inhabitants of Vermont to the Government of

New York and their Right to term an Independent Slate (1779);

and Reason, the Only Oracle of Man; or A Compendious System

of Natural Religion, Alternately adorned with Confutations

of a Variety of Doctrines incompatible with it (1784).

Ethan's youngest brother, IRA ALLEN (1751--1814), born

on the 21st of April 1751 at Cornwall, Connecticut, also

removed to the New Hampshire Grants, where he became one of

the most influential political leaders. In 1775 he took part

in the capture of Ticonderoga and the invasion of Canada.

He was a member of the convention which met at Winchester,

Vermont, and in January 1777 declared the independence of the

New Hampshire Grants; served (1776-1786) as a member of the

Vermont council of safety; conducted negotiations, on behalf of

Vermont, for a truce with the British and for an exchange of

prisoners, in 1781; served for eight terms in the general

assembly, and was state treasurer from 1778 to 1786 and

surveyor-general from 1778 to 1787. In 1789, by a gift of

L. 4000, he made possible the establishment of the university of

Vermont, of which institution, chartered in 1791 and built at

Burlington in deference to his wishes, he was thus virtually the

founder. In 1795, on behalf of the state, he purchased from

the French government arms for the Vermont militia, of which

he was then the ranking major-general, but he was captured by

a British cruiser west of Ireland on his return journey, was

charged with attempting to furnish insurrectionary Irish with

arms, and after prolonged litigation in the British courts,

the case not being finally decided until 1504, returned to

Vermont in 1801. During his absence he had been dispossessed

of his large holdings of land through the operation of tax

laws, and to escape imprisonment for debt, he removed to

Philadelphia, where on the 4th of January 1814 he died.

He published a dull and biassed, but useful Natural and

Political History of Vermont (1798), reissued (1870) in vol.

i. of the Collections of the Vermont Historical Society.

There is no adequate biography of Ethan Allen, but Henry

Hall's Ethan Allen (New York, 1892) may be consulted. The

best literary estimate may be found in M. C. Tyler's Literary

History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897).

ALLEN, GRANT [CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIE], (1848--1899),

English author, son of a clergyman of Irish descent, was born

at Kingston, Ontario, Canada, on the 24th of February 1848.

He was educated partly in America and France, and in England

at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and afterwards at Merton,

Oxford. He was for a few years a schoolmaster in Jamaica, but

then made his home in England, where he became prominent as a

writer. He died at his house on Hindhead, Haslemere, on

the 24th of October 1899. Grant Allen was a voluminous

author. He was full of interesting scientific knowledge and

had a gift for expression both in biological exposition and in

fiction. His more purely scientific books (such as Physiological

Aesthetics, 1877; The Evolutionist at Large, 1881; The

Evolution of the Idea of God, 1897) contain much original

matter, popularly expressed, and he was a cultured exponent

of the evolutionary idea in various aspects of biology and

anthropology. He first attracted attention as a novelist

with a sensational story, The Devil's Die (1888), though

this was by no means his first attempt at fiction; and The

Woman who Did (1895), which had a succes de scandale on

account of its treatment of the sexual problem, had for the

moment a number of cheap imitators. Other volumes flowed

from his pen, and his name became well known in contemporary

literature. But his reputation was essentially contemporary and

characteristic of the vogue peculiar to the journalistic type.

ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850- ), American novelist, was born near

Lexington, Rentucky, on the 21st of December 1850. He graduated

at Kentucky University, Lexington, in 1872, taught at Fort

Spring, Kentucky, at Richmond and at Lexington, Missouri, and

from 1877 to 1879 at the academy of Kentucky University, where

he was principal and taught modern languages; in 1880 he was

professor of Latin and English at Bethany College, Bethany,

West Virginia; and then became head of a private school at

Lexington, Kentucky. Subsequently he gave up teaching, went

to New York City, where he secured commissions for sketches of

the ``Blue Grass'' region, and thereafter devoted himself to

literature. His Choir Invisible, coming after other

successful stories, made his name well known in England as

well as America. His published works include: With Flute

and Violin (1891), The Blue Grass Region (1892), John

Gray (1893), A Kentucky Cardinal (1894), Aftermath

(1895), A Summer in Arcady (1896), The Choir Invisible

(1897), The Reign of Law' (1900), The Mettle of the

Pasture (1903), and The Bride of the Mistleloe (1909.)

ALLEN, JOHN (1476--1534), English divine, after studying

at both Oxford and Cambridge, was sent by Archbishop Warham

on an ecclesiastical mission to Rome. On his return he held

a number of livings in succession, and in 1516 was rector of

South Ockendon, Essex, and prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral.

In the suppression of the minor monasteries in 1524--1525

he gave Wolsey much assistance, and became prebendary of

Nottingham in 1526 and of St Paul's, London, in 1527. These

prebends he resigned in 1528 on his election as archbishop of

Dublin. For four years he was chancellor of Ireland but his

career was full of trouble. In 1531 he was fined under the

Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire, and in 1534 met a violent

death at the hands of Lord Thomas Fitzgerald's followers.

ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632), English mathematician,

was born at Uttoxeter in Staffordshire on the 21st of December

1542. He was admitted scholar of Trinity College, Oxford,

in 1561; and graduated as M.A. in 1567. In 1580 he quitted

his college and fellowship, retired to Gloucester Hall, and

became famous for his knowledge of antiquity, philosophy and

mathematics. Having received an invitation from Henry Percy,

earl of Northumberland, a great friend and patron of men of

science, he spent some time at the earl's house, where he

became acquainted with Thomas Harriot, John Dee and other famous

mathematicians. He was also intimate with Sir Robert Cotton,

William Camden, and their antiquarian associates. Robert

Dudley, earl of Leicester, had a particular esteem for Allen,

and would have conferred a bishopric upon him, but his love

of solitude made him decline the offer. His great skill in

mathematics and astrology earned him the credit of being a

magician; and the author of Leicester's Commonwealth accuses

him of employing the art of ``figuring'' to further the earl

of Leicester's unlawful designs, and of endeavouring by the

black art to bring about a match between his patron and Queen

Elizabeth. Allen was indefatigable in collecting scattered

manuscripts relating to history, antiquity, astronomy,

philosophy and mathematics. A considerable part of his

collection was presented to the Bodleian library by Sir Kenelm

Digby. He died on the 30th of September 1632 at Gloucester

Hall. He published in Latin the second and third books

of Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, Concerning the Judgment

of the Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the

Quadripartite Construction, with an Exposition. He also

wrote notes on John Bale's De Scriptoribus M. Britanniae.

ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594), English cardinal, born at

Rossall, Lancashire, went in 1547 to Oriel College,

Oxford, and in 1556 became principal of St Mary Hall and

proctor. According to Anthony Wood, he was appointed to a

canonry at York in or about 1558; he therefore had already

entered the clerical state by receiving the tonsure. On

the accession of Elizabeth, he was deprived upon refusing

the oath of supremacy, but remained in Ihe university until

1561. His known opposition to the new learning in religion

giving much offence, he escaped from England and went to

Louvain, where were gathered many students who had left the

English universities for conscience' sake. Here he continued

his theological studies and began to write controversial

treatises. In 1562, on account of health, he returned

secretly to Lancashire and did much, by exhortation and

private meetings, to restrain those Catholics who attended

the new services in order to save their property from

confiscation. His presence being known to the government,

he left Lancashire and retired to the neighbourhood of

Oxford, which he frequently visited, and where he influenced

many of the students. After writing a treatise in defence

of the priestly power to remit sins, he was obliged to

leave and retired to Norfolk, leaving England soon after in

1565. He returned to Flanders, was ordained at Malines, and

began to lecture in theology at the Benedictine college in that

city. In 1567 he went to Rome for the first time, and there

began his plan for establishing a college where English

students could live together and finish their theological

course. The idea subsequently developed into the establishing

of a missionary college, or seminary, to keep up a supply

of priests for England as long as the country remained

separated from the Holy See. With the help of friends,

and notably of the Benedictine abbots of the neighbouring

monasteries, a college was established at Douai (September

29, 1568); and here Allen was joined by many of the English

exiles. This college, the first of the seminaries ordered

by the council of Trent, received the papal approval shortly

after its establishment; the king of Spain took it under his

protection and assigned it an annual grant. Allen continued

his own theological studies and, after taking his doctorate,

became regius professor at the university. Gregory XIII. in

1575 granted him a monthly pension of 100 golden crowns, and,

as the number of students had now risen to one hundred and

twenty, summoned him to Rome to undertake the establishing of

a similar college in the papal city. By Allen's advice, the

old English hospice was turned into a seminary and Jesuits

were placed there to help Dr Maurice Clennock, the rector.

