The old town presents a strong contrast to the new town. The

streets are narrow, tortuous and inaccessible to carriages.

They often end in a cul-de-sac. The principal street is

the rue de la Kasbah, which leads up to the citadel by 497

steps. The streets are joined by alleys just wide enough to pass

through. The houses, built of stone and whitewashed, are

square, substantial, flat-topped buildings, presenting to the

street bare walls, with a few slits protected by iron gratings

in place of windows. Each house has a quadrangle in the centre,

into which it looks, and which is entered by a low, narrow

doorway. Shops in the native quarter are simply chambers in

the walls of the houses, and open at the front. In these shops

the few Moorish industries are carried on, such as embroidery

in gold and silver thread, the making of kid slippers of every

kind and colour, the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments.

To European eyes the native city, with its motley throng of

Moors, Arabs, Jews and negroes, is the most interesting sight in

Algiers. Various squares are set apart for markets, and

here are to be witnessed scenes of the greatest animation.

The public buildings of chief interest are the kasbah, the

government offices (formerly the British consulate), the

palaces of the governor-general and the archbishop--all

these are fine Moorish houses; the ``Grand'' and the ``New',

Mosques, the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Philippe, the

church of the Holy Trinity (Church of England), and the

Bibliotheque Nationale d'Alger--a Turkish palace built in

1799-1800. The kasbah was begun in 1516 on the site of an older

building, and served as the palace of the deys until the French

conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the

building, the mosque turned into barracks, and the hall of

audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a

minaret and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist

of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the

dey. The Grand Mosque (Jamaa-el-Kebir) is traditionally said

to be the oldest mosque in Algiers. The pulpit (mimbar)

bears an inscription showing that the building existed in

1018. The minaret was built by Abu Tachfin, sultan of

Tlemcen, in 1324. The interior of the mosque is square and

is divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches.

The principal facade, in the rue de la Marine, consists of

a row of white marble columns supporting an arcade. The New

Mosque (Jamaa-el-Jedid), dating from the 17th century, is

in the form of a Greek cross, surmounted by a large white

cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret

is 90 ft. high. The interior resembles that of the Grand

Mosque. The church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands

at the southern end of the rue d'Isly near the site of the

demolished Fort Bab Azoun. The interior is richly decorated

with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain

memorial inscriptions relating to the English residents

(voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John

Tipton, British consul in 1580. One tablet records that in 1631

two Algerine pirate crews landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore,

and carried off its inhabitants to slavery; another recalls

the romantic escape of Ida M`Donnell, daughter of Admiral

Ulric, consul- general of Denmark, and wife of the British

consul. When Lord Exmouth was about to bombard the city in

1816, the British consul was thrown into prison and loaded with

chains. Mrs. M`Donnell--who was but sixteen--escaped to the

British fleet disguised as a midshipman, carrying a basket

of vegetables in which her baby was hidden. (Mrs. M`Donnell

subsequently married the duc de Talleyrand-Perigord and died

at Florence in 1880). Among later residents commemorated is

Edward Lloyd, who was the first person to show the value of

esparto grass for the manufacture of paper, and thus started

an industry which is one of the most important in Algeria.

The cathedral of St Philippe, built on the site of a mosque,

is in the place Malakoff, next to the governor-general's

palace. In its construction an attempt has been made to

produce a building suitable for Christian worship whilst the

architecture is Moorish in style. The principal entrance,

reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico

supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of

the nave is of Moorish plaster work. It rests on a series

of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of

these columns belonged to the former mosque. In one of the

chapels is a tomb containing the bones of San Geronimo. The

finding of the remains of the saint in 1853 afforded striking

confirmation of an incident recorded by a Spanish Benedictine

named Haedo, who published a topography of Algeria in

1612. Haedo sets forth that a young Arab who had embraced

Christianity and had been baptized with the name of Geronimo

was captured by a Moorish corsair in 1569 and taken to

Algiers. The Arabs endeavoured, to induce Geronimo to renounce

Christianity, but as he steadfastly refused to do so he was

condemned to death. Bound hand and foot he was thrown alive

into a mould in which a block of concrete was about to be

made. The block containing his body was built into an angle

of the Fort of the Twenty-four Hours, then under construction.

In 1853 the Fort of the Twenty-four Hours was demolished, and

in the angle specified by Haedo the skeleton of Geronimo was

found. The bones were interred at St Phihppe. Into the

mould left by the saint's body liquid plaster of Paris was

run, and a perfect model obtained, showing the features of the

youth, the cords which bound him, and even the texture of his

clothing. This model is now in the museum at Mustapha (see below).

Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine,

science and letters. The college buildings are large and

handsome. There is also a lycee in which the instruction

is similar to that given in France, and in which Christians,

Jews and Mahommedans are educated together. The museum (a

state institution), formerly housed in the same building as

the library, was transferred in 1897 to a new building in

the suburb of Mustapha Superieur. In the museum are some

of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria,

together with medals and Algerian money. New buildings,

to contain specimens of Moslem art, were added in 1903.

The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two

harbours, both artificial--the old or northern harbour and

the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers

an area of 235 acres. The depth at the entrance is 72 to

108 ft., and in port from 36 to 66 ft. Two government dry

docks are available for merchant vessels. The quays cover

18,000 sq. yds. There are three jetties, north, east and

south. Within this harbour is the small harbour of the deys,

now transformed into a wet dock. An opening in the south jetty

affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha

Bay. This harbour is formed by the projection of a mole, 2500

ft. in length, from the eastern jetty of the old harbour. It

provides extensive quayage with a minimum depth of water of 28

ft. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its

southern side. Algiers is the chief coaling station in the

Mediterranean, having become so largely at the expense of

Gibraltar. In other respects the trade resembles that of other

Algerian ports. (For trade statistics see ALGERIA.) The inner

harbour was begun in 1518 by Khair-ed- Din (see History,

below), who, to accommodate his pirate vessels, caused the island

on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a

mole. The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon

was built in 1544. Work on the northern harbour was begun in

1836, on the southern in 1904. Algiers maintains communication

with Marseilles by a quick service of steamers, which run the

497 miles across the Mediterranean in twenty-eight to thirty

hours. The journey between Algiers and Paris, from which it is

distant 1031 miles, is accomplished in about forty-five hours.

Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until

the close of the 19th century. The French, after their

occupation of the city (1830), built a rampart, parapet and

ditch, with two terminal forts, Bab Azoun to the south and

Bab-el-Oued to the north. The forts and part of the ramparts

were demolished at the beginning of the 20th century, when

a line of forts occupying the heights of Bu Zarea (at an

elevation of 1300 ft. above the sea) took their place.

Owing to the mildness of its climate Algiers has become a

favourite resort for those seeking to escape the rigours

of a European winter. The city is well supplied with

water and its sanitary state is good. The mistral of the

Riviera is entirely absent from Algiers, but in summer

the city occasionally suffers from the sirocco or desert

wind. The environs of Algiers are noted for their beauty and

healthiness. Of the suburbs the most picturesque is Mustapha

Superieur, about 2 m. from the centre of the city on the

slopes of the hills to the south. Here are the summer palace

of the governor-general, many fine Moorish and French villas

and luxurious hotels, all surrounded by beautiful gardens.

A numerous British colony resides at Mustapha, where there is

an English club. Mustapha Inferieur is built on the lower

slopes of the hills. Farther to the south is the large Jardin

d'Essai, containing five avenues of palms, planes, bamboos and

magnolias. Notre-Dame d'Afrique, a church built (1858-

1872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is

conspicuously situated, overlooking the sea, on the shoulder

of the Bu Zarea hills, 2 m. to the north of the city. Above

the altar is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black

woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the

archangel Michael, belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan

fishermen. Beyond Notre-Dame d'Afrique is the beautiful Valley

of the Consuls, very little changed since the time of the

deys. (The valley was in those days the favourite residence

of the consuls.) At the Petit Seminaire, on the site of

the old French consulate, Cardinal Lavigerie died (1892).

In 1906 the population of the commune of Algiers was 154,049; the

population municipale, which excludes the garrison, prisoners,

&c., was 145,280. Of this total 138,240 were living in the

city proper or in Mustapha. Of the inhabitants 105,908 were

Europeans. French residents numbered 50,996, naturalized Frenchmen

23,305, Spaniards 12,354, Italians 7368, Maltese 865, and other

Europeans (chiefly British and Germans) 1652, besides 12,490

Jews. The remainder of the population--all Mahommedans--are

Moors, Arabs, Berbers, Negroes, with a few Turks. The vast

majority of the Europeans are Roman Catholics. Most of the

naturalized French citizens are of Spanish or Italian origin.

History.--In Roman times a small town called Icosium existed

on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The rue de la

Marine follows the lines of a Roman street. Roman cemeteries

existed near the rues Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. Bishops of

Icosium--which was created a Latin city by Vespasian --are

mentioned as late as the 5th century. The present city was

founded in 944 by Bulukkin b. Zeiri, the founder of, the

Zeirid-Sanhaja dynasty, which was overthrown by Roger II. of

Sicily in 1148 (see FATIMITES.) The Zeirids had before that

date lost Algiers, which in 1159 was occupied by the Almohades,

and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Abd-el-

Wahid, sultans of Tlemcen. Numinally part of the sultanate of

Tlemcen, Algiers had a large measure of independence under

amirs of its own, Oran being the chief seaport of the Abd-el-

Nahid. The islet in front of the harbour, subsequently

known as the Penon, had been occupied by the Spaniards as

early as 1302. Thereafter a considerable trade grew up

between Algiers and Spain. Algiers, however, continued of

comparatively little importance until after the expulsion

from Spain of the Moors, many of whom sought an asylum in the

city. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other

towns on the coast of Africa, the Spaniards fortified the

Penon. In 1516 the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited

the brothers Arouj and Khair-ed-Din (Barbarossa) to expel the

Spaniards. Arouj came to Algiers, caused Selim to be

assassinated, and seized the town. Khair- ed-Din, succeeding

Arouj, drove the Spaniards from the Penon (1550) and was

the founder of the pashalik, afterwards deylik, of Algeria.

Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary

pirates. In October 1541 the emperor Charles V. sought to

capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his

ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly Spaniards, was

defeated by the Algerians under their pasha, Hassan. Repeated

attempts were made by various European nations to subdue the

pirates, and in 1816 the city was bombarded by a British squadron

under Lord Exmouth, assisted by Dutch men-of-war, and the

corsair fleet burned. The piracy of the Algerians was renewed

and continued until 1830. On the 4th of July in that year a

French army under General de Bourmont attacked the city, which

capitulated on the following day (see ALGERIA, History.)

ALGOA BAY, a wide, shallow bay of South Africa, 436 m. E.

from the Cape of Good Hope, bounded W. by Cape Recife, E. by Cape

Padrone. St Croix Island in the bay is in 33 deg. 47' S. 25 deg.

46' E. On this island Bartholomew Diaz made his second landing

in South Africa some time after the 3rd of February 1488, and

from the cross which he is thought to have erected on it the

island gets its name. Algoa Bay was the first landing-place

of the British emigrants to the eastern province of Cape

Colony in 1820. At a spot 6 m. N.E. of Cape Recife these

emigrants founded a town, Port Elizabeth (q.v.), its harbour

being sheltered from all winds save the S.E. By seafarers

``Algoa Bay'' is used as synonymous with Port Elizabeth.

ALGOL, the Arabic name (signifying ``the Demon'') of b

Persei, a star of the second magnitude, noticed by G. Montanari

in 1669 to fluctuate in brightness. John Goodricke established

in 1782 the periodicity of its change in about 2d 21h and

suggested their cause in recurring eclipses by a large dark

satellite. Their intermittent character prompted the

supposition. The light of Algol remains constant during close

upon 56 hours; then declines in 6 1/2 hours (approximately)

to nearly one-fourth its normal amount, and is restored by

sensibly the same gradations. The amplitude of the phase

is 1.1 magnitude; and the absence of any stationary interval

at minimum proves the eclipse to be partial, not annular.

Its conditions were investigated from photometric data, by

Professor E. C. Pickering in 1880;1 and their realization

was finally demonstrated by Dr H. C. Vogel's spectroscopic

measures in 1889.2 Previously to each obscuration, the

star was found to be moving rapidly away from the earth; its

velocity then diminished to zero pari passu with the loss

of light, and reversed its direction during the process of

recovery. Algol, in fact, travels at the rate of 26.3 miles

a second round the centre of gravity of the system which it

forms with an invisible companion, while the two together

approach the sun with an unvarying speed of 2.3 miles per

second. The elements of this disparate pair, calculated by Dr

Vogel on the somewhat precarious assumption that its dark and

bright members are of equal mean density, are as follows:--

Diameter of Algol . . . . 1,061,000 English miles.

