7 280 species of mosses proper, of which 46 were new to science,

and 16 varieties of peat moss (Sphognum) were listed by the

Harriman expedition; and 74 species or varieties of ferns.

8 The value of the total aroduct of Alaska's fish canneries

was in 1905 $7,735,782, or 29.3% of the total for the

United States; in 1900 it was 17.4% of the country's total.

9 Seattle, Sitka and Valdez are connected by cable;

telegraoh lines run from the Panhandle inland to

the Yukon and down its valley to Fort St Michael.

ALASSIO, a town of Liguria, Italy, on the N.W. coast

of the Gulf of Genoa, in the province of Genoa, 57

m. S.W. of the town of the same name by rail. Pop. (1901)

5630. It is mainly noticeable as a health resort in winter

and a bathing-place in summer, and has many hotels. The

anchorage is safe, and the bay full of fish; the harbour

has a certain amount of trade. The old town contains one

or two interesting churches, and commands a fine view.

ALASTOR, in Greek mythology, the spirit of revenge, which

prompts the members of a family to commit fresh crimes to obtain

satisfaction. These crimes necessitate further acts of

vengeance, and the curse is thus transmitted from generation to

generation. The word is also used for a man's evil genius,

which drives him to sin without any provocation; a man so

driven is sometimes called Alastor. The epithet is applied to

Zeus and the Erinyes as the deities of revenge and punishment.

ALA-TAU (``Variegated Mountains''), the name of six

mountain ranges in Asiatic Russia. Three of these are in the

government of Semiryechensk in Central Asia, all belonging to

the Tianshan system:---(1) the Terskei Ala-tau, south of and

parallel to the lake of Issyk-kul; (2) the Kunghei Ala-tau,

and (3) the Trans-Ili Ala-tau, both N. of and parallel to the

same lake; and (4) the Dzungarian Ala-tau, lying N. of the Ili

depression. The first three link together the Tian-shan and

the Alexander Range. Their mean elevation is 6000--7000 ft.;

their culminating point, Talgar, on a transverse ridge between

(2) and (3), reaches 15,000 ft.; the limits of perpetual

snow run at 11,000-11,700 ft. The Dzungarian Ala-tau reach a

maximum altitude of 11,000 ft. and have a mean altitude of 6250

ft. From the middle of the Alexander Range another range

(5) called Ala-tau, or Talastau, strikes west by south. The

name Ala-tau also enters into the designation of (6), a range

between the upper Yenisei and the upper Ob, in the government

of Tomsk, namely, the Kuznetsk Ala-tau, forming an outlier of

the Altai Mountains, and reaching 6000-7000 ft. in altitude.

ALAUNA, ALAUNUS, the Celtic names of two rivers, &c., in Roman

Britain. Hence the modern Allan Water, river Alyn, &c.

ALAVA, DON MIGUEL RICARDO DE (1770-1841), Spanish general

and statesman, was born at Vittoria in 1770. He served first

in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when he

exchanged intorthe army, receiving corresponding rank. He

was present as a marine at the battle of Trafalgar on board the

flagship of his uncle Admiral Alava. In politics he followed

a very devious course. At the assembly of Bayonne in 1808 he

was one of the most prominent of those who accepted the new

constitution from Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. After the

national rising against French aggression, and the defeat of

General Dupont at Bailen in 1808, Alava joined the national

independent party, who were fighting in alliance with the

English. The Spanish Cortes appointed him commissary at the

English headquarters, and the duke of Wellington, who regarded

him with great favour, made him one of his aides-decamp.

Before the close of the campaign he had risen to the rank of

brigadier-general. On the restoration of Ferdinand,

Alava was cast into prison, but the influence of his uncle

Ethenard, the inquisitor, and of Wellington secured his speedy

release. He soon contrived to gain the favour of the king,

who appointed him in 1815 ambassador to the Hague. It was

therefore his remarkable forrune to be present at the battle

of Waterloo with Wellington's staff. He is supposed to

have been the only man who was present at both Waterloo and

Trafalgar. Four years later he was recalled owing, it is

said, to the marked kindness he had shown to his banished

fellow-countrymen. On the breaking out of the revolution

of 1820 he was chosen by the province of Alava to represent

it in the Cortes, where he became conspicuous in the party

of the Exallados, and in 1822 was made president. In

the latter year he fought with the militia under Francisco

Ballesteros and Pablo Murillo to maintain the authority of

the Cortes against the rebels. When the French invested

Cadiz, Alava was commissioned by the Cortes to treat with

the duc d'Angouleme, and the negotiations resulted in the

restoration of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal

policy. No sooner had he regained power, however, than

he ceased to hold himself bound by his promises, and

Alava found it necessary to retire first to Gibraltar and

then to England. On the death of Ferdinand he returned to

Spain, and espousing the cause of Maria Christina against

Don Carlos was appointed ambassador to London in 1834 and

to Paris in 1835. After the insurrection of La Granja he

refused to sign the constitution of 1812, declaring himself

tired of taking new oaths, and was consequently obliged

to retire to France, where he died at Bareges in 1843.

Frequent and honourable mention of Alava is made in Napier's

History of the Peninsular War, and his name is often met borh

in lives of the duke of Wellington and in his correspondence.

ALAVA, one of the Basque Provinces of northern Spain;

bounded on the N. by Biscay and Guipuzcoa, E. by Navarre, S. by

Logrono, and W. by Burgos. Pop. (1900) 96,385; area 1175 sq.

m. The countship of Trevino (190 sq. m.) in the centre of

Alava belongs to the province of Burgos. The surface of

Alava is very mountainous, especially on the north, where

a part of the Pyrenees forms its natural boundary. It is

separated from Logrono by the river Ebro, and its other rivers

are the Zadorra and the Ayuda. The climate is mild in summer,

fitful in autumn and spring, and very cold in winter, as even

the plains are high and shut in on three sides by mountains

snow-clad during several months. The soil in the valleys

is fertile, yielding wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp and

fruits. Oil and a poor kind of wine called chacoli are also

produced. Many of the mountains are clothed with forests

of oak, chestnuts, beeches and other trees, and contain

iron, copper, lead and marble. Salt is also found in large

quantities; but mining and quarrying are not practised

on a large scale; only lead, lignite and asphalt being

worked. There are mineral waters in many places. Other

local industries of some importance include smelting, and

manufactures of beds, furniture, railway carriages, matches,

paper, sweets and woollen and cotton goods. Bread-stuffs.

colonial products and machinery are largely imported. Few

provinces in Spain are inhabited by so laborious, active and

well-to-do a population. The primary schools are numerously

attended, and there are very good normal schools for teachers

of both sexes, and a model agricultural farm: The public

roads and other works of the province are excellent, and,

like those of the rest of the Basque provinces, entirely kept

up by local initiative and taxes. Railways from Madrid to

the French frontier, and from Saragossa to Bilbao, cross the

province. The capital is Vitoria (pop. 1900, 30,701),

which is the only town with more than 3500 inhabitants.

For a fuller account of the history, people and customs of

Alava, see BASQUES and BASQUE PROVINCE, with the works there

cited. A very elaborate bibliograohy is given in the Catalogo

de las obras referentes a las provincias de Alava y Navarra,

by A. A. Salazar (Madrid, 1887.) The following books by i.

I. Landazuri y Romarate contain much material for a provincial

history:--Historia ecclesiastica, &c. (Pamplona, 1797);

Historia civil, &c. (Vitodes, 1798); Compendios historicos

de la ciudad y villas de . . . Alava, &c. (Pamplona,

1798); Suplemento a' los cuatro libros de la historia de

. . . Alava (Vitoria, 1799); and Los varones illustres

Alavenses Vitoria, 1798). See also M. Risco in vol. 33 of

Hispania Sagiada, by H. Florez, &c. (Madrid, 1754-1879).

ALB (Lat. alba, from albus, white), a liturgical vestment

of the Catholic Church. It is a sack-like tunic of white

linen, with narrow sleeves and a hole for the head to pass

through, and when gathered up round the waist by the girdle

(cingulum) just clears the ground. Albs were originally

quite plain, but about the 10th century the custom arose of

ornamenting the borders and the cuffs of the sleeves with

strips of embroidery, and this became common in the 12th

century. These at first encircled the whole border; but soon

it became customary to substitute for them square patches of

embroidery or precious fabrics. These ``parures'' ``apparels''

or ``orphreys'' (Lat. parun'ae, grammala, aurifeisia,

&c.), were usually four in number, one being sewn on the

back and another on the front of the vestment just above

the lower hem, and one on each cuff. When, as occasionally

happened, a fifth was added, this was placed on the breast

just below the neck opening. These ``apparelled albs''

(albae paratae) continued in general use in the Western

Church till the 16th century, when a tendency to dispense

with the parures began, Rome itself setting the example.

The growth of the lace industry in the 17th century hastened

the process by leading to the substitution of broad bands of

lace as decoration; occasionally, as in a magnificent specimen

preserved at South Kensington, nearly half the vestment is

thus composed of lace. At the present time, so far as the

Roman Catholic Church is concerned, apparelled albs are only

in regular use at Milan (Ambrosian Rite), and, partially, in

certain churches in Spain. The decree of the Congregation

of Rites (May 18, 1819) says nothing about apparels, but

only lays down that the alb must be of white linen or hemp

cloth. There is no definite rule as to the material or

character of the ornamentation, and attempts have been made,

especially in England, to revive the use of the apparelled alb.

In the Roman Church the alb is now reckoned as one of the vestments

proper to the sacrifice of the Mass. It is worn by bishops,

priests, deacons and subdeacons under the other eucharistic

vestments, either at Mass or at functions connected with

it. It is sometimes also worn by clerics in minor orders,

whose proper vestment is, however, the surplice--itself a

modification of the alb (see SURPLICE.) The alb is supposed

to be symbolical of purity, and the priest, when putting it

on, prays: ``Make me white and purify my heart, O Lord,''

&c. In the middle ages the parures, which originally had

no mystic intention whatever, were taken to symbolize the

wounds of Christ; whence probably is derived the custom

surviving at the cathedral of Toledo, of the singers of

the Passion on Good Friday being vested in apparelled albs.

In England at the Reformation the alb went out of use with

the other ``Mass vestments,'' and remained out of use in the

Church of England until the ritual revival of the 19th century.

It is now worn in a considerable number of churches not only

by the clergy but by acolytes and servers at the Communion.

Where the ritual, as in most cases, is a revival of pre-Reformation

uses and not modelled on that of modern Rome, these albs are frequently

apparelled. For the question of its legality see VESTMENTS.

Both the alb and its name are derived ultimately from the

tunica alba, the white tunic, which formed part of the

ordinary dress of Roman citizens under the Empire. As such it

was worn both in and out of church, the few notices remaining

which suggest a special tunic for ministers at the Eucharist

merely implying that it was not fitting to use for so sacred

a function a garment soiled by everyday wear. The date of its

definite adoption as a liturgical vestment is uncertain; at

Rome--- where until the 13th century it was known as the linea

or camisia (cf. the modern Italian camice for alb)---it

seems to have been thus used as early as the 5th century. But

as late as the 9th and 10th centuries the alba is still an

everyday as well as a liturgical garment, and we find bishops

and synods forbidding priests to sing mass in the alba worn

by them in ordinary life (see Braun, p. 62). Throughout the

middle ages, moreover, the word alba was somewhat loosely

used. In the medieval inventories are sometimes found albae,

described as red, blue or black; which has led to the belief

that albs were sometimes not only made of stuffs other than

linen, but were coloured. It is clear, however, from the

descriptions of these vestments that in some cases they were

actually tunicles, the confusion of terms arising from the

similarity of shape (see DALMATIC); in other cases the colour

applied to the parures, not to the albs as a whole. Silk

albs appear in the inventories, but only very exceptionally.