The pope appointed Allen to a canonry in Courtrai and sent

him back to Douai (July 1576); but here he had to face a new

difficulty. Besides the reported plots to assassinate him

by agents of the English government, the insurgents against

Spain, urged on by Elizabeth's emissaries, expelled the

students from Douai as being partisans of the enemy (March

1578). Allen moved his establishment to Reims under the

protection of the house of Guise; and it was here that the

English translation of the Scriptures, known as the Douai

Version, was begun under his direction (see BIBLE, ENGLISH.)

In 1577 he began a correspondence with Robert Parsons (q.v.),

the Jesuit, an intimacy that was fraught with disaster. He was

summoned again to Rome in 1579 to quell the first of the many

disturbances that befell the English college under the Jesuit

influence. Brought now into personal contact with Parsons,

Allen fell completely under the dominating personality of

the redoubtable Jesuit, and gave himself up entirely to his

influence. He arranged that the Society should take over the

English college at Rome and should begin the Jesuit mission

to England (1580). This short-sighted policy was the cause

of much grave trouble in the near future. Returning to

Reims he began to take a part in all the political intrigues

which Parsons' fertile brain had hatched for the promotion

of the Spanish interest in England. Allen's political

career dates from this period. Parsons had already intended

to remove Allen from the seminary at Reims, and for this

purpose, as far back as the 6th of April 1581, had recommended

him to Philip II. to be promoted to the cardinalate. In

furtherance of the intrigues, Allen and Parsons went to Rome

again in 1585 and there Allen was kept for the rest of his

life. In 1587, during the time that he was being skilfully

played with by Philip's agents, he wrote, helped by Parsons,

a shameless defence of a shameful deed. Sir William Stanley,

an English olficer, had surrendered Deventer to the Spaniards;

and Allen wrote a book in defence of Stanley, saying that

all Englishmen were bound, under pain of damnation, to

follow the traitorous example, as Elizabeth was no lawful

queen. He shared in all the projects for the invasion of

England, and was to have been archbishop of Canterbury and

lord chancellor had they succeeded. Representing in reality

only his own party, Allen had on the continent the position

of the head of the Roman Catholics of England; and as such,

just after the death of Mary, queen of Scots, he wrote to

Philip II. (March 19, 1587) to exhort him to undertake the

enterprise against England, and declared that the Catholics

there were clamouring for the king to come and punish ``this

woman, hated by God and man.'' After much negotiation, he

was made cardinal by Sixtus V. on the 7th of August 1587,

nominally to supply the loss of the queen of Scotland, but in

reality to ensure the success of the Armada. On his promotion

Allen wrote to Reims that he owed the hat, under God, to

Parsons. One of his first acts was to issue, under his own

name, two violent works for the purpose of inciting the Catholics

of England to rise against Elizabeth: ``The Declaration of

the Sentence of Sixtus V.'' a broadside, and a book, All

Admonition to the nobility and people of England (Antwerp,

1588). On the failure of the Armada, Philip, to get rid of

the burthen of supporting Allen as a cardinal, nominated him to

the archbishopric of Malines, but the canonical appointment was

never made. Gregory XIV. made him librarian at the Vatican;

and he served on the commission for the revision of the

Vulgate. He took part in four conclaves, but never had any

real influence after the failure of the Armada. Before his

death, which took place in Rome on the 16th of October 1594,

he found reasons to change his mind concerning the wisdom

of the Jesuit politics in Rome and England, and would have

tried to curb their activities, had he been spared. The rift

became so great that ten years after his death, Agazzari could

write to Parsons: ``So long as Allen walked in this matter

(the scheme for England) in union with and fidelity to the

Company, as he used to do, God preserved him, prospered and

exalted him; but when he began to leave this path, in a manner,

the threads of his plans and life were cut short together.''

As a cardinal Allen had lived in poverty and he died in debt.

While we cannot withhold a tribute of respect from Allen for

his zeal and earnestness, and recognize that his foundation

at Douai survives to-day in the two Catholic colleges at

Ushaw and Ware, it is impossible to deny that he injured

the work with which his name will ever be associated, by

his disastrous intercourse with Father Parsons. Known as a

sharer in that plotter's schemes, he gave a reasonable pretext

to Elizabeth's government for regarding the seminaries as

hotbeds of sedition. That they were not so is abundantly

proved. The superiors kept their political actions secret

from the students, and would not allow such matters even to

be talked about or treated as theoretical abstractions in the

schools. Dr Barrett, writing (April 14, 1583) to Parsons,

makes open complaint of Allen's secrecy and refusal to

communicate. How far Allen was really admitted to the full

confidence of Parsons is a question; and his later attitude to

the Society goes to prove that he at last realized that he had

been tricked. Like James II. with Fr. Petre, Allen had been

``bewitched'' for a time and only recovered himself when too late.

AUTHORITIES. -- T. F. Knox, Letters and Memorials of Cardinal

Allen (London, 1882); A. Bellesheim, Wilhelm Cardinal Allen

und die englischen Seminare auf dem Festlande (Mainz, 1885);

First and Second Diaries of the English College, Douai

(London, 1878); Nicholas Fitzherbert, De Antiquitate et

continuatione religionis in Anglia et de Alani Cardinalis vita

libellus (Rome, 1608); E. Taunton, History of the Jesuits

in England (London, 1901); Teulet, vol. v.; the Spanish

State Papers (Simancas), vols. iii. and iv.; a list of

Allen's works is given in J. Gillow, Biographical Dictionary

of English Catholics, vol. i., under his name. (E. TN.)

ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (1830-1889), American classical

scholar, was born at Northborough, Massachusetts, on the 5th

of September 1830. He graduated at Harvard College in 1851 and

subsequently devoted himself almost entirely to literary work and

teaching. In 1867 he became professor of ancient languages

and history (afterwards Latin language and Roman history)

in the university of Wisconsin. He died in December 1889.

His contributions to classical literature chiefly consist of

schoolbooks published in the Allen (his brother) and Greenough

series. The Collection of Slave Songs (1867), of which he was

joint-editor, was the first work of the kind ever published.

ALLEN, BOG OF, the name given to a congeries of morasses

in Kildare, King's County, Queen's County and Westmeath,

Ireland. Clane Bog, the eastern extremity, is within 17 m.

of Dublin, and the morasses extend westward almost to the

Shannon. Their total area is about 238,500 acres. They do

not form one continuous bog, the tract of the country to which

the name is given being intersected by strips of dry cultivated

land. The rivers Brosna, Barrow and Boyne take their rise

in these morasses, and the Grand and Royal canals cross

them. The Bog of Allen has a general elevation of 250 ft.

above sea level, and the average thickness of the peat of which

it consists is 25 ft. It rests on a subsoil of clay and marl.