'' Satellite . . . 834,300 '' ''

Distance from centre to centre. 3,230,000 '' ''

Mass of Algol . . . . . 4/9 solar mass.

'' Satellite . . . . 2/9 '' ''

Mean density . . . . . about 1/4 solar.

The plane of the joint orbit, in which no deviation from

circularity has yet been detected, nearly coincides with

the line of sight. The period of Algol, as measured by its

eclipses, is subject to complex irregularities. It shortened

fitfully by eight seconds between 1790 and 1879; soon afterwards,

restoration set in, and its exact length in 1903 was 2d

20h 48m 56s, being only two seconds short of its original

value. By an exhaustive discussion, Dr S. Chandler ascertained

in 1888 the compensatory nature of these disturbances;3 and

he afterwards found the most important among several which

probably conspire to produce the observed effects, to be

comprised in a period of 15,000 light-cycles, equivalent to

118 years.4 An explanatory hypothesis, propounded by him in

1892,5 is still on its trial. The system of Algol, according

to this view, is triple; it includes a large, obscure primary,

round which the eclipsing pair revolves in an orbit somewhat

smaller than that of Uranus, very slightly elliptical, and

inclined 20 deg. to the line of sight, the periodic time being 118

years. The alternate delay and acceleration of the eclipses

are then merely apparent; they represent the changes in the

length of the light-journey as the stars perform their wide

circuit. If these suppositions have a basis of reality, the

proper motion of Algol should be disturbed by a small, but

measurable undulation, corresponding to the projection of its

orbit upon the sky; and although certainty on the point cannot be

attained for some years to come, Lewis Boss regarded the evidence

available in 1895 as tending to confirm Dr Chandler's theory.6

A rival interpretation of the phenomena it dealt with

was put forward by F. Tisserand in 1895.7 It involved

the action of no third mass, but depended solely upon the

progression of the line of apsides in a moderately elliptical

orbit due to the spheroidal shape of the globes traversing

it. Inequalities of the required sort in the returns of

the eclipses would ensue; moreover, their duration should

concomitantly vary with the varying distance from periastron at

the times of their occurrence. It is a moot question whether

changes of the latter kind actually occur. When they are

proved to do so, Tisserand's hypothesis will hold the field.

Algol gives a helium-spectrum which undergoes no alteration at

minimum. Hence the light from the marginal and central portions

of the disc is identical in quality, and the limb can be

little, if at all, darkened by the ``smoke-veil'' absorption

conspicuous in the sun. The rays of this star spend close

upon a century in travelling hither. Dr Chase's measures with

the Yale heliometer indicated for it, in 1894, a parallax of

about 0'' .035;8 and it must, accordingly, be of nearly four

times the total brightness of Sirius, while its aerial lustre

exceeds seventy- fold that of the solar photosphere. Variables

of the Algol class are rendered difficult to discover by the

incidental character of their fluctuations. At the end of

1905, however, about 37 had been certainly recognized, besides

some outlying cases of indeterminate type, in which continuous

occultations by two bright stars, revolving in virtual

contact, are doubtfully supposed to be in progress. (A. M. C.)

1 Proceedings Amer. Acad. vol. xvi. p. 27.

2 Astr. Nach. No. 2947. 3 Astr. Journal, No. 165.

4 Ibid. No. 509. 5 Ibid. Nos. 255-256. 6 Ibid. No. 343.

7 Comptes Rendus, t. cxx. p 125. 8 Astr. Jour. No. 318.

ALGONQUIN, or ALGONKIN (a word formerly regarded as a

French contraction of Algomequin, ``those on the other

side'' of the river, viz. the St Lawrence, hut now believed to

be from the Micmac algoomaking--``at the place of spearing

fish''), a collective term for a number of tribes of North

American Indians dwelling in the valley of the Ottawa river

and around the northern tributaries of the St Lawrence.

The Algonquins allied themselves with the French against the

Iroquois. Many were driven west by the latter and later became

known as Ottawa. The French missionaries at work among the

Algonquins early in the 17th century found their language

to be the key to the many Indian dialects now included by

philologists under the general term ``Algonquian stock.''

The chief tribes included in this stock were the Algonquin,

Malecite, Micmac, Nascapi, Pennacook, Fox, Kickapoo, Delaware,

Cheyenne, Conoy, Cree, Mohican, Massachuset, Menominee, Miami,

Misisaga, Mohegan, Nanticoke, Narraganset, Nipmuc, Ojibway,

Ottawa, Pequot, Potawatami, Sac, Shawnee and Wampanoag. The

Indians of Algonquian stock number between 80,000 and 90,000,

of whom rather more than half are in the United States, the

rest being in Canada. Of the Algonquins proper there remain

about 1500 settled in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario.

For details see Handbook of American

Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge, Washington, 1907.

ALGUAZIL, a Spanish title often to be met in stories and

plays, derived from the Arabic ``visir'' and the article, ``

al.'' The alguazil among the early Spaniards was a judge, and

sometimes the governor of a town or fortress. In later times he

has gradually sunk down to the rank of an officer of the court,

who is trusted with the service of writs and certain police

duties, but he is still of higher rank than the mere corchete or

catch-poll. The title has also been given to inspectors of

weights and measures in market-places, and similar officials.

ALGUM, or ALMUG TREE. The Hebrew words Algummim or

Almuggim are translated Algum or Almug trees in the authorized

version of the Bible (see 1 Kings x. 11, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8,

and ix. 10, 11); almug is an erroneous form (see Max Muller,

Science of Language, vol. i.). The wood of the tree was

very precious, and was brought from Ophir (probably some part of

India), along with gold and precious stones, by Hiram, and was

used in the formation of pillars for the temple at Jerusalem,

and for the king's house; also for the inlaying of stairs,

as well as for harps and psalteries. It is probably the red

sanders or red sandal-wood of India ( Pterocarpus santalinus.)

This tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order

Papilionaceae. The wood is hard, heavy, close-grained and of

a fine red colour. It is different from the white fragrant

sandal-wood, which is the produce of Santalum album, a

tree belonging to a distinct natural order Santalaceae.

ALHAMA DE GRANADA, a town of southern Spain, in the province

of Granada, 24 m. S.W. of Granada. Pop. (1900) 7679. Alhama

is finely situated on a ledge of rock which overlooks a deep

gorge traversed by the river Marchan or Alhama; while the rugged

peaks of the Sierra de Alhamarise behind it to a height of 6800

ft. The town is largely modern; for over one thousand of

its picturesque old Moorish houses, which formerly rose in

terraces up the mountain side, were destroyed, together with

five churches, the hospital, the theatre, the prison, and

800 of the inhabitants, in an earthquake which took place in

1884. Subscriptions were received from all parts of Spain,

and the present town was built at a little distance from its

predecessor. Few vestiges of antiquity survived, except the

baths from which Alhama (in Arabic ``the Bath'') derives its

name. These are situated near the river, and appear to have

been used continuously since Roman times (c. 19 B.C.-

A.D. 409) . The temperature of the hot sulphurous springs is

about 112 deg. F.; and, as the waters are considered beneficial

in cases of rheumatism and dyspepsia, many visitors come

to Alhama in spring and autumn, attracted also by the fine

scenery of the district. In the 15th century Alhama, and

the neighbouring fortress of Loja (q.v.), were generally

regarded as the keys of the kingdom of Granada, and their

capture went far to insure the overthrow of the Moorish

power. Alhama was taken by the Spanish marquis of Cadiz

in 1482; and its fall is celebrated in an ancient ballad,

Ay de mi, Alhama, which Byron translated into English.

ALHAMBRA, THE, an ancient palace and fortress of the Moorish

monarchs of Granada, in southern Spain, occupying a hilly

terrace on the south-eastern border of the city of Granada.

This terrace or plateau, which measures about 2430 ft. in

length by 674 ft. at its greatest width, extends from W.N.W. to

E.S.E., and covers an area of about 35 acres. It is enclosed

by a strongly fortified wall, which is flanked by thirteen

towers. The river Darro, which foams through a deep ravine on

the north, divides the plateau from the Albaicin district of

Granada; the Assabica valley, containing the Alhambra Park, on

the west and south, and beyond this valley the almost parallel

ridge of Monte Mauror, separate it from the Antequeruela district.

The name Alhambra, signifying in Arabic ``the red,'' is

probably derived from the colour of the sun-dried tapia,

or bricks made of fine gravel and clay, of which the outer

walls are built. Some authorities, however, hold that it

commemorates the red flare of the torches by whose light the

work of construction was carried on nightly for many years;

others associate it with the name of the founder, Mahomet

Ibn Al Ahmar; and others derive it from the Arabic Dar al

Amra, ``House of the Master.'' (For an account of the period

to which the Alhambra belongs, see GRANADA (city) .) The

palace was built chiefly between 1248 and 1354, in the reigns

of Al Ahmar and his successors; but even the names of the

principal artists employed are either unknown or doubtful.

The splendid decorations of the interior are ascribed to

Yusef I., who died in 1354. Immediately after the expulsion

of the Moors in 1492, their conquerors began, by successive

acts of vandalism, to spoil the marvellous beauty of the

Alhambra. The open work was filled up with whitewash, the

painting and gilding effaced, the furniture soiled, torn or

removed. Charles V. (1516-1556) rebuilt portions in the modern

style of the period, and destroyed the greater part of the

winter palace to make room for a modern structure which has

never been completed. Philip V. (1700-1746) Italianised the

rooms, and completed the degradation by running up partitions

which blocked up whole apartments, gems of taste and patient

ingenuity. In subsequent Centuries the carelessness of the

Spanish authorities permitted this masterpiece of Moorish

art to be still further defaced; and in 1812 some of the

towers were blown up by the French under Count Sebastiani,

while the whole buildings narrowly escaped the same fate. In

Plan of the Alhambra

Scale of Yards

1. Court of Myrtles

2. Hall of Ambassadors

3. Court of Lions

4. Hall of the Abencerrages

5. Room of the Two Sisters

6. Modern Entrance

7. Court of the Vestibule

8. Baths

9. Court of the Council Chamber

10. Queens Robing Room

from Baedeker's Spain & Portugal, by

permission of Karl Baedeker Emery Walker SC.

1821 an earthquake caused further damage. The work of

restoration undertaken in 1828 by the architect Jose

Contreras was endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII.; and after

the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued with fair

success by his son Rafael (d. 1890), and his grandson Mariano.

The situation of the Alhambra is one of rare natural beauty;

the plateau commands a wide view of the city and plain of

Granada, towards the west and north, and of the heights of

the Sierra Nevada, towards the east and south. Moorish poets

describe it as ``a pearl set in emeralds,'' in allusion to

the brilliant colour of its buildings, and the luxuriant

woods round them. The park (Alameda de la Alhambra),

which in spring is overgrown with wild-flowers and grass,

was planted by the Moors with roses, oranges and myrtles;

its most characteristic feature, however, is the dense

wood of English elms brought hither in 1812 by the duke of

Wellington. The park is celebrated for the multitude of its

nightingales, and is usually filled with the sound of running

water from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied

through a conduit 5 m. long, which is connected with the

Darro at the monastery of Jesus del Valle, above Granada.

The Moorish portion of the Alhambra resembles many medieval

Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a

castle, a palace and a residential annexe for subordinates.

The Alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the

isolated and precipitous foreland which terminates the plateau

on the north-west. Only its massive outer walls, towers

and ramparts are left. On its watch-tower, the Torre de la

Vela, 85 ft. high, the flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was

first raised, in token of the Spanish conquest of Granada,

on the 2nd of January 1492. A turret containing a huge

bell was added in the 18th century, and restored after

being injured by lightning in 1881. Beyond the Alcazaba

is the palace of the Moorish kings, or Alhambra properly

so-called; and beyond this, again, is the Alhambra Alta (Upper

Alhambra), originally tenanted by officials and courtiers.

In spite of the long neglect, wilful vandalism and ill-judged

restoration which the Alhambra has endured, it remains the

most perfect example of Moorish art in its final European

development, --freed from the direct Byzantine influences

which can be traced in the cathedral of Cordova, more elaborate

and fantastic than the Giralda at Seville. The majority of

the palace buildings are, in ground-plan, quadrangular, with

all the rooms opening on to a central court; and the whole

reached its present size simply by the gradual addition of new

quadrangles, designed on the same principle, though varying in

dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and

passages. In every case the exterior is left plain and austere,

as if the architect intended thus to heighten by contrast the

splendour of the interior. Within, the palace is unsurpassed

for the exquisite detail of its marble pillars and arches,

its fretted ceilings and the veil-like transparency of its

filigree work in stucco. Sun and wind are freely admitted,

and the whole effect is one of the most airy lightness and

grace. Blue, red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through

lapse of time and exposure, are the colours chiefly employed.