The equivalent of the alb in the ancient Churches of the

East is the sticharion (sticharion) of the Orthodox Church

(Armenian shapik, Syrian Kutina, Coptic stoicharion

or tuniah.) It is worn girdled by bishops and priests

in all rites, by subdeacons in the Greek and Coptic

rites. By deacons and lectors it is worn ungirdled in all

the rites. The colour of the vestment is usually white

for bishops and priests (this is the rule in the Coptic

Church); for the other orders there is no rule, and all

colours, except black, may be used. Its material may be

linen, wool, cotton or silk; but silk only is the rule for

deacons. In the Armenian and Coptic rites the vestment is

often elaborately embroidered; in the other rites the only

ornament is a cross high in the middle of the back, save in

the case of bishops of the Orthodox Church, whose sticharia

are ornamented with two vertical red stripes (potamoi,

``rivers''). In the East as in the West the vestment is

specially associated with the ritual of the Eucharist.

The whole subject is exhaustively treated by Father Joseph

Braun in Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg im Breisgau,

1907). See also Bibliography to the article VESTMENTS.

ALBA, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, on the

river Tanaro, in the province of Cuneo. From the town of

the same name it is 33 m. N.E. direct; it is 42 m. S.S.E.

of Turin by rail. Pop. (1901) 13,900. It contains a fine

cathedral, with a Gothic facade, reconstructed in 1486, and

is an important commercial centre. It occupies the site of

the ancient Alba Pompeia, probably founded by Pompeius Strabo

(consul 89 B.C.) when he constructed the road from Aquae

Statiellae (Acqui) to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin). Probably

this was the road taken by Decimus Brutus when he succeeded,

after the raising of the siege of AIutina in 43 B.C., in

occupying Pollentia just before Mark Antony's cavalry came in

sight. Alba was the birthplace of the emperor Pertinax. It

became an episcopal see dependent on Milan in the 4th century.

A small museum of local antiquities was established in 1897.

See F. Eusebio in Atti del Congresso Internazionale

di Scienze Storiche (Rome, 1904), vol. v. p. 485.

ALBACETE, an inland province of south-eastern Spain, formed

in 1833 out of the northern half of Murcia, and bounded on the

N. by Cuenca, E. by Valencia and Alicante, S. by Murcia, and

W. by Granada and Jaen. Pop. (1900) 237,877; area 5737 sq.

m. The northern part of Albacete belongs to the high plains

of New Castile, the southern is generally mountainous,

traversed by low ranges or isolated groups of hills, which

culminate in the Sierra de Alcaraz on the borders of Granada,

where several summits reach 5000 ft. Besides many smaller

streams, two large rivers water the province, the Segura in

the south-west, and the Jficar in the north-east; both rising

beyond the borders of Albacete, and ultimately flowing into the

Mediterranean. The fertile glens of the Alcaraz district

are richly wooded, and often, from their multitude of fruit

trees, resemble the huertas or gardens of Alicante; but broad

tracts of land are destitute of trees, and suitable only for

pasture. These barren regions are thinly peopled; and for the

whole of Albacete the density of population (41.3 per sq. m. in

1900) is lower than in any other Spanish province, except Soria.

The climate is generally mild and healthy, although, among

the higher mountains, the snow lies for several months. Wheat

and other cereals are cultivated, with fruits of many kinds,

olives, and vines which yield a wine of fair quality; while

saffron is largely produced, and some attention is given to

thekeeping of bees and silkworms. Stock-farming, for which

the wide plains afford excellent opportunities, employs

many of the peasantry; the bulls of Albacete are in demand

for bullfighting, and the horses for mounting the Spanish

cavalry. There is also a good breed of mules. Sulphurous

and other mineral springs, both hot and cold, exist in several

districts, and deposits of silver, iron, copper, sulphur, coal

and other minerals have been discovered; but the exploitation

of these is retarded by lack of communications, and, apart

from building materials, sulphur and salt, the actual output is

insignificant. Manufactures are almost confined to the

spinning of hemp, and the making of coarse cloth, porcelain,

earthenware and cutlery. Brandy distilleries are numerous, and

there is some trade in wood; but no local industry can rival

agriculture and stock-breeding, which furnish the bulk of the

exports. Albacete (pop. 1900, 21,512), the capital, and

the other important towns of Almansa (11,180) and Hellin

(12,558), are described under separate headings. Alcaraz,

which gives its name to the mountain range already mentioned,

is a picturesque old town with the ruins of a Moorish castle,

and a fine Roman aqueduct; pop. (1900) 4501. Caudete (5913),

Chinchilla, or Chinchilla de Monte-Aragon (6680), La Roda

(7066), Tobarra (7787), Villarrobledo (10,125) and Yeste

(6591) are important markets for the sale of agricultural

produce. The railway from Madrid to Albacete passes

south-westward to Chinchilla, where it bifurcates, one line

going to Murcia, and the other to Alicante. A large part of

the province is only accessible by road, and even the main

highways maintained by the state are ill kept. Education

is very backward even in the towns; many of the inhabitants

carry arms; and crimes of violence are not infrequent.

ALBACETE, the capital of the above province, on the MadridAlicante

railway, and at the confluence of the river Balazote with the

canal of Maria Christina, which flows into the river Jficar, 16

m. N. Pop. (1900) 21,512. Albacete comprises the picturesque

old upper town and the new or lower town, with iawCourts,

schools, barracks, hospitals, a councihhall, a bull-ring and

other modern buildings, mostly erected after the city became

a provincial capital in 1833. It is surrounded by a fertile

plain, and has considerable trade in saffron and agricultural

produce. A great market, chiefly for the sale of cattle,

is held annually in September, and extends over several

days. The manufacture of matches is aided by the existence

of sulphur workings in the vicinity; and Albacete formerly

had an extensive trade in cutlery, from which it was named

the Sheffield of Spain. Despite the importation of cutlery

from England and Germany, Albacete is still famous for its

daggers, which arc held in high repute by Spaniards. They

are formidable weapons, of coarse manufacture, but with

richly ornamented handles; and they frequently bear proverbial

inscriptions suitable to their murderous appearance.

ALBA FUCENS (mod. Albe), an ancient Italian town occupying

a lofty situation (3347 ft.) at the foot of the Monte Velino, 4

m. N. Of Avezzano. It was originally a town of the Aequi,

though on the frontier of the Marsi, but was occupied by a

loied by a

Roman colony (304 B.C.I owing to its strategic importance.

It lay on a hill just to the north of the Via Valeria,

which was probably prolonged beyond Tibur at this very

period. In the Second Punic war Alba at first remained

faithful, but afterwards refused to send contingents and was

punished. After this it became a regular place of detention for

important state prisoners, such as Syphax of Numidia, Perseus of

Macedonia, Bituitus, king of the Arverni. It was attacked by

the allies in the Social War, but remained faithful to Rome;

and its strong position rendered it a place of some importance

in the civil wars. Its prosperity, in the imperial period,

can only be inferred from the number of inscriptions found

there. It is chiefly remarkable for its finely preserved

fortifications. The external walls, which have a circuit of

about 2 m., are constructed of polygonal masonry; the blocks

are carefully jointed, and the faces smoothed. With our present

knowledge of such constructions, their date cannot certainly be

determined. They are not preserved to any very considerable

height; but the arrangement of the gates is clearly traceable;

as a rule they come at the end of a long, straight stretch of

wall, and are placed so as to leave the right side of any

attacking force exposed. On the north there is, for a length

of about 150 yds. a triple line of defences of later date

(possibly added by the Roman colonists), inasmuch as both the

city wall proper and the double wall thrown out in front of

it are partly constructed of concrete, and faced with finer

polygonal masonry (in which horizontal joints seem to be purposely

avoided). A mile to the north of the city a huge mound with a

ditch on each side of it (but at a considerable distance from

it) may be traced for a couple of miles. Within the walls

there are hardly any buildings of a later date. Excavations

have only been made casually, though remains of buildings

and of roads can be traced, and also an extensive system of

underground passages perhaps connected with the defences of the

place. The hill at the western extremity was occupied by a

temple of the Tuscan order, into which was built the church of

S. Pietro; this contains ancient columns, and some remarkably

fine specimens of Cosmatesque work. It is the only monastic

church in the Abruzzi in which the nave is separated from

the aisles by ancient columns. The collegiate church of S.

Nicola in the village contains a remarkable staurotheca

of the 11th (?) century, and a wooden triptych in imitation

of the Byzantine style with enamels of the 13th century.

A very good description of the site, with plans, is given by C.

Promis, L'Antichita di Alba Fucense (Rome, 1836). (T. As.)

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Latium, situated on the

western edge of the Albanus Lacus, about 12 m. S.E. of

Rome. It was, according to tradition, founded by Ascanius,

and was the oldest of all Latin cities---the mother indeed

of Rome, by which, however, it was destroyed, it is said

under Tullus Hostilius. By this act Rome succeeded to the

hegemony of the Latin league. It has by many topographers

been placed between the Albanus Mons and the Albanus Lacus,

according to the indication given by. Dionysius (i. 66),

at the monastery of Palazzolo; but the position is quite

unsuitable for an ancient city, and does not at all answer to

Livy's description, ab situ porrectae in dorso urbis Alba

longa appellata; and it is much more probable that its site

is to be sought on the western side of the lake, where the

modern Castel Gandolfo stands, immediately to the north of

which the most important part of the archaic necropolis was

situated. Confirmation of this may be found in Cicero's

description (Pro Milone, 85) of the destruction of the

shrines and sacred groves of Alba by the construction of

Clodius's villa, in the local application of the adjective

Albanus, and in the position of Castel Gandolfo itself,

which exactly suits Livy's description. No traces of the

ancient city, except of its necropolis, the tombs of which

are overlaid with a stratum of peperino 3 ft. thick, are

preserved. The view that the modern Albano occupies the

site of Alba Longa was commonly held in the 15th and 16th

centuries, but was disproved by P. Cluver (1624). But it

is certain that no city took the place of Alba Longa until

comparatively late times. The name Albanum, from about 150

B.C. till the time of Constantine, meant a villa in the Alban

territory. The emperors formed a sinrle estate out of a

considerable part of this district, including apparently the

whole of the lake, and Domitian was especially fond of residing

here. The imperial villa occupied the site of the present

Villa Barberini at Castel Gandolfo, and considerable remains

of it still exist. To the south was a camp for the imperial

bodyguard, with baths, an amphitheatre, a large water reservoir,

&c. The first legion known to have been quartered there is

the II. Parlhica, founded by Septimius Severus; but it

was probably constructed earlier. In some of the tombs of

these legionaries coins of Maxentius have been found, while

the Liber Pontifealis records that Constantine gave to the

church of Albano ``omnia scheneca deserta vel domos intra

urbem Albanensem,', which has generally been taken to refer

to the abandoned camp. It was at this period, then, that

the civitas Albanensis arose. The lapis Albanus is a green

grey volcanic stone with black and white grains in it (hence

the modern name. Deperino). much used for building material.

See T. Ashby in Journal ofphilology, xxvii., 1901, 37. (T.

As.) ALBAN, SAINT, usually styled the protomartyr of Britain,

is said to have been born at Verulamium (the modern St Albans

in Hertfordshire) towards the close of the 3rd century, and to

have served for seven years in Rome in the army of the emperor

Diocletian. On his return to Britain he settled at his

native place and was put to death as a Christian during the

persecution of Diocletian (c. 286--303). According to

tradition, when peace was restored, great honours were paid

to his tomb. A church was built on the spot, c. 793, by

King Offa of Mercia. A monastery was subsequently added,

and around it the present town of St Albans gradually grew

up. Pope Adrian IV., who was born in the neighbourhood,

conferred on the abbot of St Alban's the right of precedence

over his fellow abbots, a right hitherto attached to the

abbey of Glastonbury. St Alban is commemorated in the

Roman martyrology on the 22nd of June; but it is impossible

to determine with certainty whether he ever existed, as no

mention of him occurs till the middle of the 6th century.