ALLENSTEIN, a garrison town of Germany, in the province

of East Prussia, on the river Alle, 100 m. by rail N.E. from

Thorn, and 30 m. from the Russian frontier. Pop. (1900)

24,295. It has a medieval castle, several churches, a synagogue

and various industries--iron-foundries, saw-mills, brick-works,

and breweries; also an extensive trade in cereals and timber.

ALLENTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Lehigh county,

Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Lehigh river, about 62 m. N.N.W. of

Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 25,228; (1900) 35,416, of whom

2994 were foreign-born, 1065 being of German birth; (1910)

51,913. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the

Lehigh Valley, the Perkiomen (of the Reading system) and the

Philadelphia & Reading railways. The city is situated on

high ground sloping gently towards the river and commanding

diversified views of the surrounding country. Hamilton

Street, the principal business thoroughfare, extends over

2 m. from E. to W., and in what was once the centre of the

city is Centre Square, in which there is a monument to the

memory of the soldiers and sailors who fell in the Civil War.

Allentown is the seat of a state homoeopathic hospital for the

insane, of the Allentown College for Women (Reformed Church,

1867), and of Muhlenberg College (1867), an Evangelical

Lutheran institution which grew out of the Allentown Seminary

(established in 1848 and incorporated as the ``Allentown

Collegiate Institute and Military Academy'' in 1864); in

1907 the college had 191 students, of whom 109 were in the

Allentown Preparatory School (1904), formerly the academic

department of the college and still closely afliliated with

it. The surrounding country is well adapted to agriculture, and

slate, iron ore, cement rock and limestone are found in the

vicinity. Allentown is an important manufacturing centre, and

the value of its manufactured products increased 90.9% from

1890 to 1900, and of its factory product 13.2% between 1900 and

1905. In 1905 the city ranked sixth among the cities of the

country in the manufacture of silk and silk goods, its most

important industry. Other important manufactures are iron and

steel, slaughtering and meat-packing products, boots and shoes,

cigars, furniture, men's clothing, hosiery and knit goods,

jute and jute goods, linen-thread, malt liquors, brick, cement,

barbed wire, wire nails and planing-mill products. Allentown's

total factory product in 1905 was valued at $16,966,550,

of which $3,901,249, or 23%, was the value of silk and silk

goods. The municipality owns and operates its water-works.

Allentown was first settled in 1751; in 1762 it was laid out

as a town by James Allen, the son of a chief-justice of the

province, in honour of whose family the city is named; in 1811

it was incorporated as a borough and its name was changed to

Northampton; in 1812 it was made the county-seat; in 1838 the

present name was again adopted; and in 1867 the first city

charter was secured. The silk industry was introduced in 1881.

ALLEPPI, or AULAPALAY, a seaport of southern India, in the

state of Travancore, 33 m. south of Cochin, situated on a strip

of coast between the sea and one of those backwaters that here

form the chief means of inland communication. Pop. (1901)

24,918. There is a lighthouse, 85 ft. high, with a revolving

white light visible 18 m. out at sea. Though the third town

in the state in point of population, Alleppi is the first in

commercial importance. It commands a fine harbour, affording

safe anchorage for the greater part of the year. It was

opened to foreign trade towards the latter end of the 18th

century. The exports consist of coffee, pepper, cardamoms and

coco-nuts. There are factories for coir-matting. The raja

has a palace, and Protestant missionaries have a church.

ALLESTREE, or ALLESTRY, RICHARD (1619.-1681), royalist

divine and provost of Eton College, son of Robert Allestree,

and a descendant of an ancient Derbyshire family, was born

at Uppington in Shropshire. He was educated at Coventry

and later at Christ Church, Oxford, under Richard Busby.

He entered as a commoner in 1636, was made student shortly

afterwards, and took the degree of B.A. in 1640 and of M.A. in

1643. In 1642 he took up arms for the king under Sir John

Biron. On the arrival of the parliamentary forces soon

afterwards in Oxford he secreted the Christ Church valuables,

and the soldiers found nothing in the treasury ``except

a single groat and a halter in the bottom of a large iron

chest.'' He escaped severe punishment only by the hasty

retirement of the army from the town. He was present at

the battle of Edgehill in October 1642, after which, while

hastening to Oxford to prepare for the king's visit to Christ

Church, he was captured by a troop of Lord Say's soldiers

from Broughton House, being soon afterwards set free on the

surrender of the place to the king's forces. In 1643 he

was again under arms, performing ``all duties of a common

soldier'' and ``frequently holding his musket in one hand and

his book in the other.'' At the close of the Civil War, he

returned to his studies, took holy orders, was made censor

and became a ``noted tutor.'' But he still remained an ardent

royalist. He voted for the university decree against the

Covenant, and, refusing submission to the parliamentary

visitors in 1648, he was expelled. He found a retreat as

chaplain in the house of the Hon. Francis Newport, afterwards

Viscount Newport, in whose interests he undertook a journey to

France. On his return he joined two of his friends, Dolben

and Fell, afterwards respectively archbishop of York and

bishop of Oxford, then resident at Oxford, and later joined

the household of Sir Antony Cope of Hanwell, near Banbury.

He was now frequently employed in carrying despatches between

the king and the royalists in England. In May 1659 he brought

a command from Charles in Brussels, directing the bishop

of Salisbury to summon all those bishops, who were then

alive, to consecrate clergymen to various sees ``to secure

a continuation of the order in the Church of England,'' then

in danger of becoming extinct.1 While returning from one

of these missions, in the winter before the Restoration, he

was arrested at Dover and committed a prisoner to Lambeth

Palace, then used as a gaol for apprehended royalists, but was

liberated after confinement of a few weeks at the instance,

among others, of Lord Shaftesbury. At the Restoration he

became canon of Christ Church, D.D. and city lecturer at

Oxford. In 1663 he was made chaplain to the king and regius

professor of divinity. In 1665 he was appointed provost of

Eton College, and proved himself a capable administrator.

He introduced order into the disorganized finances of the

college and procured the confirmation of Laud's decree, which

reserved five of the Eton fellowships for members of King's

College. His additions to the college buildings were less

successful; for the ``Upper School,'' constructed by him at

his own expense, was falling into ruin almost in his lifetime,

and was replaced by the present structure in 1689. Allestree

died on the 28th of January 1681, and was buried in the chapel

at Eton College, where there is a Latin inscription to his

memory. His writings are:--The Privileges of the Universily

of Oxford in point of Visitation (1647)--a tract answered

by Prynne in the University of Oxford's Plea Rejected; 18

sermons whereof 15 preached before the king . . . (1669);

40 sermons whereof 21 are now first published . . . (2

vols., 1684); sermons published separately including A

Sermon on Acts xiii. 2, (1660); A Paraphrase and Annotations

upon all the Epistles of St Paul (joint author with Abraham

Woodhead and Obadiah Walker, 1675, see edition of 1853 and

preface by W. Jacobson). In the Cases of Conscience by

J. Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (1692), Allestree's judgment

on Mr Cottington's Case of Divorce is included. A share

in the composition, if not the sole authorship, of the

books published under the name of the author of the Whole

Duty of Man has been attributed to Allestree (Nichols's

Anecdotes, ii. 603), and the tendency of modern criticism

is to regard him as the author. His lectures, with which he

was dissatisfied, were not published. Allestree was a man of

extensive learning, of moderate views and a fine preacher.

He was generous and charitable, of ``a solid and masculine

kindness,'' and of a temper hot, but completely under control.