The decoration consists, as a rule, of stiff, conventional

foliage, Arabic inscriptions, and geometrical patterns wrought

into arabesques of almost incredible intricacy and ingenuity.

Painted tiles are largely used as panelling for the walls.

Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by

the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a massive

triumphal arch dating from the 15th century. A steep ascent

leads past the Pillar of Charles V., a fountain erected in

1554, to the main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta

Judiciaria (Gate of Judgment), a massive horseshoe archway,

surmounted by a square tower, and used by the Moors as an

informal court of justice. A hand, with fingers outstretched

as a talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate

on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies the

corresponding place on the interior. A narrow passage leads

inward to the Plaza de los Aljibes (Place of the Cisterns), a

broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish

palace. To the left of the passage rises the Torre del Vino

(Wine Tower), built in 1345, and used in the 16th century as a

cellar. On the right is the palace of Charles V., a cold-looking

but majestic Renaissance building, out of harmony with its

surroundings, which it tends somewhat to dwarf by its superior

size. Its construction, begun in 1526, was abandoned about 1650.

The present entrance to the Palacio Arabe, or Casa Real (Moorish

palace), is by a small door from which a corridor conducts

to the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles), also

called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court

of the Pond), from the Moorish birka, ``pond,'' or berka,

``blessing.'' This court is 140 ft. long by 74 ft. broad;

and in the centre there is a large pond set in the marble

pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its

sides. There are galleries on the north and south sides; that

on the south 27 ft. high, and supported by a marble colonnade.

Underneath it, to the right, was the principal entrance, and

over it are three elegant windows with arches and miniature

pillars. From this court the walls of the Torre de Comares are

seen rising over the roof to the north, and reflected in the pond.

The Sala de los Ambajadores (Hall of the Ambassadors) is

the largest in the Alhambra, and occupies all the Torre de

Comares. It is a square room, the sides being 37 ft. in

length, while the centre of the dome is 75 ft. high. This

was the grand reception room, and the throne of the sultan

was placed opposite the entrance. The tiles are nearly 4 ft.

high all round, and the colours vary at intervals. Over them

is a series of oval medallions with inscriptions, interwoven

with flowers and leaves. There are nine windows, three

on each facade, and the ceiling is admirably diversified

with inlaid-work of white, blue and gold, in the shape of

circles, crowns and stars--a kind of imitation of the vault of

heaven. The walls are covered with varied stucco-work of

most delicate pattern, surrounding many ancient escutcheons.

The celebrated Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions) is

an oblong court, 116 ft. in length by 66 ft. in breadth,

surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble

columns. A pavilion projects into the court at each

extremity, with filigree walls and light domed roof,

elaborately ornamented. The square is paved with coloured

tiles, and the colonnade with white marble; while the walls

are covered 5 ft. up from the ground with blue and yellow

tiles, with a border above and below enamelled blue and

gold. The columns supporting the roof and gallery are

irregularly placed, with a view to artistic effect; and

the general form of the piers, arches and pillars is most

graceful. They are adorned by varieties of foliage, &c.;

about each arch there is a large square of arabesques; and

over the pillars is another square of exquisite filigree

work. In the centre of the court is the celebrated Fountain

of Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin supported by the

figures of twelve lions in white marble, not designed with

sculptural accuracy, but as emblems of strength and courage.

The Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrages) derives

its name from a legend according to which Boabdil, the last

king of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that illustrious

line to a banquet, massacred them here. This room is a perfect

square, with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base.

The roof is exquisitely decorated in blue, brown, red and gold,

and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in

a remarkably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the

Sala de las dos Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called

from two very beautiful white marble slabs laid as part of the

pavement. These slabs measure 15 ft. by 7 1/2 ft., and are

without flaw or stain. There is a fountain in the middle of

this hall, and the roof--a dome honeycombed with tiny cells,

all different, and said to number 5000--is a magnificent

example of the so-called ``stalactite vaulting'' of the Moors.

Among the other wonders of the Alhambra are the Sala de la

Justicia (Hall of Justice), the Patio del Mexuar (Court of the

Council Chamber), the Patio de Daraxa (Court of the Vestibule),

and the Peinador de la Reina (Queen's Robing Room), in which

are to be seen the same delicate and beautiful architecture, the

same costly and elegant decorations. The palace and the Upper

Alhambra also contain baths, ranges of bedrooms and summer-

rooms, a whispering gallery and labyrinth, and vaulted sepulchres.

The original furniture of the palace is represented by the

celebrated vase of the Alhambra, a splendid specimen of Moorish

ceramic art, dating from 1320, and belonging to the first

period of Moorish porcelain. It is 4 ft. 3 in. high; the

ground is white, and the enamelling is blue, white and gold.

Of the outlying buildings in connexion with the Alhambra. the

foremost in interest is the Palacio de Generalife or Gineralife

(the Moorish Jennat al Arif, ``Garden of Arif,'' or ``Garden

of the Architect''). This villa probably dates from the end

of the 13th century, but has been several times restored. Its

gardens, however, with their clipped hedges, grottos, fountains,

and cypress avenues, are said to retain their original Moorish

character. The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the

summit of Monte Mauror, commemorates by its name the Christian

slaves who were employed to build the Alhambra, and confined

here in subterranean cells. The Torres Bermejas (Vermilion

Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a well-preserved Moorish

fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and

accommodation for a garrison of 200 men. Several Roman tombs

were discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of Monte Mauror.

See Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra;

from drawings taken on the spot by J. Goury and Owen Jones;

with a complete translation of the Arabic inscriptions and a

historical notice of the Kings of Granada, by P. de Gayangos.

These two magnificent folios, though first published in London

between 1842 and 1845, give the best pictorial representation

of the Alhambra. See also Rafael Contreras, La Alhanabra,

El Alcazar, y la gran Mezquita de Occidente Madrid, 1885);

The Alhambra, by Washington Irving, was written in 1832,

and rewritten in 1857, when it had already become widely

celebrated for its picturesque and humorous descriptions.

A well-Illustrated edition was published in London in 1896.

ALHAZEN (ABU ALI AL-HASAN IBN ALHASAN), Arabian mathematician

of the 11th century, was born at Basra and died at Cairo in

1038. He is to be distinguished from another Alhazen who

translated Ptolemy's Almagest in the 10th century. Having

boasted that he could construct a machine for regulating

the inundations of the Nile, he was summoned to Egypt by

the caliph Hakim; but, aware of the impracticability of his

scheme, and fearing the caliph's anger, he feigned madness

until Hakim's death in 1021. Alhazen was, nevertheless,

a diligent and successful student, being the first great

discoverer in optics after the time of Ptolemy. According to

Giovanni Battista della Porta, he first explained the apparent

increase of heavenly bodies near the horizon, although Bacon

gives the credit of this discovery to Ptolemy. He taught,

previous to the Polish physicist Witelo, that vision does

not result from the emission of rays from the eye, and wrote

also on the refraction of light, especially on atmospheric

refraction, showing, e.g. the cause of morning and evening

twilight. He solved the problem of finding the point in a

convex mirror at which a ray coming from one given point shall

be reflected to another given point. His treatise on optics

was translated into Latin by Witelo (1270), and afterwards

published by F. Risner in 1572, with the title Oticae thesaurus

Alhazeni libri VII., cum ejusdem libro de crepusculis et

nubium ascensionibus. This work enjoyed a great reputation

during the middle ages. Works on geometrical subjects were

found in the Bibliotheque nationale de Paris in 1834

by E. A. Sedillot; other manuscripts are preserved in the

Bodleian library at Oxford and in the library of Leiden.

See Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hisp. Escur.; J. E. Montucla,

Histoire des mathemaltiques (1758); and E. A. Sedillot,

Materiaux pour l'histoire des sciences mathematiques.

ALI, in full, 'ALI BEN ABU TALIB (c. 600-661), the

fourth of the caliphs or successors of Mahomet, was born at

Mecca about the year A.D. 600. His father, Abu Talib, was

an uncle of the prophet, and Ali himself was adopted by Mahomet

and educated under his care. As a mere boy he distinguished

himself by being one of the first to declare his adhesion

to the cause of Mahomet, who some years afterwards gave him

his daughter Fatima in marriage. Ali proved himself to be

a brave and faithful soldier, and when Mahomet died without

male issue, a few emigrants thought him to have the best

claim to succeed him. Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman, however,

occupied this position before him, and it was not until

656, after the murder of Othman, that he assumed the title of

caliph. The fact that he took no steps to prevent this murder

is, perhaps, the only real blot upon his character. Almost

the first act of his reign was the suppression of a rebellion

under Talha and Zobair, who were instigated by Ayesha,

Mahomet's widow, a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief

hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel

army was defeated at the ``Battle of the Camel,'' near Bassorah

(Basra), the two generals being killed, and Ayesha taken

prisoner. Ali soon afterwards made Kufa his capital. His

next care was to get rid of the opposition of Moawiya, who

had established himself in Syria at the head of a numerous

army. A prolonged battle took place in July 657 in the

plain of Siffin (Suffein), near the Euphrates; the fighting

was at first, it is said, in favour of Ali, when suddenly

a number of the enemy, fixing copies of the Koran to the

points of their spears, exclaimed that ``the matter ought to

be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Moslems

to shed each other's blood.'' The superstitious soldiers of

Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue

be referred to arbitration (see further CALIPHATE, section

B. 1). Abu Musa was appointed umpire on the part of Ali,

and `Amr-ibn-el-Ass, a veteran diplomatist, on the part of

Moawiya. It is said that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would

be for the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should

reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa

having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Moawiya, `Amr

declared that he also deposed Ali, and announced further that

he invested Moawiya with the caliphate. This treacherous

decision (but see CALIPHATE, ib.) greatly injured the

cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of

Egypt. After much indecisive fighting, Ali found his position

so unsatisfactory that according to some historians he made an

agreement with Moawiya by which each retained his own dominions

unmolested. It chanced, however--according to a legend, the

details of which are quite uncertain--that three of the fanatic

sect of the Kharijites had made an agreement to assassinate

Ali, Moawiya and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds

among the faithful. The only victim of this plot was Ali,

who died at Kufa in 661, of the wound inflicted by a poisoned

weapon. A splendid mosque called Meshed Ali was afterwards

erected near the city, but the place of his burial is unknown.

He had eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is

said, thirty-three children, one of whom, Hassan, a son of

Fatima, succeeded him in the caliphate. His descendants by

Fatima are known as the Fatimites (q.v.; see also EGYPT:

History, Mahommedan period). The question of Ali's right to

succeed to the caliphate is an article of faith which divided

the Mahommedan world into two great sects, the Sunnites and the

Shiites, the former denying, and the latter affirming, his

right. The Turks, consequently, hold his memory in abhorrence;

whereas the Persians, who are generally Shi`as, venerate

him as second only to the prophet, call him the ``Lion of

God'' (Sher-i-Khuda), and celebrate the anniversary of his

martyrdom. Ali is described as a bold, noble and generous

man, ``the last and worthiest of the primitive Moslems, who

imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship with the

prophet himself, and who followed to the last the simplicity

of his example.'' It is maintained, on the other hand, that his

motives were throughout those of ambition rather than piety, and

that, apart from the tragedy of his death, he would have been

an insignificant figure in history. (See further CALIPHATE.)

In the eyes of the later Moslems he was remarkable for learning

and wisdom, and there are extant collections (almost all

certainly spurious) of proverbs and verses which bear his name:

the Sentences of Ali (Eng. trans., William Yule, Edinburgh,

1832); H. L. Fleischer, Alis hundert Spruche (Leipz. 1837);

the Divan, by G. Kuypert (Leiden, 1745, and at Bulak, 1835); C.

Brockelmann, Gesch. d. arabisch. Lit. (vol. i., Weimar, 1899).

ALI, known as ALI BEY (1766-1818), the assumed name

of DOMINGO BADIA Y LEBLICH, a Spanish traveller, born in

1766. After receiving a liberal education he devoted particular

attention to the Arabic language, and made a special study

of the manners and customs of the East. Pretending to be

a descendant of the Abbasids, Badia in 1803 set out on his

travels. Under the name of Ali Bey el Abbassi, and in Mussulman

costume, he visited Morocco, Tripoli, Egypt, Arabia and

Syria, and was received as a person of high rank wherever he

appeared. He made the pilgrimage to Mecca, at that time

in the possession of the Wahabites. On his return to Spain

in 1807 he declared himself a Bonapartist, and was made

intendant first of Segovia and afterwards of Cordova.