See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques (1905), i.

95; D. Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue (1862), I. i. 3-34, ii. 688.

ALBANI, or ALBANO, FRANCESCO (1578-1660), Italian

painter, was born at Bologna. His father was a silk merchant,

and intended to bring up his son to the same occupation;

but Albani was already, at the age of twelve, filled with so

strong an inclination for painting, that on the death of his

father he devoted himself entirely to art. His first master

was Denis Calvert, with whom Guido Reni was at the same time a

pupil. He was soon left by Calvert entirely to the care

of Guido, and contracted with him a close friendship. He

followed Guido to the school of the Caracci; but after this,

owing to mutual rivalry, their friendship began gradually to

cool. They kept up for a long time a keen competition,

and their mutual emulation called forth some of their best

productions. Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still spoke

of each other with the highest esteem. Albani after having

greatly improved himself in the school of the Caracci, went

to Rome, where he opened an academy and resided for many

years. Here he painted, after the designs of Annibal

Caracci, the whole of the frescoes in the chapel of San

Diego in the church of San Giacomo degli Spagnuoli.

His best frescoes are those on mythological subjects, of

which there is a large number in the Verospi, now Torlonia

Palace. On the death of his wife he returned to Bologna,

where he married a second time and resided till his death.

His wife and children were very beautiful and served him for

models. The learning displayed in the composition of his

pictures, and their minute elaboration and exquisite finish,

gave them great celebrity and entitle them to a distinctive

place among the products of the Bolognese school. A number

of his works are at Bologna, and others at Florence, the

Louvre, Dresden and St Petersburg. Among the best of his

sacred subjects are a ``St Sebastian'' and an ``Assumption

of the Virgin,'' both in the church of St Sebastian at

Rome. He was among the first of the Italian painters to

devote himself to the painting of cabinet pictures. A

rare etching, the ``Death of Uido,'' is attributed to him.

ALBANI, the stage name of MARIE, LOUISE EMMA CECILE

LAJEUNESSE (1847- ), Canadian singer, who was born at

Chambly, in the province of Quebec, on the 27th of September

1847. She made her first public appearance in Montreal,

at the age of seven, and afterwards studied in the United

States, Paris and Italy. In 1870 she made her first

appearanceatmessina, and after two successful seasons appeared

in London in 1872 with the Royal Italian Opera. Later she

abandoned opera for oratorio. and sang at all the principal

festivals. She has made several tours of Canada and of

the United States, and in 1886 sang at the opening of the

Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London the ode written

by Tennyson for the occasion. She frequently sang before

Queen Victoria, the German emperor and others of the crowned

heads of Europe, and received numerous marks of their

esteem. In 1897 she was awarded the gold Beethoven medal by

the London Philharmonic Society, ``as a mark of appreciation

of her exceptional genius and musical attainments, and of

her generous and artistic nature.'' She marriedin 1878 Ernest

Gye, the theatrical manager. Her stage name of Madame

Albani was taken from that of an extinct Italian family.

See Morgan, Canadian Men and Women of the Time (1898).

ALBANIA, the ancient name of a district in the eastern

Caucasus, consisting, according to Strabo (xi. 4. 1-8), of the

valley of the Cyrus (Kur) and the land lying between it and the

Caucasus range from Iberia to the Caspian Sea, i. e. the modern

Shirvan. In reality the Albani inhabited also the mountain

valleys and the land to the north towards Sarmatia, the modern

Daghestan (Pliny vi. 39). Dionysius of JIalicarnassus quotes

a tradition that the name arose from the alleged fact that

the people were the descendants of emigrants from Alba in

Italy, but it would seem that the race was of Lesghian (not

Georgian) descent. Strabo describes them as tall, well made,

and in character simple and honest; he says that payment

was in kind and that the people could not count beyond a

hundred. They worshipped the sun, and more particularly the

moon, the latter being perhaps identical with the great

Nature Goddess of Asia Minor(see GREAT MOTHER OF THE

GODS), and believed in soothsaying and the virtue of human

sacrifice. Old age was held in high honour, but it was

sacrilege to speak, or even to think, of the dead. The race

was nomadic, and lived on the abundant natural fruits of the

land. In Strabo's time they appear to have been ruled by

a single king, though previously there were twenty-six,

each one ruling over a community distinct only in point of

language. The Albani became known to the Romans during Pompey's

pursuit of Mithradates the Great (65 B.C.), against which

they are said to have opposed a force of 60,000 foot and 20,000

cavalry. Pompey exacted from them a nominal submission,

but their independence was not seriously affected by the

Romans. In the reign of Hadrian their territory was invaded

by the Alani (Th. Mommsen, Provinces ofthe Roman Empire,

Eng. trans., 1886), and later they fell under the Sassanid

rule. They were driven finally into Armenia by the Khazars,

and ceased to exist as a separate people. The district

subsequently suffered under the successive invasions of Huns,

Varangians (who captured the chief town Barda in the 10th

century) and Mongols. (See CAUCASIA, History; ARMENIA.)

ALBANIA, a portion of the Turkish empire extending along

the western littoral of the Balkan Peninsula from the

southern frontier of Montenegro to the northern confines of

Greece. Albania is perhaps the least-known region in Europe;

and though more than a hundred years have passed since Gibbon

described it as ``a country within sight of Italy, which

is less known than the interior of America,'' but little

progress has yet been made towards a scientific knowledge

of this interesting land and its inhabitants. The wild and

inaccessible character of the country, the fierce and lawless

disposition of the people, the difficulties presented by

their language and their complex social institutions, and the

inability of the Turkish authorities to afford a safe conduct

in the remoter districts, combine to render Albania almost

unknown to the foreign traveller, and many of its geographical

problems still remain unsolved. A portion of the Mirdite

region, the Mat district, the neighbourhood of Dibra, Jakova

and Ipek and other localities have never been thoroughly

explored. The northern boundary of Albania underwent some

alteration in consequence of the enlargement of Montenegro,

sanctioned by the Berlin Treaty (July 13, 1878); owing to

subsequent arrangements providing for the cession of Dulcigno

to Montenegro (November 25, 1880) in exchange for the districts

of Plava and Gusinye, restored to Turkey, the frontier-line

(finally settled December 1884) now ascends the Boyana from

its mouth to Lake Sass (Shas), thence passes northward. and

crossing Lake Scutari separates the district of Kutch Kraina

on the N. from the territories of the Gruda, Hot and Klement

tribes on the S.; leaving Gusinye and Plava to the S.E., it

turns to the N.W. on reaching the Mokra Planina, and then

follows the course of the Tara river. On the S., Albanian

territory was curtailed owing to the acquisition of the Arta

district by Greece (May 1881), the river Arta now forming the

frontier. On the E. the chains of Shar, Grammos and Pindus

constitute a kind of natural boundary, which does not,

however, coincide with ethnical limits nor with the Turkish

administrative divisions. North-eastern Albania forms part

of the Turkish vilayet of Kossovo; the northern highlands

are included in the vilayet of Shkodra (Scutari), the

eastern portion of central Albania belongs to the vilayet of

Monastir, and the southern districts are comprised in the

vilayet of Iannina. The boundaries of the three last-named

vilayets meet near Elbassan. The name Albania (in the Tosk

dialect Arberia, in the Gheg Arbenia), like Albania

in the Caucasus, Armenia, Albany in Britain, and Auvergne

(Arveniaj in France, is probably connected with the root

alb, alp, and signifies ``the white or snowy uplands.''

Physical Features.--The mountain system is extremely complex,

especially that of the northern region. On the E. the great

Shar range, extending in a south-westerly direction from

the neighbourhood of Prishtina to thatof Dibra, is continued

towards the S. by the ranges of Grammos and Pindus; the entire

chain, a prolongation of the Alpine systems of Bosnia and

Dalmatia, may be described as the backbone of the peninsula;

it forms the watershed between the Aegean and the Adriatic,

and culminates in the lofty peak of Liubotrn, near Kalkandele,

one of the highest summits in south-eastern Europe (8858

ft.). The country to the west of this natural barrier may be

divided geographically into three districts---northern, central

and southern Albania. The river Shkumb separates the northern

from the central district, the Viossa the central from the

southern. The highland region of northern Albania is divided

into two portions by the lower course of the Drin; the

mountains of the northern portion, the Bieska Malziis, extend

in a confused and broken series of ridges from Scutari to the

valleys of the Ibar and White Drin; they comprise the rocky

group of the Prokletia, or Accursed Mountains, with their

numerous ramifications, including Mount Velechik, inhabited

by the Kastiat and Shkrel tribes, Bukovik by the Hot, Golesh

by the Klement, Skulsen (7533 ft.), Baba Vrkh (about 7306

ft.), Maranay near Scutari, and the Bastrik range to the

east. South of the Drin is another complex mountain system,

including the highlands inhabited by the Mirdites and the Mat

tribe; among the principal summits are Deja Mazzukht, Mal-i

Vels, Kraba, Toli and Mnela. Central Albania differs from

the northern and southern regions in the more undulating and

less rugged character of its surface; it contains considerable

lowland tracts, such as the wide and fertile plain of Musseki,

traversed by the river Simen. The principal summit is Tomor

(7916 ft.), overhanging the town of Berat. Southern Albania,

again, is almost wholly mountainous, with the exception of

the plains of Iannina andarta; the most noteworthy feature is

the rugged range of the Tchika, or Khimara mountains, which

skirt the sea-coast from south-west to north-east, terminating

in the lofty promontory of Glossa (ancient Acroceraunia.)

Farther inland the Mishkeli range to the north-east of

Lake Iannina and the Nemertzika mountains run in a parallel

direction. In the extreme south, beyond the basin of the

Kalamas, the mountains of Sull and Olyzika form a separate

group. The rivers, as a rule, flow from east to west; owing

to the rapidity of their descent none are navigable except the

Boyana and Arta in their lower courses. The principal rivers

are the Boyana, issuing from Lake Scutari, and consequently

regarded as a continuation of the Montenegrin Moratcha,

the Drin, formed by the confluence of the White and Black

Drin, which, flowing respectively to the south and north

through a long valley at the foot of the Shar range, take

a westerly direction after their junction, the AIatia, the

Arzen, the Shkumb (ancient G:e:iusos), the Simen (Apsos),

formed by the junction of the Devol and Ergene, the Viossa

(Aous), which owing to the trend of the Khimara range

takes a north-westerly direction, the Ralamas (Thyamis)

and the Arta (Arachthos), flowing south into the Ambraciah

Gulf. A portion of the stream of the Drin has found its

way into the Boyana channel; the result has been a rise in

the level of Lake Scutari and the inundation of the adjacent

lowlands. A proposal to confine the Drin to its former

course by means of a dyke, and to ease the downflow of the

Boyana by a canal opening navigation to Lake Scutari, has

long been considered by the Turliish authorities. The great

lakes of Scutari (135 sq. m.) and Ochrida (107 sq. m.) are

among the most beautiful in Europe; the waters of Ochrida,

which find an outlet in the Black Drin, are of marvellous

clearness. Lake KIahk, south by east of Ochrida, is

drained by the Devol. The waters of the picturesque Lake

Iannina (24 sq. m.) find an issue by katabothra, or

underground channels, into the Ambracian Gulf. The lake of

Butrinto (Buthrotum) is near the sea-coast opposite Corfu.

Climate.---The climate is healthy in the uplands, though

subject to violent changes; in the valleys fever is very

prevalent, especially in the basins of the Boyana, the lower

Drin and the Simen. The winter is short, but exceedingly

cold; snow remains on the Prokletia and other mountains

till August, and sometimes throughout the year. The summer

temperature in the plains is that of southern Italy; in

the mountain districts it is high during the day, but falls

almost to freezing-point at night. The sea-coast is exposed

to the fierce bora, or north wind, during the spring.