AUTHORITIES.---Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (edited by

Bliss), iii. 1269; W.ood's Fasti, i. 480, 514, ii. 57,

241, 370; Richard Allestree, 40 sermons, with biographical

preface by Dr John Fell (2 vols., 1684); Sufferings of the

Clergy, by John Walker; Architectural History of Eton and

Cambridge, by R. Willis, i. 420; Hist. of Eton College,

by Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte; Hist. of Eton College, by Lionel

Cust (1899); Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2807 f. 197 b. For

Allestree's authorship of the Whole Duty of Man, see Rev. F.

Barham, Journal of Sacred Literature, July 1864, and C. E.

Doble's articles in the Academy, November 1884. (P. C. Y.)

1 Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2807 f. 197 b; Li/e of Dr John

Barwick, ed. by G. F. Barwick (1903), pp. 107, 129, 134.

ALLEY (from the Fr: allee, a walk), a narrow passageway

between two buildings available only for foot passengers or

hand-carts, sometimes entered only at one end and known as a

``blind alley,'' or cul-de-sac. The name is also given to

the long narrow enclosures where bowls or skittles are played.

ALLEYN, EDWARD (1566-1626), English actor and founder of

Dulwich College, was born in London on the 1st of September

1566, the son of an innkeeper. It is not known at what date

he began to act, but he certainly gained distinction in his

calling while a young man, for in 1586 his name was on the

list of the earl of Worcester's players, and he was eventually

rated by common consent as the foremost actor of his time.

Ben Jonson, a critic little prone to exalt the merits of men

of mark among his contemporaries, bestowed unstinted praise

on Alleyn's acting (Epigrams, No. 89). Nash expresses in

prose, in Pierce Penniless, his admiration of him, while

Heywood calls him ``inimitable,'' ``the best of actors,''

``Proteus for shapes and Roscius for a tongue.'' Alleyn

inherited house property in Bishopsgate from his father.

His marriage on the 22nd of October 1592 with Joan Woodward,

stepdaughter of Philip Henslowe, brought him eventually more

wealth. He became part owner in Henslowe's ventures, and

in the end sole proprietor of several play-houses and other

profitable pleasure resorts. Among these were the Rose Theatre

at Bankside, the Paris Garden and the Fortune Theatre in St

Luke's--the latter occupied by the earl of Nottingham's company,

of which Alleyn was the head. He filled, too, in conjunction

with Henslowe, the post of ``master of the king's games of

bears, bulls and dogs.'' On some occasions he directed the

sport in person, and Stow in his Chronicles gives an account

of how Alleyn baited a lion before James I. at the Tower.

Alleyn's connexion with Dulwich began in 1605, when he bought

the manor of Dulwich from Sir Francis Cation. The landed

property, of which the entire estate had not passed into Alleyn's

hands earlier than 1614, stretched from the crest of that

range of Surrey hills on whose summit now stands the Crystal

Palace, to the crest of the parallel ridge, three miles nearer

London, known in its several portions as Herne Hill, Denmark

Hill and Champion Hill. Alleyn acquired this large property for

little more than L. 10,000. He had barely got full possession,

however, before the question how to dispose of it began to occupy

him. He was still childless, after twenty years of wedded

life. Then it was that the prosperous player--the man ``so

acting to the life that he made any part to become him'' (Fuller,

Worthies)--began the task of building and endowing in his

own lifetime the College of God's Gift at Dulwich. All was

completed in 1617 except the charter or deed of incorporation

for setting his lands in mortmain. Tedious delays occurred

in the Star Chamber, where Lord Chancellor Bacon was scheming

to bring the pressure of kingly authority to bear on Alleyn

with the aim of securing a large portion of the proposed

endowment for the maintenance of lectureships at Oxford and

Cambridge. Alleyn finally carried his point and the College

of God's Gift at Dulwich was founded, and endowed under letters

patent of James I., dated the 21st of June 1619. The building

had been already begun in 1613 (see DULWICH.) Alleyn was

never a member of his own foundation, but he continued to

the close of his life to guide and control its affairs under

powers reserved to himself in the letters patent. His diary

shows that he mixed much and intimately in the life of the

college. Many of the jottings in that curious record of daily

doings and incidents favour the inference that he was a genial,

kind, amiable and religious man. His fondness for his old

profession is indicated by the fact that he engaged the boys

in occasional theatrical performances. At a festive gathering

on the 6th of January 1622 ``the boyes play'd a playe.''

Alleyn's first wife died in 1623. The same year he married

Constance, daughter of John Donne, the poet and dean of St

Paul's. Alleyn died in November 1626 and was buried in the

chapel of the college which he had founded. His gravestone

fixes the day of his death as the 21st, but there are

grounds for the belief that it was the 25th. A portrait of

the actor is preserved at Dulwich. Alleyn was a member of

the corporation of wardens of St Saviour's, Southwark, in

1610, and there is a memorial window to him in the cathedral.

ALL FOURS, a card game (known also in America as Seven

Up, Old Sledge or High-Low-Jack) usually played by two

players, though four may play. A full pack is used and

each player receives seven counters. Four points can be

scored, one each for high, the highest trump out, for

low, the lowest trump dealt, for Jack, the knave of

trumps, and for game, the majority of pips in the cards

of the tricks that a player has won. Ace counts 4, King 3,

Queen 2, Knave 1, and ten 10 points. Low is scored by the

person to whom it is dealt; High of course wins a trick;

Jack is scored by the player who finally has it among his

tricks. If Jack is turned up the dealer scores the point.

A player who plays a high or low trump is entitled to ask if

they are High or Low. The game is 10 or 11 points. Six

cards are dealt to each, the thirteenth being turned up for

trumps. The non-dealer may propose or beg if he does not

like his hand. If the dealer refuses the elder hand scores

a point; if he consents he gives and takes three more cards,

the seventh being turned up for trumps, which must be of a

different suit from the original trump card; otherwise six

more cards are dealt out, and so on till a fresh trump suit

appears. The non-dealer then leads; the other must trump or

follow suit, or forfeit a point. Jack may be played to any

trick. Each pair of cards is a trick, and is collected by the

winner. A fresh deal may be claimed if the dealer exposes

one of his adversary's cards, or if he gives himself or his

adversary too few or too many. In that case the error must be

discovered before a card is played (see also AUCTION PITCH.)

ALLIA (mod. Fosso Bettinia), a small tributary of the

river Tiber, joining it on the left (east) bank, about 11

m. N. of Rome. It gave its name to the terrible defeat which

the Romans suffered at the hands of the Gauls on the 18th of

July 390 B.C. Livy (v. 37) and Diodorus (v. 114) differ with

regard to the site of the battle, the former putting it on the

left, the latter on the right bank of the Tiber. Mommsen and

others support Diodorus, but the question still remains open.

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 24.

ALLIANCE, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U. S. A., on the

Mahoning river, about 57 m. S.E. of Cleveland, about 1080

ft. above the sea, and about 505 ft. above the level of Lake

Erie. Pop. (1890) 7607; (1900) 8974, of whom 1029 were

foreign-born: (1906, estimate) 9796. It is served by the

Pennsylvania and the Lake Erie, Alliance & Wheeling railways,

and by an electric line connecting with Canton and Salem. The

city is the seat of Mount Union College (Methodist Episcopal),

opened in 1846 as a preparatory school and having in 1907

a library of about 10,000 volumes, a collegiate department

(opened in 1858), a normal department (1858), a school of

music (1855), a commercial school (1868), a faculty of 29

teachers, and an enrolment of 524 students, of whom 274 were

women. Among the manufactures of Alliance are structural

iron, steel castings, pressed sheet steel, gun carriages,

boilers, travelling cranes, pipe organs, street-car indicators,

sashes and doors, and account registers and other material

for file and cabinet-bookkeeping. The municipality owns

and operates its water-works. Alliance was first settled in

1838, when it was laid out as a town and was named Freedom;

it was named Alliance in 1851, was incorporated as a village

in 1854, and became a city of the second class in 1888.