When the French were driven from Spain, Badia was compelled

to take refuge in France, and there in 1814, published an

account of his travels under the title of Voyage d'Aii Bey

en Asie et en Afrique, &c. A few years later he set out

again for Syria, under the assumed name of Ali Othman, and,

it is said, accredited as a political agent by the French

government. He reached Aleppo, and there died on the 30th of

August 1818, not without suspicion of having been poisoned.

An account of his Eastern adventures was published in London in

1816, in two volumes, entitled Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus,

Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Turkey, between the years 1803 and 1807.

ALI, known as ALI PASHA (1741-1822),Turkish pasha of

Iannina, surnamed Arslan, ``the Lion,'' was born at Tepeleni,

a village in Albania at the foot of the Klissura mountains.

He was one of the Toske tribe, and his ancestors had for some

time held the hereditary office of bey of Tepeleni. His father,

a man of mild and peaceful disposition, was killed when Ali

was fourteen years old by neighbouring chiefs who seized his

territories. His mother Khamko, a woman of extraordinary

character, thereupon herself formed and led a brigand band,

and studied to inspire the boy with her own fierce and

indomitable temper, with a view to revenge and the recovery

of the lost property. In this wild school Ali proved an apt

pupil. A hundred tales, for the most part probably mythical,

are told of his powers and cunning during the years he spent

among the mountains as a brigand leader. At last, by a

picturesque stratagem, he gained possession of Tepeleni and

took vengeance on his enemies. To secure himself from rivals

in his own family, he is said to have murdered his brother

and imprisoned his mother on a charge of attempting to poison

him. With a view to establishing his authority he now made

overtures to the Porte and was commissioned to chastise the

rebellious pasha of Scutari, whom he defeated and killed. He

also, on pretext of his disloyalty, put to death Selim, pasha of

Delvinon. Ali was now confirmed in the possession of all

his father's territory and was also appointed lieutenant to

the derwend-pasha of Rumelia, whose duty it was to suppress

brigandage and highway robbery. This gave him an opportunity

for amassing wealth by sharing the booty of the robbers in

return for leaving them alone. The disgrace that fell in

consequence on his superior, Ali escaped by the use of lavish

bribes at Constantinople. In 1787 he took part in the war

with Russia, and was rewarded by being made pasha of Trikala

in Thessaly and derwend-pasha of Rumelia. It now suited his

policy to suppress the brigands, which he did by enlisting

most of them under his own banner. His power was now already

considerable; and in 1788 he added to it by securing his

nomination to the pashalik of Iannina by a characteristic trick.

The illiterate brigand, whose boyish ambition had not

looked beyond the recovery of his father's beylick, was now

established as one of the most powerful viziers under the

Ottoman government. Success only stimulated his insatiable

ambition. He earned the confidence of the Porte by the cruel

discipline he maintained in his own sanjak, and the regular

flow of tribute and bribes which he directed to Constantinople;

while he bent all his energies to extending his territories

at the expense of his neighbours. The methods he adopted

would have done credit to Cesare Borgia; they may be studied

in detail in the lurid pages of Pouqueville. Soon, by

one means or another, his power was supreme in all central

Albania. Two main barriers still obstructed the realization

of his ambition, which now embraced Greece and Thessaly, as

well as Albania, and the establishment in the Mediterranean

of a sea-power which should rival that of the dey of Algiers.

The first of these was the resistance of the little Christian

hill community of Suli; the second the Venetian occupation

of the coast, within a mile of which--by convention with the

Porte--no Ottoman soldier might penetrate. It needed three

several attacks before, in 1803, Ali conquered the Suliot

stronghold. Events in western Europe gave him an earlier

opportunity of becoming master of most of the coast towns. Ali

had watched with interest the career of Bonaparte in Italy, and

the treaty of Campo Formio (1797), which blotted the Venetian

republic from the map of Europe, gave him the opportunity he

desired. In response to his advances commissaries of the

French republic visited him at Iannina and, affecting a

sudden zeal for republican principles, he easily obtained

permission to suppress the ``aristocratic'' tribes on the

coast. His plans in Albania were interrupted by the war against

Pasvan Oglu, the rebellious pasha of Widdin, in which Ali

once more did good service. Meanwhile international politics

had developed in a way that necessitated a change in Ali's

attitude. Napoleon's occupation of the Ionian Islands and

his relations with Ali had alarmed Russia, which feared that

French influence would be substituted for her own in the

Balkan peninsula; and on the 5th of September 1798 a formal

alliance, to which Great Britain soon after acceded, was signed

on behalf of the emperor Paul and the sultan. Once more Ali

turned Turk and fought against his recent friends with such

success that in the end he remained in possession of Butrinto,

Prevesa and Vonitza on the coast, was created pasha ``of three

tails'' by the sultan, and received the congratulations of

Nelson. But the campaign of Austerlitz followed, then the

peace of Pressburg which guaranteed to Napoleon the former

dominions of Venice, and finally the treaty of Tilsit,

which involved, among other things, the withdrawal of the

Russians from the Ionian Islands and the Albanian coast.

Amid all the momentous changes the part of Ali was a difficult

one. He had, moreover, to contend with domestic enemies,

and with difficulty defeated a league formed against

him by some Mussulman tribes, under Ibrahim of Berat and

Mustapha of Delvinon, and the Suliots. He knew, however,

how to retain the confidence of the sultan, who not only

confirmed him in the possession of the whole of Albania

from Epirus to Montenegro, but even in 1799 appointed him

vali of Rumelia, an office which he held just long enough

to enable him to return to Iannina laden with the spoils of

Thessaly. He was now at the height of his power. In 1803

the Suliot stronghold fell; and he was undisputed master of

Epirus, Albania and Thessaly, while the pashalik of the Morea

was held by his son Veli, and that of Lepanto by his son

Mukhtar. Only the little town of Parga held out against him

on the coast; and in order to obtain this he once more in 1807

entered into an alliance with Napoleon. The French emperor,

however, preferred to keep Parga, as a convenient gate into

the Balkan peninsula, and it remained in French occupation

until March 1814, when the Pargiots rose against the garrison

and handed the fortress over to the British to save it from

falling into the hands of Ali, who had bought the town from

the French commander, Cozi Nikolo, and was closely investing

it. The cordial relations between Napoleon and the pasha

of Iannina had not long continued. Ali was angered by the

refusal to surrender Parga and justly suspicious of the

ambitions which this refusal implied; he could not feel

himself secure with the Ionian Islands and the Dalmatian

coast in the hands of a power whose plans in the East were

notorious, and he was glad enough to avail himself of Napoleon's

reverses in 1812 to help to rid himself of so dangerous a

neighbor. His services to the allies received their reward.

Still bent on obtaining Parga, he sent a special mission to

London, backed by a letter from Sir Robert Liston, the British

ambassador at Constantinople, calling the attention of the

government to the pasha's supereminent qualities'' and his

services against the French. After some hesitation it was

decided to evacuate Parga and hand it over to the Ottoman

government, i.e. Ali Pasha. The convention by which this

was effected was ultimately signed on the 17th of May 1817,

being ratified by the sultan on the 24th of April 1819.

By its terms the Pargiots were to receive an asylum in the

islands, the Ottoman government undertaking to pay compensation

for their property. Ali had no difficulty in finding the

money; the garrison, as soon as it was received, marched

out with the bulk of the inhabitants; and the last citadel

of freedom in the Balkans fell to the tyrant of Iannina.1

Ali's authority in the great part of the peninsula subject to

him now overshadowed that of the sultan; and Mahmud II., whose

whole policy had been directed to destroying the overgrown

power of the provincial pashas, began to seek a pretext for

overthrowing the Lion of Iannina, whose all-devouring ambition

seemed to threaten his own throne. The occasion came in 1820

when Ali, emboldened by impunity, violated the sanctity of

Stamboul itself by attempting to procure the murder of his

enemy Pacho Bey in the very precincts of the palace. A decree

of disposition was now issued against the sacrilegious vali,

who had dared ``to fire shots in Constantinople, the residence

of the caliph, and the centre of security.'' Its execution was

entrusted to Khurshid Pasha, with the bulk of the Ottoman forces.

For two years Ali, now over eighty years of age, held his

own, in spite of the defection of his vassals and even of his

sons. At last, in the spring of 1822, after a prolonged siege

in his island fortress at Iannina, which even the outbreak

of the Greek revolt had not served to raise, the intrepid old

man was forced to sue for terms. He asked and received an

interview with Khurshid, was received courteously and dismissed

with the most friendly assurances. As he turned to leave the

grand vizier's tent he was stabbed in the back; his head was

cut off and sent to Constantinople. Notwithstanding their

treason to their father, his sons met with the same fate.

In spite of the ferocious characteristics which have been

suggested in the above sketch, Ali Pasha is undoubtedly one

of the most remarkable, as he is one of the most picturesque,

figures in modern history; and as such he was recognized

in his own day. His court at Iannina was the centre of a

sort of barbarous culture, in which astrologers, alchemists

and Greek poets played their part, and was often visited by

travellers. Amongst others, Byron came, and has left a record

of his impressions in ``Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,'' less

interesting and vivid than the prose accounts of Pouqueville,

T. S. Hughes and William M. Leake. Leake (iii. 259) reports

a reproof addressed by Ali to the French renegade Ibrahim

Effendi, who had ventured to remonstrate against some

particular act of ferocity: ``At present you are too young at

my court to know how to comport yourself. . . . You are not

yet acquainted with the Greeks and Albanians: when I hang up

one of these wretches on the plane-tree, brother robs brother

under the very branches: if I burn one of them alive, the

son is ready to steal his father's ashes to sell them for

money. They are destined to be ruled by me; and no one but Ali

is able to restrain their evil propensities.'' This is perhaps

as good an apology as could be made for his character and

methods. To the wild people over whom he ruled none was

needed. He had their respect, if not their love; he is the hero

of a thousand ballads; and his portrait still hangs among the

ikons in the cottages of the Greek mountaineers. All accounts

agree in describing him in later life as a man of handsome

presence, with a venerable white beard, piercing black eyes

and a benevolent cast of countenance, the effect of which was

heightened in conversation by a voice of singular sweetness.

AUTHORITIES.--Apart from the scattered references in the

published and unpublished diplomatic correspondence of the

period, contemporary journals and books of travel contain

much interesting material for the life of Ali. Of these may

especially be mentioned Francois C. H. L. Pouqueville, Voyage en

Moree, a Constantinople, en Albanie, &c. (3 vols., Paris,

1805), of which an English version by A. Plumptre was published

in 1815; ib. Voyage dans la Grece (5 vols., Paris, 1820,

1821). Pouqueville, who spent some time as French resident

at Iannina, had special facilities for obtaining firsthand

information, though his emotionalism makes his observations

and deductions at times somewhat suspect. Very interesting

also are Thomas Smart Hughes, Travels in Greece and Albania

(2 vols., 2nd ed., Lond. 1830); John Cam Hobhouse (Lord

Broughton), A Journey through Albania, &c. . . . during

the years 1809 and 1810 (Lond., 4to, 1813, a new ed., 2

vols., 1855); William Martin Leake, Travels in Northern

Greece (4 vols., Lond. 1845). See also Pouqueville's Hist.

de la regeneration de la Grece, 1740-1824 (4 vols.,

Paris, 1824, 3rd ed., Brussels, 1825); R. A. Davenport,

Life of Ali Pasha, vizier of Epirus (1861). (W. A. P.)

1 In his report on the Ionian Treaty presented to Lord

Castlereagh at the congress of Vienna in December 1814, Sir

Richard Church strongly advocated, not only the retention of

Parga, but that Vonitza, Prevesa and Butrinto also should be

taken from Ali Pasha and placed under British protection, a

measure he considered necessary. for the safety of the Ionian

Islands. ``Ali Pasha,'' he wrote, ``is now busy building

forts along his coast and strengthening his castles in the

interior. In January 1814 he had 14,000 peasants at work on

the castle of Argiro Castro, and about 1500 erecting a fort at

Porto Palermo, nearly opposite Corfu.'' In 1810 he had erected

a fort directly opposite Santa Maura commanding the harbour.

The fate of Parga created intense feeling at the time in

England, and was cited by Liberals as a crowning instance of

the perfidy of the government and of Castlereagh's subservience

to reactionary tendencies abroad. The step, however,

was not lightly taken. In occupying the town the British

general had expressly refrained from pledging Great Britain

to remain there; and the government held that any permanent

occupation of a post on the mainland carried with it risks of

complications out of all proportion to any possible benefit.

ALIAGA, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon,

Philippine Islands, about 70 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop.