Natural Products.--The mountains of Albania are said to be

rich in minerals, but this source of wealth remains practically

unexplored. Iron and coal are probably abundant, and silver-lead,

copper and antimony are believed to exist. Cold mines were

worked in antiquity in the Drin valley, and silver mines in

the Mirdite region were known to the Venetians in the middle

ages. At Selinitza, near Avlona, there is a remarkable

deposit of mineral pitch which was extensively worked in Roman

times; mining operations are still carried on here, but in a

somewhat primitive fashion. The splendid forests, of which

there are 70,000 acres in the vilayet of Scutari alone, are

undergoing a rapid process of destruction, as in other lands

under Turkish rule. The principal trees are the oak, the

valonia oak, the beech. ash, elm, plane, celtis, poplar and

walnut, which give way in the higher regions to the pine and

fir. The oak forests near Dibra, where charcoalmaking is a

considerable industry, and the beech-woods of the Prishtina

district, are especially remarkable. The sumach is largely

grown in the Mirdite district; its leaves are exported to

Trieste for use in tanneries and dyeworks. In 1898 the

export of valonia was estimated at L. 11,200, of sumach at

L. 2400. Of fruit-trees the white mulberry, cherry and wild

pear are plentiful; the chestnut and walnut are sometimes met

with, and the olive is grown in the lowland and maritime

districts. The exportation of olive oil in 1808 was valued at

L. 24,000. The greater part of the country is admirably

suited to viticulture, and wine of tolerable quality is

produced. Tobacco is grown extensively in southern Albania,

especially near Berat and in the upper valley of the

Viossa, but the quantity exported is small. The means of

subsistence are mainly provided by the cultivation of grain and

cattle-rearing. Notwithstanding the primitive condition of

agriculture, the deficiency of communications and the damage

caused by frequent inundations, Albania furnishes almost the

entire corn supplu of the Dalmatian coast and islands. Maize

is the favourite grain for home consumption, but considerable

quantities of this cereal, as well as barley, rye and oats are

exported. The total export of cereals in 1808 was valued at

L. 70,800. Sheep and goats form almost the only wealth of

the mountaineers of northern Albania; large cattle are found

only on the plains. The slopes of Pindus afford excellent

pasture for the flocks of the Vlach shepherds. The export of

raw hides and wool is considerable; in 1898 these commodities

were valued respectively at L. 90,400 and L. 24,000. The lakes

and rivers of Albania abound in fish. The scoranze (Alb.

seraga), a kind of sardine, is taken in great quantities in

Lake Scutari; it is salted and smoked for home consumption and

exportation. Sea-fishing is almost wholly neglected.

There are salines at Avlona and other places on the coast.

Commerce anid Industries.--The exports in 1898 were estimated

at L. 480,000, the imports at L. 1,360,000, the former comprising

agricultural produce, live stock, hides, wool, cheese, eggs,

poultry, olive oil, valonia, sumach leaves, timber, skins of wild

animals, silk, tobacco and salted fish, the latter manufactured

articles, cloth, hardware, furniture, firearms, gunpowder,

sugar, coffee, &c. The monopoly of Albanian commerce formerly

Dossessed by Venice has descended to Austria-Hungary; the

trade with other countries, except Italy, is inconsiderable.

Owing to the poverty of the people, cheap Austrian goods

find a readier sale than the more expensive and solid British

manufactures. The maritime traffic is largely conducted

by the steamers of the subsidized Austrian-Lloyd company,

Trieste being the principal commercial centre; the coasting

trade is carried on by small Greek and Turkish sailing

vessels. The trade of the northern and western districts has

to some extent been diverted to Salonica since the opening of

the railways from that town to Mitrovitza and Monastir. The

development of commerce is retarded by lack of communications;

the country Dossesses no railways and few roads. Several

railway lines have been projected, but there is no great

probability of their construction under existing political

conditions. The Via Egnatia, the great Roman highway to the

east, is still used; it runs from Durazzo (Dyrrhachium) to

Elbassan and Ochrida. Iannina is connected by carriage-roads

with Monastir, Agii Saranta and Preveza. As a rule, however,

bridle-paths supply the only means of communication. The

native industries are inconsiderable, and many of them are

in a languishing condition. The manufacture of highly ornate

firearms, yataghans and other weapons at Scutari, Jakova

and Prizren has declined, owing to the importation of modern

rifies and revolvers. Gold and silk embroidery, filigree

work, morocco and richly-braided jackets are produced for

home use and for sale in Bosnia, Macedonia and Montenegro.

Population----The population of Albania may be estimated

at between 1,600,000 and 1,500,000, of whom 1,200,000 or

1,100,000 are Albanians. Of the other races the Slavs

(Serbs and Bulgars) are the most numerous, possibly numbering

250,000. Servian settlements exist in various parts of

northern Albania; there is a strong Bulgarian colony in the

neighbourhood of Dibra and Ochrida; farther south, Mount Zygos

and the Pindus range--the ``Great Walachia'' of the middle

ages---are inhabited by Vlachs or Tzintzars, who possibly number

70,000. Some Turkish colonies are also found in the south-eastern

districts. There is a considerable Greek-speaking population

in Epiros (including many Mahommedan Albanians), which must,

however, be distinguished from the genuine Greeks of Iannina,

Preveza and the extreme south; these may be estimated at

100,000. The population of the vilayet of Scutari is given

as 237,000, that of the vilayet of Iannina as 552,000. The

principal towns are Scutari (Albanian Shkoder, with the

definite article Shkodr-a), the capital of the vilayet

of that name, pop. 32,000; Prizren, 30,000; Iannina (often

incorrectly written Ioannina), capital of the southern

vilayet, 22,000; Jakova, 12,000; Dibra, 15,000; Prishtina,

11,000; Ipek (Slav. Petch), 15,000; Berat, 15,000; Ochrida,

11,000; Tirana, 12,000; Argyrokastro, 11,000; Kortcha (Slav.

Goritza), 10,000; Elbassan (perhaps ancient Albanopolis),

8000; Metzovo, 7500; Preveza, 6500; Avlona, 6000; Durazzo,

5000; Parga, 5000; Butrinto, 2000; and Kroia, the ancient

fortress of Scanderbeg, 5000. All these, except Elbassan,

Metzovo and Kroia, are described in separate articles.

The Albanians are apparently the most ancient race in

southeastern Europe. History and legend afford no record

of their arrival in the Balkan Peninsula. They are probably

the descendants of the earliest Aryan immigrants, who were

represented in historical times by the kindred Illyrians,

Macedonians and Epirots; the Macedonians and Epirots are

believed by Hahn to have formed the core of the pre-Hellenic

Tyrrheno-Pelasgian population which inhabited the southern

portion of the peninsula and extended its limits to Thrace and

Italy. The Illyrians were also ``Pelasgian,'' but in a wider

sense. Of these cognate races, which are described by the

Greek writers as barbarous or non-Hellenic, the Illyrians

and Epirots, he thinks, were respectively the progenitors

of the Ghegs, or northern, and the Tosks, or southern,

Albanians. The Via Egnatia, which Strabo (vii. fragment 3)

describes as forming the boundary between the Illyrians and

Epirots, practically corresponds with the course of the

Shkumb, which now separates the Ghegs and the Tosks. The

same geographer (v. 2. 221) states that the Epirots were also

called Pelasgians; the Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped at Dodona

(Homer, Il. xvi. 234), and the neighbourhood of the sanctuary

was called Pelasgia (Herodotus ii. 56). The meaning of the

term ``Pelasgian'' is, however, too obscure to furnish a

basis for ethnographical speculation; in the time of Herodotus

it may have already come to denote a period rather than a

race. The name Tosk is possibly identical with Tuscus,

Etruscus, while the form Tyrrhenus perhaps survives in

Tirana. The large number of Slavonic local names in

Albania, even in districts where no trace of a Slavonic

population exists, bears witness to the extensive Servian

and Bulgarian immigrations in the early middle ages, but

the original inhabitants gradually ousted or assimilated the

invaders. The determination with which this remarkable race

has maintained its mountain stronghold through a long series

of ages has hitherto met with scant appreciation in the outside

world. While the heroism of the Montenegrins has been lauded

by writers of all countries, the Albanians---if we except

Byron's eulogy of the Suloits---still remain unsung. Not

less noticeable is the tenacity with which isolated fragments

of the nation have preserved their peculiar characteristics,

language, customs and traditions. The Albanians in Greece and

Italy, though separated for six centuries from the parent stock,

have not yet been absorbed by the surrounding populations.

The Albanians, both Ghegs and Tosks, call themselves Shkupetar,

and their land Shkupenia or Shkuperia, the former being

the Gheg, the latter the Tosk form of the word. Shkupetar

has been variously interpreted. According to Hahn it is a

participial from shkyipoij, ``I understand,'' signifying

``he who knows'' the native language; others interpret it

with less probability as ``the rock-dweller,'' from shkep,

shkip, N. Alb. shkamp, ``rock.'' The designations Arber

(Gr. 'Arbanites, Turk. Arnaoiit), denoting the people,

and Arbenia or Arberia, the land, are also, though less

frequently, used by the Albanians. A district near Kroia

is locally known as Arbenia; the Tosk form Arberia strictly

applies only to the mountain region near Avlona. The region

inhabited by a more or less homogeneous Albanian population

may be roughly marked out by a line drawn from the Montenegrin

frontier at Berane to Mitrovitza and the Servian frontier

near Vranya; thence to Uskub, Prilep, Monastir, Florina,

Kastoria, Iannina and Parga. These limits, however, are

far from including all the members of a widely scattered

race. The Albanians in Greece, whose settlements extend over

Attica, Boeotia, the district of Corinth and the Argolid

peninsula, as well as southern Euboea and the islands of Hydra,

Spetzae, Poros and Salamis, descend from Tosk immigrants in

the 14th century. They played a brilliant part in the War

of Independence (1821-1829), and to-day supply the Greek

army with its best soldiers. They were estimated by Leake at

200,000. A large number still speak the Albanian langaage;

many of the older men, and a considerable proportion of the

women, even in the neighbourhood of Athens, are ignorant of

Greek. The Albanian settlements in southern Italy and Sicily

were founded in 1444, 1464 and 1468; minor immigrations

followed in the three succeeding centuries. In southern Italy

there are 72 Albanian communes, with 154,674 inhabitants;

in Sicily 7 communes, with 52,141 inhabitants. The Italian

and Sicilian Albanians are of Tosk descent, and many of them

still speak a variation of the Tosk dialect. There are also

several Albanian settlements in European Turkey and Asia

Minor, some founded by military colonists who received grants

of land from successive sultans, others owing their origin

to enforced migrations after insurrections in Albania. The

only genuine division of the Albanian race is that of Ghegs

and Tosks; the Liaps, who inhabit the district between the

Viossa and the sea, and the Tshams or Chams, who occupy the

coast-land south of the Kalamas, are subdivisions of the Tosk

family. The name Gheg (Gege-a) is not adopted by the Ghegs

themselves, being regarded as a nickname; the designation Tosk

(Toske-a) is restricted by the Tosks to the inhabitants

of a small region north of the lower Viossa (Toskeria).