ALLIANCE, in international law, a league between independent

states, defined by treaty, for the purpose of combined action,

defensive or offensive, or both. Alliances have usually

been directed to specific objects carefully defined in the

treaties. Thus the Triple Alliance of 1688 between Great

Britain, Sweden and the Netherlands, and the Grand Alliance

of 1689 between the emperor, Holland, England, Spain and

Saxony, were both directed against the power of Louis XIV.

The Quadruple or Grand Alliance of 1814, defined in the

treaty of Chaumont, between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and

Prussia, had for its object the overthrow of Napoleon and his

dynasty, and the confining of France within her traditional

boundaries. The Triple Alliance of 1882 between Germany,

Austria and Italy was ostensibly directed to the preservation

of European peace against any possible aggressive action

of France or Russia; and this led in turn, some ten years

later, to the Dual Alliance between Russia and France, for

mutual support in case of any hostile action of the other

powers. Occasionally, however, attempts have been made to

give alliances a more general character. Thus the ``Holy

Alliance'' (q.v.) of the 26th of September 1815 was an

attempt, inspired by the religious idealism of the emperor

Alexander I. of Russia, to find in the ``sacred precepts of the

Gospel'' a common basis for a general league of the European

governments, its object being, primarily, the preservation of

peace. So, too, by Article VI. of the Quadruple Treaty signed

at Paris on the 20th of November 1815--which renewed that of

Chaumont and was again renewed, in 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle--the

scope of the Grand Alliance was extended to objects of common

interest not specifically defined in the treaties. The article

runs:--``In order to consolidate the intimate tie which unites

the four sovereigns for the happiness of the world, the High

Contracting Powers have agreed to renew at fixed intervals,

either under their own auspices or by their respective

ministers, meetings consecrated to great common objects and to

the examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs

shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of

the nations and the maintenance of the tranquillity of Europe.''

It was this article of the treaty of the 20th of November

1815, rather than the ``Holy Alliance,'' that formed the basis

of the serious effort made by the great powers, between 1815

and 1822, to govern Europe in concert, which will be found

outlined in the article on the history of Europe. In general

it proved that an alliance, to be effective, must be clearly

defined as to its objects, and that in the long run the treaty

in which these objects are defined must---to quote Bismarck's

somewhat cynical dictum --``be reinforced by the interests''

of the parties concerned. Yet the ``moral alliance'' of

Europe, as Count Nesselrode called it, though it failed to

secure the permanent harmony of the powers, was an effective

instrument for peace during the years immediately following

the downfall of Napoleon; and it set the precedent for those

periodical meetings of the representatives of the powers, for

the discussion and settlement of questions of international

importance, which, though cumbrous and inefficient for

constructive work, have contributed much to the preservation

of the general peace (see EUROPE: History.) (W. A. P.)

ALLIARIA OFFICINALIS, also known botanically as Sisymbrium

Alliaria, and popularly as garlic-mustard, Jack-by-the-hedge, or

sauce-alone, a common hedge-bank plant belonging to the natural order

Cruciferae. It is a rankly scented herb, 2 to 3 ft. high, with

long-stalked, coarsely-toothed leaves, and small white flowers

which are succeeded by stout long four-sided pods. It is widely

spread through the north temperate region of the Old World.

ALLIBONE, SAMUEL AUSTIN (1816-1889), American author and

bibliographer, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the

17th of April 1816, of French Huguenot and Quaker ancestry.

He was privately educated and for many years was engaged in

mercantile business in his native city. He, however, devoted

himself chiefly to reading and to bibliographical research;

acquired a very unusual knowledge of English and American

literature, and is remembered as the compiler of the well-known

Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and

American Authors (3 vols.: vol. i. 1854, vols. ii. and iii.

1871). To this, two supplementary volumes, edited by John

Foster Kirk, were added in 1891. From 1867 to 1873, and

again in 1877-1879, Allibone was book editor and corresponding

secretary of the American Sunday School Union; and from

1879 to 1888 he was librarian of the Lenox Library, New York

City. He died at Lucerne, Switzerland, on the 2nd of September

1889. In addition to his Critical Dictionary he published

three large anthologies and several religious tracts.

See the ``Memoir'' by S. D. M`Connell, an address delivered before

the Historical Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1890).

ALLIER (anc. Elaver), a river of central France flowing

into the Loire. It rises in the department of Lozere, among

the Margeride mountains, a few miles east of the town of

Mende. The upper course of the Allier separates the mountains

of the Margeride from those of the Velay and lies for the most

part through deep gorges. The river then traverses the plains

of Langeac and Brioude, and receives the waters of the Alagnon

some miles above the town of Issoire. Swelled by torrents

from the mountains of Dore and Dome, it unites with the river

Dore at its entrance to the department to which it gives its

name. It then flows through a wide but shallow channel, joining

the Sioule some distance above Moulins, the chief town on its

banks. It soon after becomes the boundary line between the

departments of Cher and Nievre, and reaches the Loire 4 m.

west of Nevers, after a course of 269 m. Its basin has an

area of 6755 sq. m. The Allier is classed as navigable for the

last 154 m. of its course, but there is little traffic on it.

ALLIER, a department of central France, formed in 1790

from the old province of Bourbonnais. Pop. (1906) 417,961.

Area, 2849 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of

Nievre, E. by Saone-et-Loire, from which it is divided by

the river Loire, S.E. by Loire, S. by Puy-de-Dome, S.W. by

Crouse and N.W. by Cher. Situated on the northern border

of the Central Plateau, the department slopes from south to

north. Its highest altitudes are found in the south-east,

in the Bois-Noirs, where one point reaches 4239 ft., and in

the Monts de la Madeleine. Plains alternating with forests

occupy the northern zone of the department, while the central

and western regions form an undulating and well-watered

plateau. Entering the department in the south, and, like the

other chief rivers, flowing almost due north, the Allier drains

the central district, receiving on its left the Sioule. East

of the Allier is the Bebre, which joins the Loire within the

limits of the department; and on the west the Cher, with its

tributary the Aumance. Rigorous and rainy in the south-east,

the climate elsewhere is milder though subject to sudden

variations. Agriculturally the department is flourishing,

the valleys of the Allier and the Sioule known as the Limagne

Bourbonnaise comprising its most fertile portion. Wheat, oats,

barley and other cereals are grown and exported, and owing to

the abundance of pasture and forage, sheep and cattle-rearing

are actively carried on. Potatoes and mangels yield good

crops. Wines of fair quality are grown in the valley of the

Sioule; walnuts, chestnuts, plums, apples and pears are principal

fruits. Goats, from the milk of which choice cheese is

made, and pigs are plentiful. A large area is under forests,

the oak, beech, fir, birch and hornbeam being the principal

trees. The mineral waters at Vichy (q.v.), Neris,

Theneuille, Cusset and Bourbon l'Archambault are in much

repute. The mineral wealth of the department is considerable,

including coal as well as manganese and bituminous schist;

plaster, building stone and hydraulic lime are also

produced. Manufactories of porcelain, glass and earthenware

are numerous. Montlucon and Commentry are ironworking

centres. There are flour mills, breweries and saw-mills; and

paper, chemicals, wooden shoes, wool and woollen goods are

produced. Besides the products of the soil Allier exports

coal, mineral waters and cattle for the Paris market. Building

materials, brandy and coal are among the imports. The railways

belong chiefly to the Orleans and Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean

companies. The lateral canal of the Loire, the Berry Canal and

the canal from Roanne to Digoin together traverse about 57 m.

in the department. Allier is divided into the arrondissements

of Moulins, Gannat, Lapalisse and Montlucon (29 cantons, 321

communes). It forms the diocese of Moulins and part of the

ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and falls within the

academie (educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand and the

region of the XIII. army-corps. Its court of appeal is at

Riom. Moulins, the capital, Montlucon and Vichy, are the

principal towns. Souvigny possesses the church of a famous

Cluniac priory dating from the 1ith-12th and 15th centuries,

and containing the splendid tombs (15th century) of Louis

II. and Charles I. of Bourbon. At St Menoux, Ebreuil and

Gannat there are fine Romanesque churches. Huriel has a

church of the 11th century and a well-preserved keep, the

chief survival of a medieval castle. St Pourcain-sur-Sioule

has a large church, dating from the 11th to the 18th

centuries. The castle of Bourbon l'Archambault, which

belonged to the dukes of Bourbon, dates from the 13th and 15th

centuries. The Romanesque churches of Veauce and Ygrande,

and the chateaus of Veauce and Lapalisse, are also of

interest, the latter belonging to the family of Chabannes.

ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903), English historical

writer, was born at Midsomer Norton, near Bristol, on the

12th of February 1813. He was educated at Eton and at

Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in

1833. In 1840 Bishop Blomfield of London appointed him his

examining chaplain and presented him to the rectory of Launton,

Oxfordshire, which he resigned in 1850 on becoming a Roman

Catholic. Allies was appointed secretary to the Catholic poor

school committee in 1853, a position which he occupied till

1890. He died in London on the 17th of June 1903. Allies

was one of the ablest of the English churchmen who joined the

Church of Rome in the early period of the Oxford movement, his

chief work, The Formation of Christendom (London, 8 vols.,

1865-1895) showing much originality of thought and historical

knowledge. His other writings: St Peter, his Name and Office

(1852); The See of St Peter, the Rock of the Church (1850);

Per Crucem ad Lucem (2 vols., 1879), have gone through

many editions and been translated into several languages.

See his autobiography, A Life's Decision (1880); and the study of

his daughier, Mary H. Allies, Thomas Allies, the Story of a Mind

(London, 1906), which contains a full bibliography of his works.

ALLIFAE (mod. Alife), a town of the Samnites, 15

m. N.W. of Telesia, and 17 m. E.N.E. of Teanum. The

site of the Samnite city, which in the 4th century B.C.

had a coinage of its own, is not known; the Roman town

lay in the valley of the Vulturnus, and its walls (4th

century) enclose a circuit of 1 1/2 m., in which are preserved

remains of large baths ( Thermae Herculis) and a theatre.

ALLIGATOR (Spanish el lagarto, ``the lizard''), an animal

so closely allied to the crocodile that some naturalists

have classed them together as forming one genus. It differs

from the true crocodile principally in having the head

broader and shorter, and the snout more obtuse; in having

the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not

into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within

the upper one; in wanting a jagged fringe which appears on

the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; and in having the

toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the

tips. Alligators proper occur in the fluviatile deposits of

the age of the Upper Chalk in Europe, where they did not die

out until the Pliocene age; they are now restricted to two

species, A. mississippiensis or lucius in the southern

states of North America up to 12 ft. in length, and the small

A. sinensis in the Yang-tse-kiang. In Central and South

America alligators are represented by five species of the genus

Caiman, which differs from Alligator by the absence of a

bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is

composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed

of two parts united by a suture. C. sclerops, the spectacled

alligator, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico

to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a bulky

size. The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length of

20 ft., is the C. niger, the jacare-assu or large caiman

of the Amazons. The names ``alligator'' and ``crocodile''

are often confounded in popular speech; and the structure

and habits of the two animals are so similar that both are

most conveniently considered under the heading CROCODILE.

ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM (1824-1889), Irish man of letters and

poet, was born at Ballyshannon, Donegal, on the 19th of

March 1824 (or 1828, according to some authorities), and was

the son of the manager of a local bank. He obtained a post

in the custom-house of his native town and filled several

similar situations in Ireland and England until 1870, when

he had retired from the service, and became sub-editor of

Fraser's Magazine, which he edited from 1874 to 1879. He

had published a volume of Poems in 1850, followed by Day

and Night Songs, a volume containing many charming lyrics, in

1855. Allingham was on terms of close friendship with D. G.

Rossetti, who contributed to the illustration of the Songs.

His Letters to Allingham (1854-1870) were edited by Dr

Birkbeck Hill in 1897. Lawrence Bloomfield, a narrative

poem illustrative of Irish social questions, appeared in

1864. Allingham married in 1874 Helen Paterson, known under

her married name as a water-colour painter. He died at

Hampstead on the 18th of November 1889. Though working on

an unostentatious scale, Allingham produced much excellent

lyrical and descriptive poetry, and the best of his pieces

are thoroughly national in spirit and local colouring.

William Allingham: a Diary (1907), edited by Mrs Allingham

and D. Radford, contains many interesting reminiscences

of Tennyson, Carlyle and other famous contemporaries.

ALLISON, WILLIAM BOYD (1829-1908), American legislator, was

born at Perry, Ohio, on the 2nd of March 1829. Educated at

Allegheny and Western Reserve Colleges, he studied law, and

practised in Ohio until 1857. In that year he settled in

Dubuque, Iowa, where he took a prominent part in Republican

politics; and in 1860 he was a delegate to the national

convention at Chicago which nominated Abraham Lincoln for the

presidency. In 1861 he was appointed a member of the staff

of Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood (1813-1894), and was of great

service in the work of equipping and organizing the Iowa

volunteers. From 1863 until 1871 he served with distinction

in the House of Representatives; in 1873 he was elected to the

United States Senate, and re-elected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896 and

1902. Here he became one of the highest authorities on questions

connected with finance, and from 1877 he was a member of the

Senate committee on finance. In 1881-1893, and again from

1895, he was chairman of the committee on appropriations, in

which position he had great influence. He declined offers of

the secretaryship of the treasury made to him by Presidents

Garfield and Harrison. He was a prominent candidate for the

presidential nomination in the Republican national conventions

of 1888 and 1896. In 1892 he was chairman of the American

delegation to the International Monetary Conference at

Brussels. He died at Dubuque, Iowa, on the 4th of August 1908.

ALLITERATION (from Lat. ad, to, and littera, letter), the

commencing of two or more words, in close juxtaposition, with

the same sound. As Milton defined rhyme to be ``the jingling

sound of like endings,'' so alliteration is the jingle of like

beginnings. All language has a tendency to jingle in both

ways, even in prose. Thus in prose we speak of ``near and

dear,'' ``high and dry,'' ``health and wealth.'' But the

initial form of jingle is much more common--``safe and sound,''

``thick and thin,'' ``weal or woe,'' ``fair or foul,'' ``spick

and span,'' ``fish, flesh, or fowl,'' ``kith and kin.'' The

poets of nearly all times and tongues have not been slow

to seize upon the emphasis which could thus be produced.

Although mainly Germanic in its character, alliteration

was known to the Latins, especially in early times, and

Cicero blames Ennius for writing ``O Tite tute, Tati,

tibi tanta, tyranne, tulisti.'' Lucretius did not disdain

to employ it as an ornament. We read in Shakespeare:--

``Full fathom five thy father lies:

Of his bones are corals made.''

In Pope:--

``Here files of pins extend their shining rows,

Puffs, powders, patches, bibles, billet-doux.',

In Gray:--

``Weave the warp and weave the woof,

The winding-sheet of Edward's race.''

In Coleridge:-

``The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,

The furrow followed free:

We were the first that ever burst

Into that silent sea.''

Churchill describes himself, in his Prophecy of Famine, as one

``Who often, but without success, had prayed

For apt alliteration's artful aid,''--

an example which is itself a proof of his failure; for

alliteration is never effective unless it runs upon consonants.