(1903) 11,950. It has a comparatively cool and healthful

climate, and is pleasantly situated about midway between the

Pampanga Grande and the Pampanga Chico rivers, and in a large

and fertile valley of which the principal products are Indian

corn, rice, sugar and tobacco. Tagalog is the most important

language; Ilocano, Pampango and Pangasinan are also used.

ALIAS (Lat. for ``at another time''), a term used to

connect the different names of a person who has passed under

more than one, in order to conceal his identity, or for

other reasons; or, compendiously, to describe the adopted

name. The expression alias dictus was formerly used in

legal indictments, and pleadings where absolute precision was

necessary in identifying the person to be charged, as ``John

Jones, alias dictus James Smith.'' The adoption of a name

other than a man's baptismal or surname need not necessarily

be for the purpose of deception or fraud; pseudonyms or

nicknames fall thus under the description of an alias.

Where a person is married under an alias, the marriage is

void when both parties have knowingly and wilfully connived

at the adoption of the alias, with a fraudulent intention.

But if one of the parties to a marriage has acquired a new

name by use and reputation, or if the true name of any one of

the parties is not known to the other, the use of an alias

in these cases will not affect the validity of the marriage.

ALIBI (Lat. for ``elsewhere''), in law, the defence resorted

to in criminal prosecutions, where the person charged alleges

that he was so far distant at the time from the place where the

crime was committed that he could not have been guilty. An alibi,

if substantiated, is the most conclusive proof of innocence.

ALICANTE, a province of south-eastern Spain; bounded

on the N. by Valencia, W. by Albacete and Murcia, S. by

Murcia, and S.E. and E. by the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900)

470,149; area, 2096 sq. m. Alicante was formed in 1833 of

districts taken from the ancient provinces of Valencia and

Murcia, Valencia contributing by far the larger portion.

The surface of the province is extremely diversified. In

the north and west there are extensive mountain ranges of

calcareous formation, intersected by deep ravines; while

farther south the land is more level, and there are many

fertile valleys. On the Mediterranean coast, unhealthy

salt marshes alternate with rich plains of pleasant and

productive huertas or gardens, such as those of Alicante and

Denia. Apart from Segura, which flows from the highlands

of Albacete through Murcia and Orihuela to the sea, there is

no considerable river, but a few rivulets flow east into the

Mediterranean. The climate is temperate, and the rainfall very

slight. Despite the want of rivers and of rain, agriculture is

in a flourishing condition. Many tracts, originally rocky and

sterile, have been irrigated and converted into vineyards and

plantations. Cereals are grown, but the inhabitants prefer

to raise such articles of produce as are in demand for

export, and consequently part of the grain supply has to be

imported. Esparto grass, rice, olives, the sugar-cane, and

tropical fruits and vegetables are largely produced. Great

attention is given to the rearing of bees and silk-worms; and

the wine of the province is held in high repute throughout Spain,

while some inferior kinds are sent to France to be mixed with

claret. There are iron and lignite mines, but the output is

small. Mineral springs are found at various places. The

manufactures consist of fine cloths, silk, cotton, woollen

and linen fabrics, girdles and lace, paper, hats, leather,

earthenware and soap. There are numerous oil mills and brandy

distilleries. Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the

carrying trade, while the fisheries on the coast are also

actively prosecuted, tunny and anchovies being caught in great

numbers. Barilla is obtained from the sea-weed on the shores,

and some of the saline marshes, notably those near Torrevieja,

yield large supplies of salt. The principal towns, which are

separately described, include Alicante, the capital (pop. 1900,

50,142), Crevillente (10,726), Denia (12,431), Elche (27,308),

Novelda (11,388), Orihuela (28,530), and Villena (14,099).

Other towns, of less importance, are Aspe (7927), Cocentaina

(7093), Monovar (10,601), Pinoso (7946), and Villajoyosa (8902).

ALICANTE, the capital of the Spanish province described above,

and one of the principal seaports of the country. Pop. (1900)

50,142. It is situated in 38 deg. 21' N. and 0 deg. 26' W., on

the Bay of Alicante, an inlet of the Mediterranean Sea. It

is the termini of railways from Madrid and Murcia. From its

harbour, the town presents a striking picture. Along the

shore extends the Paseo de los Martires, a double avenue of

palms; behind this, the white flat-roofed houses rise in the

form of a crescent towards the low hills which surround the

city, and terminate, on the right, in a bare rock, 400 ft.

high, surmounted by an ancient citadel. Its dry and equable

climate renders Alicante a popular health-resort. The

city is an episcopal see, and contains a modern cathedral.

The bay affords good anchorage, but only small vessels can come

up to the two moles. The harbour is fortified, and there is

a small lighthouse on the eastern mole; important engineering

works, subsidized by the state, were undertaken in 1902 to

provide better accomodation. In the same year 1737 vessels

of 939,789 tons entered the port. The trade of Alicante

consists chiefly in the manufacture of cotton, linen and woollen

goods, cigars and confectionery; the importation of coal,

iron, machinery, manures, timber, oak staves and fish; and

the exportation of lead, fruit, farm produce and red wines,

which are sent to France for blending with better vintages.

Fine marble is procured in the island of Plana near the coast.

Alicante was the Roman Lucentum; but, despite its

antiquity, it has few Roman or Moorish remains. In 718, it

was occupied by the Moors, who were only expelled in 1304,

and made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture the city in

1331. Alicante was besieged by the French in 1709, and by

the Federalists of Cartagena in 1873. For an account of

the events which led up to these two sieges, see SPAIN.,

For further details of the local history, see J. Pastor

de la Roca, Historia general de la ciudad y castillo de

Alicante, &c. (Alicante, 1854); and the Ensayo biografico

bibliografico de escritores de Alicante y de su provincia,

by M. R. Garcia and A. Montero y Perez (Alicante, 1890).

ALICE MAUD MARY, GRAND-DUCHESS OF HESSE-DARMSTADT

(1843-1878), second daughter and third child of Queen

Victoria, was born at Buckingham Palace, on the 25th of April

1843. A pretty, delicate-featured child--``cheerful, merry,

full of fun and mischief,'' as her elder sister described

her--fond of gymnastics, a good skater and an excellent

horsewoman, she was a general favourite from her earliest

days. Her first years were passed without particular incident

in the home circle, where the training of their children was

a matter of the greatest concern to the queen and the prince

consort. Among other things, the royal children were encouraged

to visit the poor, and the effect of this training was very

noticeable in the later life of Princess Alice. After the

marriage of the Princess Royal in 1858, the new responsibilities

devolving upon Princess Alice, as the eldest daughter at

home, called forth the higher traits of her character, and

brought her into still closer relationship with her parents,

and especially with her father. In the summer of 1860, at

Windsor Castle, Princess Alice first met her future husband,

Prince Louis of Hesse. An attachment quickly sprang up, and

on the prince's second visit in November they were formally

engaged. In the following year, on the announcement of the

contemplated marriage, the House of Commons unanimously voted

a dowry of L. 30,000 and an annuity of L. 6000 to the princess.

In December 1861, while preparations were being made for the

marriage, the prince consort was struck down with typhoid fever,

and died on the 14th. Princess Alice nursed her father during

his short illness with the utmost care, and after his death

devoted herself to comforting her mother under this terrible

blow. Her marriage took place at Osborne, on the 1st of July

1862. The princess unconsciously wrote her own biography

from this period in her constant letters to Queen Victoria,

a selection of which, edited by Dr. Carl Sell, were allowed

to be printed in 1883. These letters give a complete picture

of the daily life of the duke and duchess, and they also

show the intense love of the latter for her husband, her

mother and her native land. She managed to visit England

every year, and it was at her special request that when

she died her husband laid an English flag upon her coffin.

In the war between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Hesse-

Darmstadt was upon the side of the Austrians; Prince Louis

accompanied his troops to the front, and was duly appointed

by the grand-duke to the command of the Hessian division.

This was a time of intense trial to the princess, whose

husband and brother-in-law, the crown prince of Prussia, were

necessarily fighting upon opposite sides. The duke of Hesse

also took part in the principal battles of the Franco-Prussian

war, while the duchess was actively engaged in organizing

hospitals for the relief of the sick and wounded. The death

of the duke's father, Prince Charles of Hesse, on the 20th

of March 1877, was followed by that of the grand-duke on the

13th of June, and Prince Louis succeeded to the throne as

Grand Duke Louis IV. In the summer of 1878 the grand-duke and

duchess, with their family, came again to England, and went

to Eastbourne, where the duchess remained for some time.

She returned to Darmstadt in the autumn, and on the 8th of

November 1878 her daughter, Princess Victoria, was attacked by

diphtheria. Three more of her children, as well as her

husband, quickly caught the disease, and the youngest, ``May,''

succumbed on the 16th. On the 7th of December the princess

was herself attacked, and, being weakened by nursing and

anxiety, had not strength to resist the disease, which proved

fatal on the 14th of December, the seventeenth anniversary of

her father's death. She left one son and four daughters. .

See Carl Sell, Alice: Mittheilungen aus ihrem Leben und Briefen,

&c. (Darmstadt, 1883), with English translation by the Princess

Christian, Alice: biographical sketch and letters (1884). (G. F. B.)

ALIDADE (from the Arab.), the movable index of a graduated

arc, used in the measurement of angles. The word is used

also to designate the supporting frame or arms carrying

the microscopes or verniers of a graduated circle.

ALIEN (Lat. alienus), the technical term applied by

British constitutional law to anyone who does not enjoy the

character of a British subject; in general, a foreigner who

for the purposes of any state comes into certain domestic

relations with it, other than those applying to native-born or

naturalized citizens, but owns allegiance to a foreign sovereign.

English law, save with the special exceptions mentioned, admits

to the character of subjects all who are born within the king's

allegiance, that is, speaking generally, within the British

dominions. In the celebrated question of the post-nati in

the reign of James I. of England, it was found, after solemn

trial, that natives of Scotland born before the union of the

crowns were aliens in England, but that, since allegiance

is to the person of the king, those born subsequently were

English subjects. A child born abroad, whose father or whose

grandfather on the father's side was a British subject, may

claim the same character unless at the time of his birth

his father was an attainted traitor, or in the service of

a state engaged in war against the British empire (4th Geo.

II. c. 21). Owing to this exceptional provision some sons of

Jacobite refugees born abroad, who joined in the rebellion of

1745, were admitted to the privilege of prisoners of war.

It has been enacted in the United Kingdom with regard to the

national status of women and children that a married woman

is to be deemed a subject of the state of which her husband

is for the time being a subject; that a natural-born British

woman, having become an alien by marriage, and thereafter

being a widow, may be rehabilitated under conditions slightly

more favourable than are required for naturalization; that

where a father or a widow becomes an alien, the children in

infancy becoming resident in the country where the parent

is naturalized, and being naturalized by the local law,

are held to be subjects of that country; that those of a

father or of a widow readmitted to British nationality or

who obtains a certificate of naturalization, becoming during

infancy resident with such parent in the British dominions

in the former case or in the United Kingdom in the latter,

become readmitted or naturalized (Naturalization Act 1870,

s. 10). The nationality of children not covered by these

enactments is not affected by the change of their parents'

nationality. The same statute provides that a declaration of

alienage before a justice of peace or other competent judge,

having the effect of divesting the declarant of the character

of a British subject, may be made by a naturalized British

subject desiring to resume the nationality of the country

to which he originally belonged, if there be a convention

to that effect with that country; by natural-born subjects

who were also born subjects of another state according to

its law; or by persons born abroad having British fathers.

Naturalization, which means conferring the character of a subject,

may now, under the act of 1870, be obtained by applying to the

home secretary and producing evidence of having resided for not

less than five years in the United Kingdom, or of having been

in the service of the crown for not less than five years, and

of intention to reside in the United Kingdom or serve under the

crown. Such a certificate may be granted by the secretary

of state to one naturalized previously to the passing of the

act, or to a British subject as to whose nationality a doubt

exists, or to a statutory alien, i.e. one who has become

an alien by declaration in pursuance of the act of 1870.

In the United States the separate state laws largely determine

the status of an alien, but subject to Federal treaties. (For

further particulars see ALLEGIANCE and NATURALIZATION.)