National Characteristics.---While the other primitive

populations of the peninsula were either hellenized or latinized,

or subsequently absorbed by the Slavonic immigration, the

Albanians to a great extent remained unaffected by foreign

influences. Retaining their original language and preserving

the customs and institutions of remote antiquity, they present

a distinct type, and differ in many essential particulars from

the other nations of the peninsula. The Ghegs especially,

notwithstanding their fierce and lawless character, their

superstition, ignorance and predatory propensities, possess

some noteworthy qualities rarely found in eastern Europe:

simple, brave, faithful, and sometimes capable of devoted

attachment, these wild mountaineers make excellent soldiers and

trustworthy retainers; they have long furnished a bodyguard to

the sultan and, like the Tosks, are much employed as kavasses

and attendants at foreign embassies and consulates in the

East. The native disposition of the Tosks has been modified

by intercourse with the Greeks and Vlachs; while the Gheg

devotes his attention exclusively to fighting, robbery and

pastoral pursuits, the Tosk occasionally occupies himself with

commercial, industrial or agricultural employments; the Gheg

is stern, morose and haughty, the Tosk lively, talkative and

affable. The natural antipathy between the two sections of the

race, though less evident than in former times, is far from

extinct. In all parts of Albania the vendetta (gyak, jak)

or blood-feud, the primitive lex talionis, is an established

usage; the duty of revenge is a sacred tradition handed down

to successive generations in the family, the village and the

tribe. A single case of homicide often leads to a series of

similar crimes or to protracted warfare between neighbouring

families and communities; the murderer, as a rule, takes

refuge in the mountains from the avenger of blood, or remains

for years shut up in his house. It is estimated that in

consequence of these feuds scarcely 75% of the population in

certain mountainous districts die a natural death. A truce

(bessa, literally ``faith,'' ``pledge''), either temporary or

permanent, is sometimes arranged by mediation, or among the

Ghegs, by the intervention of the clergy; a general bessa

has occasionally been proclaimed by special irade of the

sultan, the restoration of peace being celebrated with elaborate

ceremonies. So stringent are the obligations of hospitality

that a household is bound to exact reparation for any injury

done to a guest as though he were a member of the family. No

traveller can venture into the mountain districts without the

bessa of one of the inhabitants; once this has been obtained

he will be hospitably welcomed. In some districts there is

a fixed price of blood; at Argyrokastro, for instance, the

compensation paid by the homicide to the relatives of his

victim is 1200 piastres (about L. 10), at Khimara 2000 piastres;

once the debt has been acquitted amicable relations are

restored. Notwithstanding their complete subjection, women

are treated with a certain respect, and are often employed

as intermediaries in the settlement of feuds; a woman may

traverse a hostile district without fear of injury, and her

bessa will protect the traveller or the stranger. Women

accompany their male relatives to the battle-field for the

purpose of tending the wounded and carrying away the dead.

The bride brings no dowry to her husband; she is purchased

at a stipulated price, and earnest-money is paid at the

betrothal, which usually takes place while the contracting

parties are still children. It is customary for young men

who are attached to each other to swear eternal brotherhood

(compare the Slavonic pobratimstvo); the contract is

regarded as sacred, and no instance has been known of its

violation. The costume of the Tosks differs from that of

the Ghegs; its distinctive feature is the white plaited

linen fustanella or petticoat, which has been adopted by the

Greeks; the Ghegs wear trews of white or crimson native cloth

adorned with black braid, and a short, close-fitting jacket,

which in the case of wealthy persons is embellished with gold

lace. The fez is worn by both races, and in the northern

highlands yataghans and firearms are almost invariably carried.

The costume of the Mirdite and Mat tribes is peculiar. It

consists of a white felt cap, a long white tunic bound with

a red girdle, white linen trousers and opinki, or sandals.

Tribal System.---The tribal organization in northern Albania

is an interesting survival of the earliest form of social

combination; it may be compared in many respects with that which

existed in the Scottish highlands in the time of the Stuart

kings. The practical autonomy which the Gheg mountaineers

enjoy has been won by a prolonged and successful resistance

to Turkish domination; as a rule they pay no taxes, they are

exempt from the conscription, they know nothing of the Ottoman

law, and the few Turkish officials established amongst them

possess no real authority. Their only obligation to the

Turkish government is to furnish a contingent in time of

war; the only law they recognize is either traditional custom

(adet) or the unwritten Hanun-i Leks Dukajinit, a civil

and criminal code, so called from its author, Leka Dukajini,

who is supposed to have lived in the 13th or 14th century.

The tribe or mal (``mountain'') is often composed of several

clans (phis-i, pharea) or baryaks (literally ``standards'')

each under a chief or baryaktar (standard-bearer), who is,

strictly speaking, a military leader; there are in each clan

a certain number of elders or voivodes (Albanian kru-y'e,

pl. krenic-te) who form a council and, like the baryaktar,

hold their oflice by hereditary right; they preside over

the assemblies of the tribesmen, which exercise the supreme

legislative power. The clan is generally subdivided into

smaller communities (mahale), each administered by a local

notable or jobar. The jobars superintend the execution of

the laws, collect fines and administer capital punishment;

they are in contact with the buluk-bashi, or resident

representative of the tribe at Scutari, who forms the only

link between the mountaineers and the Turkish government.

He communicates to the tribesmen the orders of the vali,

which must be framed in accordance with their customs and

institutions. The tribes of northern Albania, or Ghegeria,

may be classified in seven groups as follows:----(1) The

Mirdites, who inhabit the alpine region around Orosh to the

south-east of Scutari--the most important of all in respect

of numbers (about 17,000) and political independence. A Roman

Catholic tribe, occupying an inaccessible district, they have

hitherto defeated every effort of the Turks to encroach on their

autonomy. Their hereditary chiefs, or capidans, belong to

the family known as Dera e Jon Markut (the house of John

Marco), which has ruled for 200 years and is supposed to be

descended from Scanderbeg. In 1868 the reigning chief, Bib

Doda, died, and his son and successor Prenk was detained as

a hostage by the Turks. The Mirdites consequently refused

to contribute their customary contingent to the Turkish army,

and eventually Prenk was restored. His ambiguous conduct,

however, led to the despatch of two expeditions against the

Mirdites and the devastation of their territory. In 1880

Prenk was kidnapped by the Turkish authorities and exiled to

Anatolia; another member of the ruling family was appointed

kaimakam, but the Mirdites refused to obey him, and their

district has ever since been in a state of anarchy. No Moslem

is allowed to remain in Mirdite territory. (2) The Mi-shkodrak

(Upper Scutari) group or confederation, also known as the

Malsia-Madhe (Great Highlands), is composed of the Klement,

Grud-a, Hot, Kastrat and Shkrel tribes, which occupy the

mountainous district north-east of Scutari. OWing to the

proximity of the capital this group is comparatively subject

to the Turkish power, and pays a small annual tribute; the

chiefs, who assess and collect the tribute, form a kind of

administrative council; the confederation has also an official

representative council at Scutari, called the Jibal, under

the presidency of a Serkarde or Moslem official. (3) The

Dukajin, whose territory lies between that of the last-named

group and the district of Jakova, include the Pulati, Shalla,

Shoshi and other tribes; they are more independent and more

savage than the Mi-shkodrak, and have never paid tribute from

time immemorial. (4) The Puka group, known as ``the Seven

Baryaks of Puka,'' dwell on the south side of the river Drin;

theyare nominally administered by a Turkish kaimakam, who is

a mere spectator of their proceedings. (5) The Malsia Jakovs,

a group of two Catholic and three Moslem tribes, extend in

the direction of Jakova, where they maintain an official

representative; they are entirely exempt from taxation. (6,7)

The Malsia-Lezhs, who occupy the Alessio highlands, and the

Malsia Krues, who inhabit the region north of Krola, live in a

state of extreme poverty and pay no tribute; the Malsia Krues

are much addicted to brigandage. To these seven groups, which

are included under the general appellation of Malissori,

or ``highlanders,'' may be added the Malsia of IAbra, who

extend to the west and north of that town, and form a large

separate group; they are notorious for their fierce lawless

character, and maintain themselves by plundering the Bulgarian

peasants in their neighbourhood. In general the attitude of the

Albanians in the north-eastern districts towards the Slavonic

peasantry may be compared with that of the Kurds towards the

Armenians. In the region east of Kroia the Mat tribe,

which occupies the upper valley of the Matra, presents an

entirely different organization; their district is governed

by four wealthy families, possessing hereditary rank and

influence. Towards the south the tribal organization becomes

looser and is gradually supplanted by a kind of feudal system;

among the powerful aristocratic houses may be mentioned the

Vliores at Avlona, who are stated to own over 150 sq. m. of

land, and the Toptans at Tirana. The principal landowners,

who reside in fortified houses, are all Moslems; their estates

are cultivated on the metayer system. Since the time

of Ali Pasha, who broke the power of the local chieftains,

southern Albania has been subject to the central Turkish

power; before that period the mountaineers of Suh and Khimara

enjoyed an independence similar to that of the Gheg tribes.

Religions.---The great majority of the Albanians, probably

more than three-fifths, are Moslems. The conversion of the

Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place

during the 16th and 17th centuries. Like the Cretan Moslems

and the Bulgarian Pomaks, the Albanian Mahommedans retain

many Christian traditions and customs; it is said that many

thousands of them secretly adhere to their original faith. In

the vilayet of Scutari they form about 55% of the population;

central Albania is almost entirely Moslem; in southern Albania,

however, there is a considerable Christian population, whose

limits practically coincide with those of the Greek-speaking

districts. Of the Christian population (about 600,000), some

110,000 are Roman Catholic Ghegs, some 90,000 are Orthodox

Tosks, and some 400,000 are Orthodox Slavs, Greeks and

Vlachs. The Roman Catholic Ghegs appear to have abandoned

the Eastern for the Western Church in the middle of the 13th

century. Their bishops and priests, who Wear the moustache

in deference to popular prejudice, are typical specimens

of the church militant. Some of the Gheg tribes, such as

the Puka, Malsia Jakovs and Malsia Krues, are partly Roman

Catholic, partly Moslem; among fellowtribesmen the difference

of religion counts for little. The Mirdites are exclusively

Roman Catholic, the Mat-i exclusively Moslem. At the head of

the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the archbishops of Scutari

(with three suffragans), Prizren and Durazzo; the mitred abbot

of St Alexander is the spiritual chief of the Mirdites. The

Orthodox Church has metropolitans at Prizren, Durazzo, Berat,

Iannina and Kortcha; the Bulgarian exarchate maintains a

bishop at Dibra. Of the Albanians in Sicily the great majority

(44791) remain faithful to the Greek Church; in Italy 116,482

follow the Latin ritual, and 38,192 the Greek. All

the Albanians in Greece belong to the Orthodox Church.

Education.---Education is almost non-existent, and the vast

majority of the populati(m, both Christian and Moslem, are totally

illiterate. Instruction in the Albanian language is prohibited

by the Turkish government for political reasons; a singleexception

has been made in the caseof an American school for girls at

Kortcha. There are Turkish primary and secondary schools in some

of the towns; in the village mosques instruction in the Koran

is given by the imams, but neither reading nor writing is

taught. The aristocratic Moslem families send their sons

to be educated in Constantinople or Vienna. At Scutari a

college and a seminary are maintained by the Jesuits, with the

aid of the Austrian government; the Franciscans have several

primary schools, and three lay schools are supported by the

Italian government; in all these institutions Italian is the

language of instruction. There are two Servian seminaries at

Prizren. In southern Albania there are Greek schools in the

towns and a large Greek gymnasium at Iannina. The priests

of the Greek Church, on whom the rural population depend for

instruction, are often deplorably ignorant. The merchant

families of Iannina are Well educated; the dialect spoken

in that town is the purest specimen of colloquial Greek.