As thus far considered, alliteration is a device wholly

dependent on the poet's fancy. He may use it or not, or

use it much or little, at his pleasure. But there is an

extensive range of Teutonic poetry whose metrical laws

are entirely based on alliteration. This, for example, is

the principle on which Icelandic verse is founded; and we

have a yet nearer interest in it, because it furnishes the

key to Anglo-Saxon and a large portion of early English

verse. For a specimen take the following lines, the spelling

modernized, from the beginning of Piers the Plowman:--

``But in a May morning | on Malvern hills,

Me befel a ferly | of fairy methought;

I was weary of wandering | and went me to rest

Under a broad bank | by a burn-side;

And as I lay and leaned | and looked on the waters,

I slumbered in a sleeping | it sounded so merry.''

The rule of this verse is indifferent as to the number of

syllables it may contain, but imperative as to the number of

accented ones. The line is divided in the middle by a pause,

and each half ought to contain two accented syllables. Of

the four accented syllables, the first three should begin with

the same letter; the fourth is free and may start with any

letter. Those who wish for a more minute analysis of the

laws of alliterative verse, as practised by the Anglo-Saxon

and early English poets, may consult an exhaustive essay

on the subject by Professor W. W. Skeat, prefixed to vol.

iii. of Bishop Percy's Folio Manuscript; only the reader

must be on his guard against an error which pervades it,

and which this able writer seems to have derived from Rask.

The question arises--What is the nature of the cadence in

alliterative verse? Now all metrical movement is of two kinds,

according as the beat or emphasis begins the movement or ends

it. If the beat is initial, we say in classical language that

the movement is trochaic or dactylic, according to the number

of its syllables; and if the beat is final, we in like manner

say that the movement is iambic or anapaestic. Skeat and many

others object with some reason to use the classical terms,

and therefore brushing them aside, let us put the question

in the simplest form--Has the movement of alliterative verse

got the initial or the final beat? In the middle of the 18th

century Bishop Percy decided this question with sufficient

accuracy, though he mixed up his statement with a blunder

which it is not easy to account for. He points out how the

poets began to introduce rhyme into alliterative verse, until

at length rhyme came to predominate over alliteration, and

``thus was this kind of metre at length swallowed up and lost

in the common burlesque Alexandrine or anapaestic verse, as

``A cobbler there was, and he lived in a stall.''

Percy made a serious mistake when he gave the name of Alexandrine

to anapaestic verse; but he is quite right in his general

statement that alliterative verse became lost in a measure

the movement of which had the final beat. Conybeare has

stated the fact still more accurately. ``In the Saxon poetry

a trochaic character is predominant. In Piers the Plowman

there is a prevailing tendency to an anapaestic cadence.''

It is the result of a change in the language--the loss of

inflexion. Take the word man. The genitive in Saxon would

be mannes, a trochee; in English, of man, an iambus.

The tendency of the language was thus to pass from a metrical

movement, in which the beat was initial, to one in which it was

final. It may therefore be quite right to speak of Anglo-Saxon

alliterative poetry as trochaic or dactylic, and quite wrong to

apply the same terms to the cadence of our later alliterative

verse. And this is precisely the error into which Skeat has

fallen. He says--``Lines do not always begin with a loud

syllable, but often one or two and sometimes (in early English

especially) even three soft syllables precede it. These

syllables are necessary to the sense, but not to the scanision

of the line.'' That is just the point at issue. By leaving

out of account the light syllable or syllables at the beginning

of a line, and taking his start from the first syllable that

has the alliterative beat, Skeat may certainly prove that

all the later alliterative poetry has a movement of initial

beat. But English ears will not submit to this rule. It is

those light syllables of no account which have altered the rhythm

of English descant from one of initial to one of final beat.

ALLIUM (Lat. for ``garlic''), a genus of plants, natural order

Liliaceae, with about 250 species (seven of which occur in

Britain), found in Central and South Europe, North Africa, the

dry country of West and Central Asia, and North and Central

America. The plants are bulbous herbs, with flat or rounded

radical leaves, and a central naked or leafy stem, bearing a

head or umbel of small flowers, with a spreading or bell-shaped

white, pink, red, yellow or blue perianth. Several species

afford useful foods, such as onion (Allium Cepa), leek (A.

Porrum), shallot or eschallot (A. ascalonicum), garlic (A.

sativum), and chives (A. schoenoprasum.) A few species are

cultivated as border plants; such are A. Moly, an old garden

plant with bright yellow flowers, and A. neapolitanum, the

well-known white-flowered species, both natives of southern Europe.

ALLIX, PIERRE (1641-1717), French Protestant divine, was born at

Alencon. He was pastor first at St Agobile in Champagne, and

then at Charenton, near Paris. The revocation of the edict of

Nantes in 1685 compelled him to take refuge in London, where,

under the sanction of James II., he opened a church for the French

exiles. His reputation for learning was such as to obtain for

him, soon after his arrival, the degree of doctor of divinity

from both universities, and in 1690 he received from Bishop

Burnet the more substantial honour of the treasurership and

a canonry in Salisbury Cathedral. He died at London in March

1717. The works of Allix, which are numerous, are chiefly of

a controversial and apologetic character, and must be used with

caution. In opposition to Bossuet he published Some Remarks

upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches

of Piedmont (1690), and Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical

History of the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses (1692),

with the idea of showing that the Albigenses were not

Manichaeans, but historically identical with the Waldenses.

ALLMAN, GEORGE JAMES (1812-!898), British biologist, was born

in Cork, Ireland, in 1812, and received his early education at

the Royal Academical Institution, Belfast. For some time he

studied for the Irish bar, but ultimately gave up law in favour

of natural science. In 1843 he graduated in medicine at Dublin,

and in the following year was appointed professor of botany

in that university, succeeding his namesake, William Allman

(1776-1846). This position he held for about twelve years

until he removed to Edinburgh as regius professor of natural

history. There he remained till 1870, when considerations of

health induced him to resign his professorship and retire to

Dorsetshire, where he devoted himself to his favourite pastime of

horticulture. The scientific papers which came from his pen are

very numerous. His most important work was upon the gymnoblastic

hydrozoa, on which he published in 1871-1872, through the Ray

Society, an exhaustive monograph, based largely on his own

researches and illustrated with drawings of remarkable excellence

from his own hand. Biological science is also indebted to

him for several convenient terms which have come into daily

use, e.g. endoderm and ectoderm for the two cellular

layers of the body-wall in Coelenterata. He became a fellow

of the Royal Society in 1854, and received a Royal medal in

1873. For several years he occupied the presidential chair

of the Linnaean society, and in 1879 he presided over the

Sheffield meeting of the British Association. He died

on the 24th of November 1898 at Parkstone, Dorsetshire.

ALLOA, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of

Clackmannanshire, Scotland. It is situated on the north

bank of the Forth, 32 m. from Edinburgh by the North British

railway via the Forth Bridge, and 28 m. from Leith by

steamer. Pop. (1891) 12,643; (1901) 14,458. The Caledonian

railway enters the town from the south-west by a bridge

across the river, and also owns a ferry to South Alloa, on the

opposite shore, in Stirlingshire. Between Alloa and Stirling

the stream forms the famous ``links,'' the course being so

sinuous that whereas by road the two towns are but 6 1/2 m.

apart, the distance between them by river is nearly 12 m.

For its size and population the town enjoys unusual prosperity,

in consequence of its several flourishing industries. Its

manufactures of yarn are on the largest scale, the spinning

mills often working night and day for many months together.