Many of the disabilities to which aliens were subject in the

United Kingdom, either by the common law or under various acts

of parliament, have been repealed by the Naturalization Act

1870. It enables aliens to take, acquire, hold and dispose

of real and personal property of every description, and to

transmit a title to it, in all respects as natural-born British

subjects. But the act expressly declares that this relaxation of

the law does not qualify aliens for any office or any municipal,

parliamentary or other franchise, or confer any right of a

British subject other than those above expressed in regard to

property, nor does it affect interests vested in possession

or expectancy under dispositions made before the act, or by

devolution of law on the death of any one dying before the

act. A ship, any share in which is owned by an alien, shall

not be deemed a British ship (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, s.

i.) By the Juries Act 1870, s. 8, aliens who have been domiciled

for ten years in England or Wales, if in other respects duly

qualified, are liable to serve on juries or inquests in England

or Wales; and by the Naturalization Act 1870, s. 5, the ahens'

old privilege of being tried by a jury de medietate linguae

(that is, of which half were foreigners), was abolished.

It seems to be a rule of general public law that an alien

can be sent out of the realm by exercise of the crown's

prerogative; but in modern English practice, whenever it seems

necessary to expel foreigners (see EXPULSION), a special

act of parliament has to be obtained for the purpose, unless

the case falls within the extradition acts or the Aliens Act

1905. The latter prohibits the landing in the United Kingdom

of undesirable alien steerage passengers, called in the act

``immigrants,'' from ships carrying more than twenty alien

steerage passengers, called in the act ``immigrant ships'';

nor can alien immigrants be landed except at certain ports

at which there is an ``immigrant officer,'' to whom power of

prohibiting the landing is given, subject to a right of appeal

to the immigration board of the port. The act contains a number

of qualifications, and among these empowers the secretary of

state to exempt any immigrant ship from its provisions if he

is satisfied that a proper system is maintained to prevent

the immigration of undesirable persons. The principal test of

undesirableness is not having or being in a position to obtain

the means of supporting one's self and one's dependents, or

appearing likely from disease or infirmity to become a charge

on the rates, provided that the immigrant is not seeking to

avoid prosecution or punishment on religious or political

grounds, or persecution, involving danger of imprisonment

or danger to life or limb, on account of religious belief.

Lunatics, idiots, persons who from disease or infirmity

appear likely to become a detriment to the public otherwise

than through the rates, and persons sentenced in a foreign

country for crimes for which they could be surrendered to that

country, are also enumerated as undesirable. Power is also

given to the secretary of state to expel persons sentenced

as just mentioned, or, if recommended by the court in which

they have been convicted, persons convicted of felony or some

offence for which the court has power to impose imprisonment

without the option of a fine, or of certain offences against

the police laws; and persons in receipt of any such parochial

relief as disqualifies for the parliamentary franchise, or

wandering without ostensible mean of subsistence, or living

under insanitary conditions due to overcrowding. (JNO. W.)

ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another), the

act or fact of being estranged, set apart or separated. In

law the word is used for the act of transfer of property by

voluntary deed and not by inheritance. In regard to church

property the word has come to mean, since the Reformation, a

transfer from religious to secular ownership. ``Alienation''

is also used to denote a state of insanity (q.v..)

ALIEN-HOUSES, religious houses in England belonging to

foreign ecclesiastics, or under their control. They generally

were built where property had been left by the donors to

foreign orders to pray for their souls. They were frequently

regular ``priories,'' but sometimes only ``cells,'' and even

``granges,', with small chapels attached. Some, particularly

in cities, seem to have been a sort of mission-houses.

There were more than 100 in England. Many alien-houses

were suppressed by Henry V. and the rest by Henry VIII.

ALIENIST (Lat. alienus, that which belongs to another,

i.e. is external to one's self), one who specializes

in the study of mental diseases, which are often included

in the generic name ``Alienation.'' (See INSANITY.)

ALIGARH, a city and district of British India in the Meerut

division of the United Provinces. The city, also known as

Koil, was a station on the East Indian railway, 876 m. from

Calcutta. Sir Sayad Ahmad Khan, K.C.S.I., who died in 1898,

founded in 1864 the Aligarh Institute and Scientific Society

for the translation into the vernacular of western literature;

and afterwards the Mahommedan Anglo-Oriental College, under

English professors, with an English school attached. The

college meets with strong support from the enlightened portion

of the Mussulman community, whose aim is to raise it to the

status of a university, with the power of conferring degrees.

The population (1901) 70,434, showed an increase of 14% in the

decade. There are several flour-mills, cotton-presses and a dairy

farm. Aligarh Fort, situated on the Grand Trunk road, consists

of a regular polygon, surrounded by a very broad and deep

ditch. It became a fortress of great importance under Sindhia

in 1759, and was the depot where he drilled and organized

his battalions in the European fashion with the aid of De

Boigne. It was captured from the Mahrtatas under the

leadership of Perron, another French officer, by Lord Lake's

army, in September 1803, since which time it has been much

strengthened and improved. In the rebellion of 1857 the

troops stationed at Aligarh mutinied, but abstained from

murdering their officers, who, with the other residents

and ladies and children, succeeded in reaching Hathras.

The district of Aligarh has an area of 1857 sq. m. It is

nearly a level plain, but with a slight elevation in the centre,

between the two great rivers the Ganges and Jumna. The only

other important river is the Kali Nadi, which traverses the

entire length of the district from north-east to south-west.

The district is traversed by several railways and also by the

Ganges canal, which is navigable. The chief trading centre is

Hathras. In 1901 the population was 1,200,822, showing an

increase of 15% in the decade, due to the extension of irrigation.

There are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton.

ALIGNMENT (from Fr. a and ligne, the Lat. linea, a

line), a setting in line, generally straight, or the way

in which the line runs; an expression used in surveying,

drawing, and in military arrangements, the alignment of

a regiment or a camp meaning the situation when drawn

up in line or the relative position of the tents. The

alignment of a rifle has reference to the way of getting the

sights into line with the object, so as to aim correctly.

ALIMENT (from Lat. aliment-um, from alere to nourish),

a synonym for ``food,'' literally or metaphorically.

The word has also been used in the same legal sense as

ALIMONY (q.v..) Aliment, in Scots law, is the sum paid

or allowance given in respect of the reciprocal obligation

of parents and children, husband and wife, grandparents and

grandchildren, to contribute to each other's maintenance.

The term is also used in regard to a similar obligation

of other parties, as of creditors to imprisoned debtors,

the payments by parishes to paupers, &c. Alimentary funds,

whether of the kind above mentioned, or set apart as such

by the deed of a testator, are intended for the mere support

of the recipient, and are not attachable by creditors.

ALIMENTARY CANAL, in anatomy. The alimentary canal, strictly

speaking, is the whole digestive tract from the mouth to the

anus. From the one orifice to the other the tube is some

25 to 30 ft. long, and the food, in its passage, passes

through the following parts one after the other:--mouth,

pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines, caecum, large

intestines, rectum and anus. Into this tube at various

points the salivary glands, liver and pancreas pour their

secretions by special ducts. As the mouth (q.v.) and

pharynx (q.v.) are separately described, the detailed

description will here begin with the oesophagus or gullet.

The oesophagus (Gr. oiso, I will carry, and fagein, to

eat), a muscular tube lined with mucous membrane, stretches

from the lower limit of the pharynx, at the level of the

cricoid cartilage, to the cardiac orifice of the stomach.

It is about 10 in. long (25 cm.) and half to one inch in

diameter. At first it lies in the lower part of the neck,

then in the thorax, and lastly, for about an inch, in the

abdomen. As far as the level of the fourth or fifth thoracic

vertebra it lies behind the trachea, but when that tube ends,

it is in close contact with the pericardium, and, at the level

of the tenth thoracic vertebra, passes through the oesophageal

opening of the diaphragm (q.v.), accompanied by the two

vagi nerves, the left being in front of it and the right

behind. In the abdomen it lies just behind the left lobe of the

liver. Both in the upper and lower parts of its course it lies

a little to the left of the mid line. Its mucous membrane is

thrown into a number of longitudinal pleats to allow stretching.

The stomach (Gr. stomachos) is an irregularly pear-shaped

bag, situated in the upper and left part of the abdomen.

It is somewhat flattened from before backward and so has

an anterior and posterior surface and an upper and lower

border. When moderately distended the thick end of the

pear or fundus bulges upward and to the left, while

the narrow end is constricted to form the pylorus, by

means of which the stomach communicates with the small

intestine. The cardiac orifice, where the oesophagus

enters, is placed about a third of the way along the upper

border from the left end of the fundus, and, between it and

the pylorus, the upper border is concave and is known as

the lesser curvature. From the cardiac to the pyloric

orifice, round the lower border, is the greater curvature.

The stomach has in front of it the liver (see fig. 1), the

diaphragm and the anterior abdominal wall, while behind it

are the pancreas, left kidney, left adrenal, spleen, colon and

mesocolon. These structures form what is known as the stomach

chamber. When the stomach is empty it contracts into a tubular

organ which is frequently sharply bent, and the transverse

colon ascends to occupy the vacant part of the stomach chamber.

The last inch of the stomach before reaching the pylorus is

From A. Birmingham; Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.

FIG. 1.--The Abdominal Viscera in situ, as seen when the abdomen

is laid open and the great omentum removed (drawn to scale from a

photograph of a male body aged 56, hardened by formalin injections).

The ribs on the right side are indicated by Roman numerals;

it will be observed that the eighth costal cartilage

articulated with the sternum on both sides. The subcostal,

intertubercular, and right and left Poupart lines are drawn

in black, and the mesial plane is indicated by a dotted

line. The intercostal muscles and part of the diaphragm

have been removed, to show the liver and stomach extending up

beneath the ribs. The stomach is moderately distended, and

the intestines are particularly regular in their arrangement.

usually tubular and is known as the pyloric canal. Before

reaching this there is a bulging known as the pyloric vestibule

(see D. J. Cunningham, Tr. R. Soc. of Edinib. vol. xlv.

pt. 1, No. 2). The pylorus is an oval opening, averaging

half an inch in its long axis but capable of considerable

distension; it is formed by a special development of the

circular muscle layer of the stomach, and during life is

probably tightly closed. The mucous membrane of the stomach

is thrown into pleats or rugae when the organ is not fully

distended, while between these it has a mammillated appearance.

Superficial to the mucous coat is a sub-mucous, consisting

of loose connective tissue, while superficial to this are

three coats of unstriped muscle, the inner oblique, the middle

circular and the outer longitudinal. The peritoneal coat is

described in the article on the coelom and serous membranes.

The small intestine is a tube, from 22 to 25 ft. long,

beginning at the pylorus and ending at the ileo-caecal

valve; it is divided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

The duodenum is from 9 to 11 in. long and forms a horseshoe

or C-shaped curve, encircling the head of the pancreas. It

differs from the rest of the gut in being retroperitoneal.

Its first part is horizontal and lies behind the fundus of

the gall-bladder, passing backward and to the right from the

pylorus. The second part runs vertically downward in

front of the hilum of the right kidney, and into this part

the pancreatic and bile ducts open. The third part runs

horizontally to the left in front of the aorta and vena

cava, while the fourth part ascends to the left side of

the second lumbar vertebra, after which it bends sharply

downward and forward to form the duodeno-jejunal flexure.

The jejunum forms the upper two-fifths of the rest of

the small intestine; it, like the ileum, is thrown into

numerous convolutions and is attached by the mesentery to the

posterior abdominal wall. (See COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES.)

The ileum is the remaining three-fifths of the small

intestine, though there is no absolute point at which the

one ends and the other begins. Speaking broadly, the jejunum

occupies the upper and left part of the abdomen below the

subcostal plane (see ANATOMY: Superficial and Artistic),

the ileum the lower and right part. About 3 ft. from its

termination a small pouch, known as Meckel's diverticulum,

is very occasionally found. At its termination the ileum

opens into the large intestine at the ileo-caecal valve.

The caecum is a blind sac occupying the right iliac fossa and

extending down some two or three inches below the ileo- caecal

junction. From its posterior and left surface the vermiform

appendix protrudes, and usually is directed upward and to the

left, though it not infrequently hangs down into the true

pelvis. This worm-like tube is blind at its end and is

usually 3 or 4 in. long, though it has been seen as long as 10.

in. Its internal opening into the caecum is about 1 in. below

that of the ileum. On transverse section it is seen to be

composed of (1) an external muscular coat, (2) a submucous

coat, (3) a mass of lymphoid tissue, which appears after

birth, and (4) mucous membrane. In many cases its lumen is

wholly or partly obliterated, though this is probably due to

disease (see R. Berry and L. Lack, Journ. Anat. & Phys.

vol. H. p. 247). Guarding the opening of the ileum into

the caecum is the ileo-caecal valve, which consists of two

cusps projecting into the caecum; of these the upper forms a

horizontal shelf, while the lower slopes up to it obliquely.