Language.---Albanian is peculiarly interesting as the only

surviving representative of the so-called Thraco-Illyrian

group of languages which formed the primitive speech of the

peninsula. It has afforded an attractive study to philologists,

amongst whom may be mentioned Malte-Brun, Leake, Xylander,

Hahn, Miklosich and G. Meyer. The analysis of the language

presents great difficulties, as, owing to the absence of literary

monuments, no certainty can be arrived at With regard to its

earlier forms and later development. The groundwork, so far

as it can be ascertained, and the grammar are Indo-European,

but a large number of words have been borrowed from the Latin

or Italian and Greek, and it is not always easy to decide

Whether the mutilated and curtailed forms now in use represent

adopted words or belong to the original vocabulary. There

is also a considerable admixture of Turkish and Slavonic

words. Notwithstanding certain points of resemblance in

structure and phonetics, Albanian is entirely distinct from

the neighbouring languages; in its relation to early Latin and

Greek it may bc regarded as a co-ordinate member of the Aryan

stock. It possesses seven vowels; among the consonants are the

aspirated d and t, as in Greek, and many other sounds, such

as b, d, sh, zh (French.j), and hard g, which are wanting in

Greek, but exist in the Slavonic languages. There are three

declensions, each with a definite and indefinite form; the

genitive, dative and ablative are usually represented by a

single termination; the vocative is formed by a final o,

as memmo from memme, ``mother.'' The neuter gender is

absent. There are two conjugations; the passive formation,

now Wanting in most Indo-European languages, has been retained,

as in Greek; thus kerko-iy, ``I seek,'' forms kerko-n-em,

``I am sought.'' The,infinitive is not found; as in Greek,

Rumanian and Bulgarian, it is replaced by the subjunctive with a

particle. The two auxiliary verbs are kam, ``I have,'' and

yam, ``I am.'' An interesting and characteristic feature

of the language is the definite article, which is attached

to the end of the word: e.g. mik (``friend,'' amicus),

mik-u (``the friend''); kien (``dog''), kien-i Shkumb,

Shkumb-i. The suffix-article likewise appears in Rumanian and

Bulgarian, but in no other Latin or Slavobic language; it is

in each case a form of the demonstrative pronoun. Another

remarkable analogy between the Albanian and the neighbouring

languages is found in the formation of the future; the Albanian

do (3rd pers. sing. of dova, ``I will''), like the Greek

tha, is prefixed without change to all persons of the verb: a

similar usage in Servian and Bulgarian, as well as in Rumanian

(especially the Macedonian dialect), is peculiar to these

languages in the Slavonic and Latin groups. These and other

points of similarity, possibly only accidental, have led to

the conjecture that the primitive Illyrian language may have

exerted some kind of influence on the other idioms of the

peninsula. In the absence of literary culture the Albanian

dialects, as might be expected, are widely divergent; the

limits of the two principal dialects correspond with the racial

boundaries of the Ghegs and Tosks, who understand each other

with dilficulty; the Albanians in Greece and Italy have also

separate dialects. In writing Albanian the Latin character

is employed by the Ghegs, the Greek by the Tosks; neither

alphabet sufiices to represent the manifold sounds of the

language, and various supplementary letters or distinguishing

signs are necessary. In the use of these no uniform system

has yet been adopted. An alphabet of fifty-two letters, some

presenting ancient Phoenician and Cretan forms, was found by

Hahn in partial use at Elbassan and Tirana; its antiquity,

however, has not been established. The Tosks generally use

the Greek language for written communications. The native

folklore and poetry of the Albanians can hardly compare

with that of the neighbouring nations in originality and

beauty. The earliest printed works in Albanian are those of

the Catholic missionaries; the first book containing specimens

of the language was the Dictionarium Latino-Epirolicum of

Bianchi, printed in 1635. The literature of the last two

centuries consists mainly of translations and religious works

written by ecclesiastics, some of whom were natives of the

Albanian colonies in Italy. The most noteworthy Albanian

writer was Girolamo di Rada (b. 1815), a poet, philologist

and collector of national folklore. Among his successors

may be mentioned Vincenzo Dorsa and Demetrio Camarda.

Antiquities.---Albania abounds in ancient remains, which

as yet have been little explored. Fragments of ``Cyclopean''

structures were discovered by Hahn at Kretzunista, Arinista,

and other sites in the district of Argyrokastro; the walls,

partly ``Cyclopean,'' of an ancient city (perhaps Bullis)

are Visible at Gradisti on the Viossa. Masonry of this

type, however, occurring in Illyria and Dalmatia (e.g.

at Soalato and on the island of Lesina) has been shown by

modern archaeologists to belong to the Roman period. In

general, the remains of the classical epoch attest the

influence of Roman rather than of Greek civilization. At

Pollina, the ancient Apollonia, are the remnants of a

Doric temple, of which a single column is still standing.

A little north of Preveza are the considerable ruins of

Nikopohs, founded by Octavian to commemorate the victory of

Actium. At Khimara (anc. Chimaera) the remains of an

old Greek city may still be seen; at Santi Quaranta (anc.

Cnchesmos) the walls and towers of a later town are in good

preservation. Few traces remain of the once celebrated

Dyrrhachium. The ruins of Pandosia, Ephyra, Elatea, Phoenike,

Bathrotum, Akrolissos and other towns may be identified. The

most important and interesting remains, however, are those

of Dodona (q.v..) Of the medieval ruins those of Kroia,

the stronghold of Scanderbeg, are the most interesting.

Medieval History.---After the division of the Roman empire,

the lands inhabited by the Albanian race became provinces of

the Byzantine empire; northern Albania from Scutari to Berat

formed the thema or province of Dyrrachium (Durazzo,

Albanian Dourtz), southern Albania and Epirus the thema of

Nikopolis. The country was overrun by the Goths in the 4th

and 5th centuries, but reconquered by Justinian in 535. In 640

northern Albania was invaded by the Serbo-Croats; it continued

with interruptions under Servian rule till 1360. In 861 the

Bulgarians conquered the southern portion of the country and

Epirus as far as Khimara; under their powerful tsar Simeon

(893-927), who defeated the Servians, they established their

rule on the Adriatic littoral, except at Durazzo, which remained

Ilyzantine, and colonized these regions in great numbers. A

new Bulgarian dynasty, that of Shishman, was founded at Ochrida

after the death of Simeon. Shishman's son Samuel (976-1014)

captured Durazzo; he extended his sway over a great part of

the Balkan Peninsula, but was eventually defeated in 1014 by

the emperor Basil II., who put out the eyes of 15,000 Bulgarian

prisoners. Southern Albania and Epirus fell once more

under Byzantine rule, which, however, was shaken by numerous

revolts. In 1081 the Normans under Robert Guiscard possessed

themselves of Durazzo; Guiscard,s son Bohemund defeated the

Greeks in several battles and again (1107) laid siege to

Durazzo, which had been surrendered to them by treachery;

failing to take the city, he retired to Italy in 1109.

Southern Albania and Epirus remained under Byzantine domination

till 1204, when, after the capture of Constantinople by the

crusaders, Michael Comnenus, a member of the imperial family,

withdrew to Epirus and founded an independent sovereignty

known as the Despotate of Epirus at Iannina; his realm

included the whole of southern Albania, Acarnania and

Aetolia. The despotate of Epirus was held by the Comnenus

family till 1318, and by princes of the house of Orsini till

1358. Meanwhile Durazzo, with Berat and Central Albania, had

passed into the hands of the Sicilian kings of the house of

Anjou, who ruled these regions, which they styled the ``Kingdom

of Albania,'' from 1271 to 1368, maintaining a constant warfare

with the Byzantine emperors. The Servians again installed

themselves in Upper Albania about 1180, and the provinces of

Scutari and Prizren were ruled by kings of the house of Nemanya

till 1360; Stefan Dushan (1331-1358), the greatest of these

monarchs, included all Albania in his extensive but short-lived

empire, and took the title of 1mperotor Romaniae Slavoniae

et Albaniae (emperor of the Greeks, Slavs and Albanians).

Period of Native Rule.---After the death of Dushan and the

break-up of the Servian empire, a new epoch began when Albania

fell under the rule of chieftains more or less of native

origin. A portion of Upper Albania was ruled by the Balsha

dynasty (1366-1421), which, though apparently Servian by

descent, assimilated itself with its Albanian subjects

and embraced the faith of Pome. Alessio and a tract of

the interior in the direction of Ipek was governed by the

Dukajin. The northern portion of the ``kingdom of Albania,''

including Durazzo and Kroia, was ruled by the family of

Thopia (1359-1392) and afterwards by that of Lastriota, to

which Scanderbeg belonged; the southern portion with Berat,

by the Musaki (1368--1476). In the middle of the 14th century

a great migration of Albanians from the mountainous districts

of the north took place, under the chiefs Jin Bua Spata and

Peter Liosha; they advanced southwards as far as Acarnania and

Aetolia (1358), occupied the greater portion of the despotate of

Epirus, and took Iannina and Arta. In the latter half of the

century large colonies of Tosks were planted in the Morea by the

despots of Mistra, and in Attica and Boeotia by Luke Nerio of

Athens. As the power of the Balshas declined, the Venetians

towards the close of the 14th century established themselves at

Scutari, Budua, Antivari and elsewhere in northern Albania.

Period of Turkish Rule.---The advance of the Turks into

Albania began with the capture of Iannina in 1431. For once

in the history of the country the Albanian chiefs combined

against the invader under a single leader, the celebrated

Georce Eastriota (see SCANDERBEG), who fought thirteen

campaigns in the period 1444--1466. In 1478 Kroia, which the

Venetians had occupied after Scanderbeg's death, surrendered

to Mahommed II., and in 1479 Scutari, after a memorable defence

by the Venetians and their Montenegrin allies, was reduced by

blockade. Nany of its native Christian defenders emigrated

to Dallratia and Italy; others took refuge in the mountains

with the Loiran Catholic Ghegs. In 1502 the Turks captured

Durazzo, and in 1571 Antivari and Dulcigno, the last Venetian

possessions in Albania. Notwithstanding the abandonment of

Christianity by a large section of the population after the

Turkish conquest, the authority of the sultans was never

effectively established, and succeeding centuries present

a record of interminable conflicts between the tribesmen

and the Turks, between the Christians and the converts to

Islam, or between all combined and the traditional Montenegrin

enemy. The decline of the Ottoman power, which began towards

the end of the 17th century, was marked by increasing anarchy

and lawlessness in the outlying portions of the empire.

About 1760 a Moslem chieftain, Mehemet of Bushat, after

obtaining the pashalik of Scutari from the Porte, succeeded

in establishing an almost independent sovereignty in Upper

Albania, which remained hereditary in his family for some

generations. In southern Albania Ali Pasha of Tepelen (b.

about 1750), an able, cruel and unscrupulous man, subdued

the neighbouring pashas and chiefs, crushed the Suliotes and

Khimarrliotes, and exercised a practically independent sovereignty

from the Adriatic to the Aegean. He introduced comparative

civilization at Iannina, his capital, and maintained direct

relations with foreign powers. Eventually he renounced his

allegiance to the sultan, but was overthrown by a Turkish army in

1822. Shortly afterwards the dynasty of Scutari came to

an end with the surrender of Mustafa Pasha, the last of the

house of Bushat, to the grand vizier Reshid Pasha, in 1831.