There are also numerous breweries, and Alloa ale has always

been famous. The great distillery at Carsebridge yields an

immense supply of yeast as well as whisky. Other thriving

trades include the glass-works on the shore, pottery-works in

the ``auld toon,'' dye-works and a factory for the making of

electrical appliances. There is a good deal of shipbuilding,

some ironfounding and a brass foundry. The chief article of

export is coal from the neighbouring collieries, the other

leading exports being ale, whisky, glass and manufactured

goods. The imports comprise timber, grain, iron, linseed and

flax. The docks, accessible only at high water, include a

wet basin and a dry dock. Amongst the principal buildings

are the fine Gothic parish church, with a spire 200 ft. high;

the town hall, including the free public library, from designs

by Alfred Waterhouse, R.A., the gift of Mr J. Thomson Paton;

the county and municipal buildings; handsome public baths and

gymnasium, presented to the town by Mr David Thomson; the

accident hospital; the fever hospital; the museum of the

Natural Science and Archaeological Society; the academy,

the burgh school and a secondary school with the finest

technical equipment in Scotland, given by Mr A. Forrester

Paton. There is a public park, besides bowling-greens and

cricket and football fields. The old burying-ground was the

kirkyard of the former parish church, the tower of which still

exists, but a modern cemetery has been formed in Sunnyside.

The town owns the water-supply, gas-works and electric-lighting.

Alloa Park, the seat of the earl of Mar and Kellie, is in the

immediate vicinity, and in its grounds stand the ruins of Alloa

Tower, an ancient structure 89 ft. high, with walls 11 ft.

thick, which was built about 1315, and was once the residence

of the powerful family of Erskine, descendants of the earl of

Mar. The earl who promoted the Jacobite rising in 1715 was born

here. Many of the Scots princes received their education

as wards of the Lords Erskine and the earls of Mar, the last

to be thus educated being Henry, the eldest son of James VI.

ALLOBROGES (in Gr. usually 'Allobriges), a Celtic tribe

in the north of Gallia Narbonensis, inhabiting the low ground

called the ``island'' between the Rhodanus, the Isara and

the Graian Alps, corresponding to the modern Dauphine and

Savoy. If the name is rightly interpreted as meaning

``aliens,'' they would seem to have driven out the original

inhabitants. Their chief towns were Vienna (Vienne),

Genava (Geneva) and Cularo (afterwards Gratianopolis, whence

Grenoble). The Allobroges first occur in history as taking

part with Hannibal in the invasion of Italy. After the

subjugation of the Salluvii (Salyes) by the Romans in 123

B.C., having given shelter to their king Tutomotulus and

refused to surrender him, the Allobroges were attacked and

finally defeated (August 8, 121) at the junction of the Rhodanus

and Isara by Q. Fabius Maximus (afterwards Allobrogicus). But

they still remained hostile to Rome, as is shown by the conduct

of their ambassadors in the Catilinarian conspiracy (63; see

CATILINE); two years later a revolt under Catugnatus was

put down by Gaius Pomptinus at Solonium. Under Augustus they

were included in Gallia Narbonensis; later, in the Viennensis.

See A. Desjardins, Geographie historique de la Gaule romaine,

ii. (1876-1893); . E. Herzog, Galliae Narbonensis Historia

(Leipzig, 1864); Mommsen, Hist. of Rome (Eng. trans.). bk.

iii. ch. 4, iv. ch. 5; T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of

Gaul (1899): G. Long in Smith's Dict. of Greek anid Roman

Geography: M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie,

i. 2 (1894); A. Holder, Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz;

and bibliography in La grande encyclopedie (s.v.).

ALLOCATUR (from med. Lat. allocatur, it is allowed),

in law, a certificate given by a taxing master, at the

termination of an action, for the allowance of costs.

ALLOCUTION (Lat. allocutio, an address), a name given to the

formal addresses made by the pope to the College of Cardinals

and through them to the church generally. They are usually

called forth by ecclesiastical or political circumstances,

and aim at safeguarding papal principles and claims. They are

published by being affixed to the door of St Peter's Church.

ALLODIUM, or ALODIUM, a legal term for lands which are

the absolute property of their owner, and not subject to

any service or acknowledgment to a superior. It is thus

the opposite of fe-odum or fief. The proper derivation

of the word has been much discussed and is still doubtful,

though it is probably compounded of all, whole or entire,

and odh, property. Allodial tenure seems to have been

common throughout northern Europe. It exists in Orkney and

Shetland, but is unknown in England, the feudal system

having been made universal by William the Conqueror.

ALLOMEROUS (Gr. allos, other meros, part), the quality

of bodies (e.g. mineral) by virtue of which they can change

their elements and proportions while preserving their form.

ALLON, HENRY (1818-1892), English Nonconformist divine,

was born on the 13th of October 1818 at Welton near Hull in

Yorkshire. Under Methodist influence he decided to enter the

ministry, but, developing Congregational ideas, was trained

at Cheshunt College. In 1844 he became co-pastor with the

Rev. Thomas Lewis of Union Chapel, Islington. In 1852,

on the death of Lewis, Allon became sole pastor, and this

position he held with increasing influence till his death in

1892. Union Chapel, originally founded by evangelical

members of the Church of England and Nonconformists acting

in harmony, became during Anon's co-pastorate definitely

Congregational in principle and fellowship, and exercised an

ever-expanding influence. His chief service to Nonconformity

was in connexion with the improvement of congregational

worship, and especially the service of praise. In 1852

Dr. H. J. Gauntlett became organist at Union of this class,

Allon published the original edition of his well-known

Congregational Psalmist. For many years his collection of

hymns, chants and anthems was used in hundreds of churches

throughout England. In 1860 Allon began to write, at first

chiefly for the Patriot, then under the editorship of T. C.

Turbeville. In 1864, at the age of forty-five, he was elected

chairman of the Congregational Union, and in 1866 he undertook

the editorship of the British Quarterly Review with H. R.

Reynolds, the principal of Cheshunt. In 1877 he became sole

editor, and in that capacity came into touch with such men

as W. E. Gladstone, Matthew Arnold, F. D. Maurice and Dean

Stanley. The magazine was discontinued in 1886. In 1871

he received the degree of D.D. from the university of Yale,

U.S.A. In 1874 the congregation at Islington decided to

erect new buildings. The church, which was built at a cost of

L. 50,000, was specially adapted for congregational worship

and was mentioned by an architectural journal as one of the

hundred remarkable buildings of the century. The church had

in its Yarious departments about 300 teachers in charge of

more than 3000 children, and was in its organization one of

the earliest instances of the type known as the institutional

church. In 1881. on the occasion of the jubilee of the

Congregational Union of England and Wales, Allon was again

elected chairman. In were A Memoir of James Sherman (1863);

the Sermons of Thomas Binney, with a biographical and

critical sketch (1869); The Vision of God and other sermons

(1876); The Indwelling Christ (1892). Allon was a man of

sound judgment, strong will, great moral courage and personal

kindness. His acquaintance with literature was wide, his

own style lucid and decisive. In social and political

affairs he was a convinced individualist. Both as leader of

Union Chapel and in denominational affairs his courage and

discretion, his simple faith, combined with a broad-minded

symoathy with the intellectual movements of the time, made

his ministry a widespread influence for good. (D. MN.)

ALLONGE (from Fr. alloinger, to draw out), a slip of

paper affixed to a negotiable instrument, as a bill of

exchange, for the purpose of receiving additional indorsements

for which there may not be sufficient space on the bill

itself. An indorsement written on the allonge is deemed to

be written on the bill itself. An allonge is more usually

met with in those countries where the Code Napoleon is in

force, as the code requires every indorsement to express the

consideration. Under English law, as the simple signature of

the indorser on the bill, without additional words, is sufficient

to operate as a negotiation, an allonge is seldom necessary.