Complete absence of the valve has been noticed, and in one

such case the writer found that no abdominal inconvenience had

been recorded during life. The caecum is usually completely

covered by peritoneum, three special pouches of which are

often found in its neighbourhood; of these the ileo-colic is

just above the point of junction of the ileum and caecum, the

ileocaecal just below that point, while the retro-caecal is

behind the caecum. At birth the caecum is a cone, the apex

of which is the appendix; it is bent upon itself to form a

U, and sometimes this arrangement persists throughout life

(see C. Toldt, ``Die Formbildung d. menschl. Blinddarmes,''

Sitz. der Wiener Akad. Bd. ciii. Abteil. 3, p. 41).

The ascending colon runs up from the caecum at the level of the

ileo-caecal valve to the hepatic flexure beneath and behind the

right lobe of the liver; it is about 8 in. long and posteriorly

is in contact with the abdominal wall and right kidney. It is

covered by peritoneum except on its posterior surface (see fig. 1).

The transverse colon is variable in position, depending largely

on the distension of the stomach, but usually corresponding

to the subcostal plane (see ANATOMY: Superficial and

Artistic). On the left side of the abdomen it ascends to the

splenic flexure, which may make an impression on the spleen (see

DUCTLESS GLANDS), and is bound to the diaphragm opposite the

eleventh rib by a fold of peritoneum called the phrenico-colic

ligament. The peritoneal relations of this part are

discussed in the article on the coelom and serous membranes.

The descending colon passes down in front of the left kidney

and left side of the posterior abdominal wall to the crest

of the ilium; it is about 6 in. long and is usually empty and

contracted while the rest of the colon is distended with gas;

its peritoneal relations are the same as those of the ascending

colon, but it is more likely to be completely surrounded.

The iliac colon stretches from the crest of the ilium

to the inner border of the psoas muscle, lying in the left

iliac fossa, just above and parallel to Poupart's ligament.

Like the descending, it is usually uncovered by peritoneum

on its posterior surface. It is about 6 in. in length.

The pelvic colon lies in the true pelvis and forms a

loop, the two limbs of which are superior and inferior

while the convexity reaches across to the right side of the

pelvis. In the foetus this loop occupies the right

iliac fossa, but, as the caecum descends and enlarges

and the pelvis widens, it is usually driven out of this

region. The distal end of the loop turns sharply downward

to reach the third piece of the sacrum where it becomes the

rectum. To this pelvic colon Sir F. Treves (Anatomy of

the Intestinal Canal, London, 1885) has given the name

of the omega loop. Formerly the iliac and pelvic colons

were spoken of as the sigmoid flexure, but Treves and T.

Jonnesco (Le Colon pelvien pendant la vie intra-uterine,

Paris, 1892) have pointed out the inapplicability of the

term, and to the latter author the modern description is due.

The rectum, according to modern ideas, begins in front of

the third piece of the sacrum; formerly the last part of the

O (or omega) loop was described as its first part. It ends

in a dilatation or rectal ampulla, which is in contact with

the back of the prostate in the male and of the vagina in the

female and is in front of the tip of the coccyx. The rectum

is not straight, as its name would imply, but has a concavity

forward corresponding to that of the sacrum and coccyx.

When viewed from in front three bends are usually seen, the

upper and lower of which are sharply concave to the left,

the middle one to the right. At the end of the pelvic colon

the mesocolon ceases, and the rectum is then only covered

by peritoneum at its sides and in front; lower down the

lateral covering is gradually reflected off and then only

the front is covered. About the junction of the middle and

lower thirds of the tube the anterior peritoneal covering

is also reflected off on to the bladder or vagina, forming

the recto-vesical pouch in the male and the pouch of

Douglas in the female. This reflexion is usually about 3

in. above the anal aperture, but may be a good deal lower.

The anal canal is the termination of the alimentary tract,

and runs downward and backward from the lower surface of

the rectal ampulla between the levatores ani muscles. It

is about an inch long and its lateral walls are in contact,

so that in section it appears as an antero-posterior slit

(see J. Symington, Journ. Anat. and Phys. vol. 23, 1888).

Structure of the Intestine.--The intestine has four coats:

serous, muscular, submucous and mucous. The serous or

peritoneal coat has already been described wherever it is

present. The muscular coat consists of unstriped fibres

arranged in two layers, the outer longitudinal and the inner

circular (see fig. 2). In the large intestine the longitudinal

fibres, instead of being arranged evenly round the tube as

they are in the small, are gathered into three longitudinal

bands called taeniae (see fig. 1); by the contraction of

these the large intestine is thrown into a series of sacculi

or slight pouches. The taeniae in the caecum all lead to

the vermiform appendix, and form a useful guide to this

structure. In the rectum the three taeniae once more become

evenly arranged over the whole surface of the bowel, but

more thickly on the anterior and posterior parts. The

circular layer is always thicker than the longitudinal;

in the small intestine it decreases in thickness from the

duodenum to the ileum, but in the large it gradually increases

again, so that it is thickest in the duodenum and rectum.

The submucous coat is very strong and consists of

loose areolar tissue in which the vessels break up.

The mucous coat is thick and vascular (see fig. 2); it

consists of an epithelial layer most internally which

forms the intestinal glands (see EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL

AND GLANDULAR TISSUES.) External to this is the basement

membrane, outside which is a layer of retiform tissue, and

this is separated from the submucous coat by a very thin

layer of unstriped muscle called the muscularis mucosae. In

the duodenum and jejunum the mucous membrane is thrown into

a series of transverse pleats called valvulae conniventes

(see fig. 3); these begin about an inch from the pylorus and

gradually fade away as the ileum is reached. About 4 in.

from the pylorus the common bile and pancreatic ducts form a

papilla, above which one of the valvulae conniventes makes

a hood and below which a vertical fold, the frenulum, runs

downward. The surface of the mucous membrane of the whole

of the small intestine has a velvety appearance, due to

the presence of closely-set, minute, thread-like elevations

called vilii (see ffg. 2). Throughout the whole length of

the intestinal tract are minute masses of lymphoid tissue

called solitary glands (see fig. 2); these are especially

numerous in the Caecum and appendix, while in the ileum they

are collected into large oval patches, known as agminated

glands or Peyer's patches, the long axes of which,

from half an inch to 4 in. long, lie in the long axis of the

bowel. They are always found in that part of the intestine

which is furthest from the mesenteric attachment. In the

interior of the rectum three shelf-like folds, one above

the other, project into the cavity and correspond to the

lateral concavities or kinks of the tube. They are not

in the same line and the largest is usually on the right

side. They are known as the plicae recti or valves of

Houston. In the anal canal are four or five longitudinal

folds called the columns of Morgagni. (For further

details, see Quain's Anatomy, London, 1896; Gray's Anatomy,

London, 1905; Cunningham's Anatomy, Edinburgh, 1906.)

Embryology.--The greater part of the alimentary canal is

formed by the closing-in of the entoderm to make a longitudinal

tube, ventral and parallel to the notochord. This tube

is blind in front and behind (cephalad and caudad), but

the middle part of its ventral wall is for some distance

continuous with the wall of the yolk-sac, and this part of the

canal, which at first opens into the yolk-sac by a very wide

aperture, is called the mid gut. The part in front of it,

which lies dorsal to the heart, is the fore gut, while the

part behind the aperture of the yolk-sac is the hind gut.

The pharynx, oesophagus, stomach and part of the duodenum are

developed from the fore gut, a good deal of the colon and the

From A. Birmingham; Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.

Fig. 3.--Valvulae Conniventes (natural size).

A, As seen in a bit of jejunum which

has been filled with alcohol and hardened.

B, A portion of fresh intestine spread out under water.

rectum from the hind gut, while the mid gut is responsible

for the rest. The cephalic part of the fore gut forms the

pharynx (q.v.), and about the fourth week the stomach

appears as a fusiform dilatation in the straight tube.

Between the two the oesophagus gradually forms as the embryo

elongates. The opening into the yolk-sac, which at first

is very wide, gradually narrows, as the ventral abdominal

walls close in, until in the adult the only indication of the

connexion between the gut and the yolk-sac is the very rare

presence (about 2%) of Meckel's diverticulum already referred

to. The stomach soon shows signs of the greater and lesser

curvatures, the latter being ventral, but maintains its straight

position. About the sixth week the caecum appears as a lateral

diverticulum, and, until the third month, is of uniform calibre;

after this period the terminal part ceases to grow at the

same rate as the proximal, and so the vermiform appendix is

formed. The mid gut forms a loop with its convexity toward

the diminishing vitelline duct, or remains of the yolk-sac,

and until the third month it protrudes into the umbilical

cord. The greater curvature of the stomach grows more

rapidly than the lesser, and the whole stomach turns over

and becomes bent at right angles, so that what was its left

surface becomes ventral. This turning over of the stomach

throws the succeeding part of the intestine into a duodenal

loop, which at first has a dorsal and ventral mesentery (see

COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES.) The intestine now grows

very rapidly and is thrown into a series of coils; the caecum

ascends and passes to the right ventral to the duodenum, and

presses it against the dorsal wall of the abdomen; then it

descends toward its permanent position in the right iliac fossa.

From the ventral surface on the hinder (caudal) closed end

of the intestinal tube the allantois grows to form the

placenta and bladder (see URINARY SYSTEM, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

and PLACENTA), and this region is the cloaca into which

the alimentary, urinary and generative canals or ducts all

open, but later two lateral folds appear which, by their

union, divide the cloaca into a ventral and a dorsal part,

the former being genito-urinary and the latter alimentary or

intestinal. In this way the rectum or dorsal compartment

is shut off from the genito-urinary. Later an ectodermal

invagination at the hind end of the embryo develops and

forms the anal canal; this is the proctodaeum, and for

some time it is separated from the hind (caudal) end of the

rectal part of the mesodaeum (or part of the intestinal

canal formed from the mesoderm) by a membrane called the

anal membrane. This is eventually absorbed and the

digestive tract now communicates with the surface by the anus.

F. Wood Jones (British Medical Journal, 17th of December

1904) has given a somewhat different description of the

development of the cloaca and anus, which better explains the

various abnormalities met with in this region but requires

further confirmation before it is generally accepted. For the

development of the mouth, pharynx, lungs, liver and pancreas from

the primitive alimentary canal, the reader is referred to the

special articles on those structures. (For further details, see W.

His, Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen (Leipzig, 1880-1885); C.

S. Minot's Embryology (New York, 1897); and J. P. M`Murrich,

Development of the Human Body (London, 1906). (F. G. P.)

Comparative Anatomy.--The primitive condition of the vertebrate

alimentary canal may be described as a straight, simple

tube, consisting of an anterior portion, the stomodaeum,

formed by an ectodermal invagination, the mesenteron,

a long median portion lined by endoderm, and a short

posterior portion, the proctodaeum, formed by ectodermal

invagination. In the lower vertebrates the primitive tube

subserved also the purpose of respiration, and traces of the

double function remain in the adult structure of all vertebrates

(see MOUTH, PHARYNX.) In fish, the pharynx, or branchial

region, suddenly becomes narrower, posterior to the gill-slits,

to form the oesophagus; in higher animals the oesophagus,

in the adult, is separated from the primitive pharyngeal

region and lies dorsal to it. Probably, in the primitive

vertebrata, the entire alimentary canal was lined with ciliated

cells. Traces of this ciliation persist in many living

forms. In the Ammocoete, the larval form of Petromyzon

(see CYCLOSTOMATA), the whole canal is ciliated except the

pharynx and the rectum; in the Dipnoi the epithelium of the

stomach and the intestines is ciliated; in Selachii that

of the posterior part of the gullet, and the spiral valve, is

ciliated; extensive ciliation may occur in almost any region

of the gut of the lower teleos. tomes, but in the higher

forms (Teleostei) it is generally absent. In the latter,

however, and in higher groups of vertebrates, a peculiar

striated border on the columnar cells lining the intestinal

tract has been held to be a final trace of ancestral ciliation.

The alimentary canal may be conveniently described in three

divisions, the oesophagus or gullet, the passage by which

food reaches the stomach, the stomach, typically an expanded

region in which the food remains for a considerable time

and is mechanically pulped, mixed with mucus and certain

digestive juices (see NUTRITION) and partly macerated,

the intestinal tract or gut, extending from the distal end

of the stomach to the cloaca or anus, in which the food is

subjected to further digestive action, but which is above all

the region in which absorption of the products of digestion

takes place, the refuse material together with quantities of

waste matter entering the gut from the blood and liver being

gradually passed towards the anus for discharge from the body.

The oesophagus is essentially merely a passage, as straight

as may be, from the pharynx to the stomach, varying in

length with the length of the neck and thoracic regions in

different animals, and in calibre with the nature of the

food. It is almost invariably lined with a many-layered

epithelium, forming a tough coating, readily repaired and

not easily damaged by hard food masses. It is occasionally

separated from the stomach by a slight constriction which may

be capable of contraction so as to prevent regurgitation.