The opposition of the Albanians, Christian as well as Moslem,

to the reforms introduced by the sultan Mahmud II. led

to the devastation of the country and the expatriation of

thousands of its inhabitants. During the next half-century

several local revolts occurred, but no movement of a strictly

political character took place till after the Berlin Treaty

(July 13, 1878), when some of the Moslems and Catholics

combined to resist the stipulated transference of Albanian

territory to Austria-Hungary, Servia and Montenegro) and the

Albaniian League Was formed by an assemblage of chiefs at

Prizren. The movement, which was instigated by the Porte

with the object of evading the provisions of the treaty, Was

so far successful that the restoration of Plava and Gusinye

to Albania was sanctioned by the powers, Montenegro receiving

in exchange the town and district of Dulcigno. The Albanian

leaders, however, soon displayed a spirit of independence,

which proved embarrassing to Turkish diplomacyand caused

alarm at Constantinople; their forces came into conflict with

a Turkish army under Dervish Pasha near Dulcigno (November

1880), and eventually the league was suppressed. A similar

agitation on a smaller scale was organized in southern Albania

to 1esist the territorial concessions awarded by the powers to

Greece. In the spring of 1903 serious disturbances took

place in north-western Albania, but the Turks succeeded in

pacifying the revolted tribesmen, partly by force and partly by

concessions. These movements were far from displaying a

genuinely national character. In recent years attempts have

been made by Albanians resident abroad to propagate the national

idea among their compatriots at home; committees have been

formed at Brussels, Bucharest, Athens and elsewhere, and books,

pamphlets and newspapers are surreptitiously sent into the

country. Unity of aim and effort, however, seems foreign

to the Albanians, except in defence of local or tribal

privileges. The growth of a wider patriotic sentiment must

depend on the spread of popular education; certainly up to

1908 no appreciable progress had been made in this direction.

AUTHORITIES.---F. C. H. Pouqueville, Voyage de la Grece

(Paris, 1820); W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece

(London, 1835); J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena,

1854), Reise durch die Gebiete des Drin und Vardar (Vienna,

1867); F. Bopp, Uber dos Albanesische (Berlin, 1854); J.

P. Fallmerayer, Das albanesische Element in Griechenland

(Munich, 1864); N. Camarda, Saggio di grammatologia comparata

sulla lingua albanese (Leghorn, 1865); Viscountess Strangford,

The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic (London, 1865); H. F.

Tozer, Researches in the Highlands of Turkey (London, 1869);

F. Miklosich, Albanes. Forschungen (Vienna, 1870); C.

Hopf, Chroniques greco-romaines inedites ou peu connues

(Berlin, 1873); H. Hecquard, Histoire et description de la

Haute Albanie ou Guegarie (Paris, undated); S. Gopchevich,

Oberalbanien und seine Liga (Leipzig, 1881); V'. Tajani,

Le Istoria Albanesi (Salerno, 1886); G. Gelchich, La Zedda

e la dinastia dei Balshi (Spalato, 1899); S. Lambros, `E

onomatologia tes 'Attikes kai h eis ten choran

epikesis ton .Albanon in the 'Epeteris tou Parnassou

(Athens, 1896); Theodore Ippen ``Beitrige zur inneren

Geschichte der Turkei im 19. Jahrhundert speciell Albaniens,''

in the Osterreichisch-Ungarische Revue, vol. xxviii.; A.

Philippson, Thessalia und Epirus (Berlin, 1897). See

also Murray's Greece, ed. 1900, pp. 720-731 and 760-814,

and Blue-book Turkey, No. 15, Part ii., 1886. (J. D. B.)

ALBANUS LACUS (mod. Lago di Albano), a lake about 12

m. S.E. of Rome. It is generally considered to have been

formed by a volcanic explosion at the margin of the great

crater of the Albanus Mons; it has the shape of a crater,

the banks cf Which are over 400 ft. in height from the

water-level, while the water is as much as 560 ft. deep

in the S. portion. It is fed by subterraiiean springs.

According to the legend, the emissarium (outlet) which

still drains it was made in 398-397 B.C., the Delphic oracle

having declared that Veri could onlybe taken when the waters

of the lake reached the sea. It is over a mile in length,

hewn in the rock, and about 6 ft. high and 4 ft. broad; it

has vertical shafts at intervals, and a sluice chamber at

its egress from the lake. In the time of Domitian the whole

lake belonged to the imperial domain. (SEEALBALONGA.)

ALBANUS MONS (mod. Monte Cavo, from an early city of

the name of Cabum? 1), the highest point of the volcanic

Alban hills, about 13 m. S.E. of Rome, 3115 ft. above

sea-level. It is upon the line of the rim of the inner crater

of the great volcano, While Tusculum and Algidus Mons mark

the edge of the earlier outer crater, which was about 7 m.

wide. The lakes of Albano and Nemi were probably formed by

volcanic explosions at the margin of the great crater; though a

view has also been expressed that the basins are the result of

subsidence. The name Albanus Mons is also used generally

of the Alban group of hills in which there seem to have been

some remains of volcanic activity in early Roman times, which

covered the early necropolis of Alba Longa, and occasionally

produced showers of stones, e.g. in the time of Tullus

Hostilius (Liv. i. 31), and perhaps much later. In 193 B.C.

it is recorded (ib. xxxv. 9) that such a snower occurred at

Aricia, Lanuvium and on the Aventine. Upon the Mons Albanus

stood the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, where the annual festival

of the Latin League was held. The foundations and some of the

architectural fragments of the temple were still in existence

until 1777, when they were used to build the Passionist

monastery by Cardinal York. The road which ascended to the

temple from the rim of the lake is still well preserved.

1 See Th. Mommsen in Bulletino dell' Istituto (1861),

206; Corpus Inscrip. Lat. (Berlin, 1887), xiv. 2228,

ALBANY, DUKES OF. The territorial designation of Albany was

formerly given to those parts of Scotland to the north of the

firths of Clyde and Forth. The title of duke of Albany was

first bestowed in 1398 by King Robert III. on his brother, Robert

Stewart, ead of Fife (see I. below); but in 1425 it became

extinct. The dukedom was re-created, r. 1458, in favour of

Alexander Stewart, ``lord of Annandale and earl of March',

(see II. below), whose son and successor (see III. below)

left no legitimate heir. The title of duke of Albany was next

bestowed upon Henry Stuart, commonly known as Lord Darnley,

by Mary, queen of Scots, in 1565. From him the title passed

to his son, James VI. of Scotland and I. of England. The

title was by him given, at his birth, to Charles, his second

son, afterwards King Charles I. By Charles II. it was again

bestowed, in 1660, on James, duke ot York, afterwards King

James II. On the 5th of July 1716 Ernest Augustus, bishop of

Osnaburgh [Osnabruck] (1715-1728), youngest brother of King

George I., was created duke of York and Albany, the title

becoming extinct on his death without heirs in 1728. On the

1st of April 1760 Prince Edward Augustus, younger brother of

King George III., was created duke of York and Albany; he died

without heirs on the 17th of September 1767. On the 29th of

November 1784 the title of duke of York and Albany was again

created in favour of Frederick, second son of George III., who

died without heirs on the 5th of January 1827. The title of

duke of Albany was bestowed on the 24th of May 1881 on Prince

Leopold, youngest son of Queen Victoria (see IV. below).

I. ROBERT STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1345-1420), regent

of Scotland, was a son of King Robert II. by his mistress,

Elizabeth Mure, and was legitimatized when his parents were

married about 1349. In 1361 he married Margaret, countess

of Menteith, and after his widowed sister-in-law, Isabel,

countess of Fife, had recognized him as her heir, he was

known as the earl of Fife and Menteith. Taking an active

part in the government of the kingdom, the earl was made

high chamberlain of Scotland in 1382, and gained military

reputation by leading several plundering expeditions into

England. In 1389 after his elder brother John, earl of

Carrick, had been incapacitated by an accident, and when his

father the king was old and infirm, he was chosen governor

of Scotland by the estates; and he retained the control of

affairs after his brother John became king as Robert III. in

1390. In April 1308 he was created duke of Albany; but

in the following year his nephew David, duke of Rothesay,

the heir to the crown, succeeded him as governor, although

the duke himself was a prominent member of the advising

council. Uncle and nephew soon differed, and in March 1402

the latter died in prison at Falkland. It is not certain

that Albany was responsible for the imprisonment and death

of Rothesay, whom the parliament declared to have died

from natural causes; but the scanty evidence points in the

direction of his guilt. Restored to the office of governor,

the duke was chosen regent of the kingdom after the death

of Robert III. in 1406, as the new king, James I., was a

prisoner in London; and he took vigorous steps to prosecute

the war with England, which had been renewed a few years

before. He was unable, or as some say unwilling, to effect

the release of his royal nephew, and was soon faced by a

formidable revolt led by Donald Macdonald, second lord of the

Isles, who claimed the earldom of Ross and was in alliance with

Henry IV. of England; but the defeat of Donald at Harlaw near

Aberdeen in July 1411 freed him from this danger. Continuing

alternately to fight and to negotiate with England, the duke

died at Stirling Castle in September 1420, and was buried in

Dunfermline Abbey. Albany, who was the ablest prince of his

house, left by his first wife one son, Murdac (or Murdoch)

Stewart, who succeeded him as duke of Albany and regent,

but at whose execution in 1425 the dukedom became extinct.

See Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland,

edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); John of Fordun,

Scotichronicon, continued by Walter Bower, edited by T.

Hearne (Oxford, 1722); and P. F. Tytler, History of Scotland

(Edinburgh, 1850). See also Sir W. Scott's Fair Maid of Perth.

II. ALEXANDER STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1454-1485),

was the second son of James II., king of Scotland, by his

wife, Mary, daughter of Arnold, duke of Gelderland. Created

duke of Albany before 1458, he also received the lordship of

the Isle of Man, and was afterwards captured by an English

ship when journeying to Gelderland in 1468. He was soon

released, and as he grew to manhood began to take part in

the government and defence of Scotland, being appointed in

quick succession high admiral, warden of the marches, governor

of Berwick and lieutenant of the kingdom. Soon, however,

he quarrelled with his brother, King James III. Some of his

actions on the marches aroused suspicion, and in 1479 he

was seized and imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle; but he soon

made his escape, and reaching Paris in September 1479 was

welcomed by King Louis XI. Louis, however, would not assist

him to attack his brother the king, and crossing to England

he made a treaty with King Edward IV. at Fotheringhay in June

1482. Like Edward Baliol, he promised to hold Scotland under

English suzerainty in return for Edward's assistance, and

with Richard, duke of Gloucester, afterwards King Richard

III., he marched at the head of the English forces to

Edinburgh. Meanwhile his supporters in Scotland had seized

James, and professed their readiness to recognize Albany,

declaring at the same time their distrust of Gloucester. A

compromise, however, was arranged, and the restoration of his

lands and offices was promised to Albany, who in turn agreed

to be faithful to James; but about the same time the duke with

remarkable duplicity had sworn he would keep the treaty with

Edward. Again he was appointed lieutenant of the kingdom,

a truce was made with the English, and James, released from

custody, restored his brother and created him earl of Mar and

Garioch. The fraternal peace was soon disturbed. Failing

to obtain possession of the king's person, Albany renewed

negotiations with Edward, and in February 1483 made a new treaty

at Westminster on the lines of that of Fotheringhay. A fresh

reconciliation followed between the brothers, but in July 1483,

during Albany's absence in England, he was sentenced to death for

treason. After making a raid on Lochmaben he went to France,

where in 1485 he was accidentally killed. Albany's first

wife was Catherine, daughter of William, third earl of Orkney

and first earl of Caithness, who bore him three sons and a

daughter. This marriage was dissolved in 1478, and as its

issue was regarded as illegitimate the title of duke of Albany

descended to John (see below), his only son by his second

wife, Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne. daughter of Bertrand II.,

count of Auvergne and of Bouillon, whom he married in 1480.