There are few exceptions to this structural and functional

simplicity. In fishes (see ICHTHYOLOGY, Anatomy) the

swim-bladder is developed as a dorsal outgrowth of the oesophagus

and may remain in open connexion with it. In certain Teleosteis

(e.g. Liitodeira) it is longer than the length it has to

traverse and is thrown into convolutions. In many other

fish, particularly Selachiis, a set of processes of the

lining wall project into the cavity near the stomach and have

been supposed to aid in preventing food particles, or living

creatures swallowed without injury, escaping backwards into the

mouth. In some egg-eating snakes the sharp tips of the

ventral spines (hypapophyses) of the posterior cervical

vertebrae penetrate the wall of the oesophagus and are used

for breaking the shells of the eggs taken as food. In some

aquatic Chelonians, the food of which consists chiefly of

seaweeds, the lining membrane is produced into pointed processes

backwardly directed. In birds this region frequently presents

peculiarities. In Opisthocomus it forms an enormously

wide double loop, hanging down over the breast-bone, which

is peculiarly flattened and devoid of a keel in the anterior

portion. In many birds part of the oesophagus may be

temporarily dilated, forming a ``crop,'' as for instance in

birds of prey and humming birds. In the flamingo, many ducks,

storks, and the cormorant the crop is a permanent although

not a highly specialized enlargement. Finally, in the vast

majority of seed- eating birds, in gallinaceous birds, pigeons,

sandgrouse, parrots and many Passeres, particularly the

finches, the crop is a permanent globular dilatation, in which

the food is retained for a considerable time, mixed with a

slight mucous secretion, and softened and partly macerated by

the heat of the body. Many birds feed their young from the

soft contents of the crop, and in pigeons, at the breeding

season, the cells lining the crop proliferate rapidly and

are discharged as a soft cheesy mass into the cavity, forming

the substance known as pigeon's milk. Amongst Mammalia, in

Rodentia, Carnivora, elephants and ruminants, the wall of

the oesophagus contains a layer of voluntary muscle, by the

contraction of which these animals induce anti- peristaltic

movements and can so regurgitate food into the mouth.

Stomach.--Where the oesophagus passes into the stomach, the

lining wall of the alimentary tract changes from a many-layered

epithelium to a mucous epithelium, consisting of a single layer

of endodermal cells, frequently thrown into pits or projecting

as processes; from being chiefly protective, it has become

secretory and absorbing, and maintains this character to the

distal extremity where it passes into the epiblast of the

proctodaeum. In most cases the course of the alimentary

canal from the distal end of the oesophagus to the cloaca or

anus is longer than the corresponding region of the body, and

the canal is therefore thrown into folds. The fundamental

form of the stomach is a sac-like enlargement of the canal,

the proximal portion of which is continuous with the line

of the oesophagus, but the distal portion of which is bent

in the proximal portion, the whole forming an enlarged bent

tube. At the distal end of the tube the intestinal tract

proper begins, and the two regions are separated by a muscular

constriction. In fishes the stomach is generally in one of two

forms; it may be a simple bent tube, the proximal limb of which

is almost invariably much wider than the distal, anteriorly

directed limb; or the oesophagus may pass directly into an

expanded, globular or elongated sac, from the anterior lateral

wall of which, not far from the oesophageal opening, the duodenum

arises. In Batrachia and Reptilia the stomach is in most

cases a simple sac, marked off from the oesophagus only by

increased calibre. In the Crocodilia, however, the anterior

portion of the stomach is much enlarged and very highly

muscular, the muscles radiating from a central tendinous

area on each of the flattened sides. The cavity is lined by

a hardened secretion and contains a quantity of pebbles and

gravel which are used in the mechanical trituration of the

food, so that the resemblance to the gizzard of birds is well

marked. This muscular chamber leads by a small aperture into

a distal, smaller and more glandular chamber. In birds the

stomach exhibits two regions, an anterior glandular region, the

proventriculus, the walls of which are relatively soft and

contain enlarged digestive glands aggregated in patches (e.g.

some Steganopodes), in rows (e.g. most birds of prey) or

in a more or less regular band. The distal region is larger

and is lined in most cases by a more or less permanent lining

which is thick and tough in birds with a muscular gizzard,

very slight in the others. In many birds, specially those

feeding on fish, the two regions of the stomach are of equal

width, and are indistinguishable until, on opening the cavity,

the difference in the character of the lining membrane becomes

visible. In other birds the proventriculus is separated

by a well marked constriction from the posterior and larger

region. In graminiferous forms the latter becomes a

thick-walled muscular gizzard, the muscles radiating from

tendinous areas and the cavity containing pebbles or gravel.

In mammals, the primitive form of the stomach consists of a

more or less globular or elongated expansion of the oesophageal

region, forming the cardiac portion, and a forwardly curved,

narrower pyloric portion, from which the duodenum arises.

The whole wall is muscular, and the lining membrane is richly

glandular. In the Insectivora, Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and

in most Edentata, Chiroptera, Rodentia and Primates, this

primitive disposition is retained, the difference consisting

chiefly in the degrees of elongation of the stomach and the

sharpness of the distal curvature. In other cases the cardiac

portion may be prolonged into a caecal sac, a condition most

highly differentiated in the blood-sucking bat, Desmodeus,

where it is longer than the entire length of the body. There

are two cardiac extensions in the hippopotamus and in the

peccary. In many other mammals one, two or three protrusions

of the cardiac region occur, whilst in the manatee and in

some rodents the cardiac region is constricted off from the

pyloric portion. In the Artiodactyla the stomach is always

complex, the complexity reaching a maximum in ruminating

forms. In the Suidae a cardiac diverticulum is partly

constricted from the general cavity, forming an incipient

condition of the rumen of true ruminants; the general cavity

of the stomach shows an approach to the ruminant condition

by the different characters of the lining wall in different

areas. In the chevrotains, which in many other respects show

conditions intermediate between nonruminant artiodactyles

and true ruminants, the oesophagus opens into a wide cardiac

portion, incompletely divided into four chambers. Three of

these, towards the cardiac extremity, are lined with villi

and correspond to the rumen or paunch; the fourth, which

lies between the opening of the oesophagus and the pyloric

portion of the stomach, is the ruminant reticulum and its

wall is lined with very shallow ``cells.'' A groove runs

along its dorsal wall from the oesophageal aperture to a

very small cavity lined with low, longitudinally disposed

folds, and forming a narrow passage between the cardiac and

pyloric divisions; this is an early stage in the development

of the omasum, psalterium or manyplies of the ruminant

stomach. The fourth or true pyloric chamber is an elongated

sac with smooth glandular walls and is the abomasum, or rennet

sack. In the camel the rumen forms an enormous globular

paunch with villous walls and internally showing a trace of

division into two regions. It is well marked off from the

reticulum, the ``cells'' of which are extremely deep, forming

the well-known water-chambers. The psalterium is sharply

constricted off from the reticulum and is an elongated chamber

showing little trace of the longitudinal ridges characteristic

of this region; it opens directly into the relatively small

abomasum. In the true ruminants, the rumen forms a capacious,

villous reservoir, nearly always partly sacculated, into which

the food is passed rapidly as the animal grazes. The food

is subjected to a rotary movement in the paunch, and is thus

repeatedly subjected to moistening with the fluids secreted

by the reticulum, as it is passed over the aperture of that

cavity, and is formed into a rounded bolus. Most ruminants

swallow masses of hairs, and these, by the rotary action of the

paunch, are aggregated into peculiar dense, rounded balls which

are occasionally discharged from the mouth and are known as

``hair-balls'' or ``bezoars.'' The food bolus, when the animal

is lying down after grazing, is passed into the oesophagus

and reaches the mouth by antiperistaltic contractions of the

oesophagus. After prolonged mastication and mixing with

saliva, it is again swallowed, but is now passed into the

psalterium, which, in true ruminants, is a small chamber with

conspicuous longitudinal folds. Finally it reaches the large

abomasum where the last stages of gastric digestion occur.

In the Cetacea the stomach is different from that found in

any other group of mammals. The oesophagus opens directly

into a very large cardiac sac the distal extremity of which

forms a long caecal pouch. At nearly the first third of

its length this communicates by a narrow aperture into the

elongated, relatively narrow pyloric portion. The latter

is convoluted and constricted into a series of chambers that

differ in different groups of Cetacea. In the Sirenia

the stomach is divided by a constriction into a cardiac and

a pyloric portion, and the latter has a pair of caeca. In

most of the Marsupialia the stomach is relatively simple,

forming a globular sac with the oesophageal and pyloric

apertures closely approximated; in the kangaroos, on the

other hand, the stomach is divided into a relatively small,

caecal cardiac portion and an enormously long sacculated

and convoluted pyloric region, the general arrangement of

which closely recalls the large caecum of many mammals.

Intestinal Tract.--It is not yet possible to discuss the

general morphology of this region in vertebrates as a group,

as, whilst the modifications displayed in birds and mammals

have been compared and studied in detail, those in the

lower groups have not yet been systematically co-ordinated.

Fishes.--In the Cyclostomata, Holocephali and a few

Teleostei the course of the gut is practically straight from

the pyloric end of the stomach to the exterior, and there is

no marked differentiation into regions. In the Dipnoi, a

contracted sigmoid curve between the stomach and the dilated

intestine is a simple beginning of the complexity found in other

groups. In very many of the more specialized teleosteans, the

gut is much convoluted, exhibiting a series of watchspring-like

coils. In a number of different groups, increased surface for

absorption is given, not by increase in length of the whole gut,

but by the development of an internal fold known as the spiral

valve. This was probably originally a longitudinal fold

similar to the typhlosole of chaetopods. It forms a simple

fold in the larval Ammocoete, and in its anterior region

remains straight in some adult fish, e.g. Polypterus, but

in the majority of cases it forms a complex spiral, wound

round the inner wall of the expanded large intestine, the

internal edge of the fold sometimes meeting to form a central

column. It occurs in Cyclostomata, Selachii, Holocephali,

Chondrostei, Crossopterygii, Amiidae, Lepidosteidae and

Dipnoi. A set of organs peculiar to fish and known as the

pyloric caeca are absent in Cyclostomata and Dipnoi,

in most Selachii and in Amia, but present, in numbers

ranging from one to nearly two hundred, in the vast majority of

fish. These are outgrowths of the intestinal tract near

the pyloric extremity of the stomach, and their function is

partly glandular, partly absorbing. In a few Teleostei

there is a single caecal diverticulum at the beginning of

the ``rectum,'' and in the same region a solid rectal gland

occurs in most elasmobranchs, whilst, again, in the Dipnoi

a similar structure opens into the cloaca. These caeca have

been compared with the colic caeca of higher vertebrates,

but there is yet no exact evidence for the homology.

In the Batrachia the course of the intestinal tract is

nearly straight from the pyloric end of the stomach to the

cloaca, in the case of the perennibranchiates there being no

more than a few simple loops between the expanded ``rectum''

and the straight portion that leaves the stomach. In the

Caducibranchiata the anterior end of the enlarged rectum

lies very close to the distal extremity of the stomach, and

the gut, between these two regions, is greatly lengthened,

forming a loop with many minor loops borne at the periphery

of an expanse of mesentery, recalling the Meckelian tract of

birds and mammals. In the tadpole this region is spirally

coiled and is still longer relatively to the length of the

whole tract. In Hyla and Pipa there is a small caecum

comparable with the colic caecum of birds and mammals.

In Reptilia the configuration of the intestinal tract does

not differ much from that in Batrachia, the length and

complexity of the minor coils apparently varying with the general

configuration of the body, that is to say, in reptiles with a

long, narrow, and snake-like body the minor loops of the gut

are relatively short and unimportant, whilst in those with

a more spacious cavity, such as chelonians, many lizards and

crocodiles, the gut may be relatively long and disposed in many

minor coils. There is comparatively little differentiation

between the mid-gut and the gut in cases where the whole

gut is long; in the others the hind-gut is generally marked

by an increase of calibre. A short caecal diverticulum,

comparable with the colic caecum of birds and mammals, is

present in many snakes and lizards and in some chelonians.

In fishes, batrachians and reptiles the intestinal tract

is swung from the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity by a

mesentery which is incomplete on account of secondary absorption

in places, and which grows out with the minor loops of the

gut. There are also traces, more abundant in the lower

forms, of the still more primitive ventral mesentery.

Intestinal Tract in Birds and Mammals.--There is no doubt but

that the similarity of the modes of disposition of the alimentary

tract in birds and mammals points to the probability of the

chief morphological features of this region in these animals

having been laid down in some common ancestor, although we