III. JOHN STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1481-1536), regent

Of Scotland, was born about 1481. He was brought up in

France, where he owned large estates, and held the office of

admiral of France. In 1515, at the request of the Scottish

parliament, and in spite of Henry VIII.'s efforts to prevent

him, Albany came to Scotland, was inaugurated regent in July,

and proceeded to organize resistance to the influence of England

and of Margaret Tudor, the queen dowager, sister of Henry

VIII. In August he seized the latter and her children at

Stirling, and subsequently was occupied in suppressing the

rebellion of the Homes, Angus (the second husband of Margaret),

and James Hamilton, earl of Arran; Alexander, third Lord

Home, being beheaded in October 1516. Albany was declared

on the 12th of November heir to the throne, and on the 6th

of June 1517 he returned to France. In August he concluded

the treaty of Rouen, by which the alliance between France

and Scotland was renewed and a daughter of Francis I. was

to marry James V., and next year he obtained the relaxation

of certain dues on Scottish imports into France. Meanwhile

Margaret had returned immediately on Albany's departure, and

disorders had broken out owing to the rivalry between Angus and

Arran. Francis I. had secretly engaged himself to Henry

VIII. not to allow Albany's departure from France, but he

returned at the close of 1521 and immediately became the

object of Henry VIII.'s and Wolsey's attacks. He reconciled

himself temporarily with Margaret, supported her divorce from

Angus, and was now accused by the English government, in all

probability unjustly, of having seduced her and of harbouring

schemes of marrying her himself, together with designs against

the life of the young king. These accusations were repudiated

by the Scots, and Henry's demand for the regent's dismissal

refused. War broke out in 1522, and in September Albany

advanced to within four miles of Carlisle with a large

army. The Scots, however, showed unwillingness to fight

outside their own frontiers, and Albany agreed to a truce

and disbanded his troops. On the 25th of October he departed

hastily to France, leaving the borders exposed to the

enemy. On the 25th of September 1523 he once more landed

in Scotland, bringing with him supplies from France and a

considerable body of troops, and on the 3rd of November, after

an unsuccessful attack on Wark, retreated hastily, and quitted

Scotland finally on the 20th of May 1524. On the 30th of July

his regency was terminated by the declaration of James V. as

king. He accompanied Francis I. in his disastrous Italian

campaign of 1525, being detached to make a diversion in

Naples against the Spanish. Between 1530 and 1535 he acted as

French ambassador in Rome, conducted Catherine de' Medici, his

wife's niece, to Paris on her marriage to Henry (afterwards

Henry II.) in 1534, and negotiated the marriage of James V.

The regent Albany was a singularly unfortunate commander in

the field, but a successful ruler and administrator, and the

Scottish court of session owed to him its institution. But he

regarded himself more the subject of the king of France than

of the king of Scotland, subordinated the interests of the

latter state to the former, and disliked his official duties

in Scotland, where the benefits of his administration were

largely diminished by his want of perseverance and frequent

absence. He appears to have been a man of honourable and

straightforward conduct, whose character must be cleared from

the aspersions of Wolsey and the English authorities. He

married his cousin Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne, but left no

legal issue, and all his honours became extinct at his death.

IV. LEOPOLD GEORGE DUNCAN ALBERT, duke of Albany, eighth

child and youngest son of Queen Victoria, was born on the 7th

of April 1853. The delicacy of his health seemed to mark him

out for a life of retirement, and as he grew older he evinced

much of the love of knowledge, the capacity for study and

the interest in philanthropic and ecclesiastical movements

which had characterized his father, the prince consort. He

matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in November 1872, living

with his tutor at Wykeham House, St Giles's, and diligently

pursued his favourite studies of science, art and the modern

languages. In 1876 he left the university with the honorary

degree of D.C.L., and resided at Boyton House, Wiltshire,

and afterwards at Claremont. On coming of age in 1874, he

had been made a privy councillor and granted an annuity of

L. 15,000. He travelled on the continent, and in 1880 visited

the United States and Canada. He was a trustee of the British

Museum, a bencher of Lincoln's Inn, and continued to take

an active part in the promotion of education and knowledge

generally. Like his father and other members of his family

he was an excellent public speaker. On the 24th of May 1881

he was created duke of Albany, earl of Clarence and Baron

Arklow. On the 27th of April 1882 he married Helene

Frederica Augusta, princess of Waldeck-Pyrmont, and his income

was raised by parliament to L. 25,000. Having gone to the

south of France for his health in the spring of 1884, he was

attacked by a fit, the cause or the consequence of a fall

in a club-house at Cannes, on the 27th of March, and died

very unexpectedly on the following morning. His death was

universally regretted, from the gentleness and graciousness

of his character, and the desire and ability he had shown

to promote intellectual interests of every kind. He left a

daughter, born in February 1883, and a posthumous son, Arthur

Charles Edward, born on the 19th of July 1884, who succeeded

to the dukedom of Albany, and who on the 30th of July

1900 became duke of Saxe-Coburg on the death of his uncle.

ALBANY, LOUISE MAXIMILIENNE CAROLINE, COUNTESS OF

(1752-1824), eldest daughter of Prince Gustavus Adolphus of

Stolberg-Gedern, was born at Mons on the 20th of September

1752. In her youth she was a canoness of Ste. Wandru at Mons,

but in her twentieth year she was affianced, at the instigation

of the duke of Berwick and with the secret connivance of the

French Court, to Prince Charles Edward Stuart, ``the Young

Pretender,'' self-styled count of Albany. She was wedded

to the prince at Macerata, near Ancona, on Good Friday 1774,

and the married pair for over two years resided in the old

Stuart palace at Rome. Pretty, intelligent, charming and

witty, Louise fascinated Roman society, wherein she gained

the nickname of ``Queen of Hearts.'' The union, however, which

was obviously intended to give an heir to the Stuart prince,

proved childless, and Louise's married life became far from

happy. In 1774 the pair moved to Florence, where in December

1780 Louise, terrified at her husband's violence and fearing

for the safety of her life, fled to a neighbouring convent

and threw herself on the protection of her brother-in-law,

Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, who invited her to Rome. Louise

had already in Florence formed the acquaintance of the great

Italian tragic poet, Vittorio Alfieri, who had been captivated

by her engaging manners, her youthful beauty and her literary

powers. The poet now followed her to Rome, but the friendship

between Alfieri and his sister-in-law does not seem to have

aroused any suspicion in the mind of Cardinal York until

1783, when, after a visit to his brother in Florence, he

suddenly requested Pope Pius VI. to banish Alfieri from papal

territory. In 1784, however, a legal separation between the

count and countess of Albany was arranged, and by Charles's

death in 1788 Louise found herself freed from matrimonial

bonds. In company with Alfieri (to whom rumour said she

had been secretly married) she now visited Paris and London,

and was cordially received at the English court, George

III. granting her an annual pension of L. 1600 from the privy

purse. Returning to Italy, Alfieri and the countess settled

at Florence, where the poet died on the 9th of October

1803, and was buried in the church of Santa Croce beneath

Canova's vast monument erected at Louise's expense. The

countess continued to reside in the house on the Lung'

Arno at Florence, patronising men of science and letters

and holding nightly receptions, at which all visitors were

expected to treat their hostess with the etiquette due to

reigning royalty. She died on the 29th of January 1824 and

was buried in Santa Croce, where in the south transept a

marble monument by Giovannozzi and Santarelli commemorates

her. By her will the countess bequeathed all her property,

including many historic objects of art and documents, to the

companion of her old age, the French painter, Francois Xavier

Fabre, who ultimately gave the greater part of his legacy to

the museum of his native town of Montpellier. Two excellent

portraits of the countess of Albany and of Alfieri, painted

by this artist, now hang in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence.

See Vernon Lee, The Countess of Albany (1884);

Marchesa Vitelleschi, A Court in Exile. (H. M. V.)

ALBANY, a river of Canada, forming part of the boundary

between the province of Ontario and the district of Keewatin.

It rises in Lake St Joseph in 91 deg. 25, W. and 50 deg. 55' N., and

flows E.N.E. into James Bay, its total length being over 400

m. It is navigable for nearly half its length, to Martin's

Falls. There are four Hudson's Bay Company's posts

on its banks, including Fort Albany at its mouth. The

Ogoki and Kenogami rivers are the principal tributaries.

ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Dougherty county,

Georgia, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Kinchafoona Creek, and

at the head of navigation on the Flint river, about 100 m.

S.S.W. of Macon, about 200 m. S.W. of Savannah and about 203

m. N.E. of Pensacola. Pop. (1890) 4008; (1900) 4606 (2903

of negro descent); (1910) 8190. It is served by the Central

of Georgia, the Georgia Northern, the Seaboard Air Line, the

Albany & Northern and the Atlantic Coast Line railways, and

by steamboats connecting it with Apalachicola at the mouth

of the Apalachicola river. Its importance is largely due to

these transportation facilities and to the resources of the

surrounding country, which produces timber, lime, cotton,

Indian corn, sugar-cane, wheat, oats, fruit, melons, hay and

vegetables. Albany ships much cotton, and has a cotton

compress, a cotton mill, cotton-seed oil and guano factories,

brick yards, lumber mills and ice factories. It is a summer

and winter resort and is the home of the Georgia Chautauqua.

The city owns and operates the electric-lighting plant and

artesian water-works. It was settled in 1836, was incorporated

in 1838 and received its present city charter in 1907.

ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Albany county, New

Yrork, U.S.A., and the capital of the state. It is situated

on the W. bank of the Hudson river, just below the mouth of

the Mohawk, 145 m. N. of New York City and 165 m. W. of

Boston. Pop. (1880) 90,758; (1890) 94,923; (1900) 94,151, of

whom 17,718 were foreign-born (6612 being Irish, 5903 German,

1361 English and 740 Russian) and 1178 were negroes; (1910)

100,253. Albany is a terminus of the New York Central & Hudson

River, the Delaware & Hudson and the West Shore railways,

and is also served by the Boston & Maine railway, by the

Erie and Champlain canals (being a terminus of each), by

steamboat lines on the Hudson river and by several inter-urban

electric railways connecting with neighbouring cities.

Albany is attractively situated on a series of hills rising

sharply from the river. The older portions of the city are

reminiscent of Dutch colonial days, and some fine specimens of

the Dutch and later colonial architecture are still standing.

Perhaps the most famous of these is the Schuyler mansion (now

St Francis de Sales Orphan Asylum), built in 1760-1761. The

Van Rensselaer manor-house, built in 1765, was pulled down in

1893 and was reconstructed on the campus of Wilhams College,

Williamstown, Massachusetts, where it is used as a fraternity

club-house. Among the public buildings, the finest is the

new State Capitol, one of the largest and most imposing in

America. It occupies a commanding position in Capitol Square

(7.84 acres), one of the highest points in the city. It is

built of white Maine granite, and cost about $25,000,000. Its

dimensions are 300 X 400 ft. The corner-stone was laid in

1871, and the building was completed, with the exception of

the central tower and dome, in 1904. The legislature first

met in it in 1879. The original designs were by Thomas Fuller,

who also designed the parliamentary buildings at Ottawa; but

the plans underwent many changes, Isaac Gale Perry, Leopold

Eidlitz and H. H. Richardson being associated with the work

before its completion. The beautiful ``western staircase''

of red sandstone (from plans by Perry) and the senate chamber

(designed by Richardson) are oerhaps the most notable parts

of the structure. The building houses the various executive

departments, the legislature and the court of appeals. A

large and handsome building of white granite was begun in 1908

directly opposite the Capitol to accommodate the department

of education and the magnificent state library (about 450,000

volumes). Other important buildings are the old state hall,

a handsome white marble building erected in 1842; the city

hall, a beautiful French Gothic building of pink granite

trimmed with red sandstone, designed by H. H. Richardson;

the Federal Building; the State aIuseum of Natural History;

the galleries of the Albany Institute and Historical and Art

Society, in State Street, opposite the Capitol; Harmanus Bleecker

Hall, a theatre since 1898; and the Ten Eyck and Kenmore

hotels. Among the finest office buildings are the structures

of the Albany City Savings Institution, National Commerical

Bank, Union Trust Company, Albany Trust Company, the National

Savings Bank, First National Bank, the New York State National

Bank (1803, probably the oldest building in the United States

used continuously for banking purposes) and the Albany Savings

Bank. The Fort Orange Club, the Catholic Union, the Albany

Club, the University Club, the City Club of Albany, the

Country Club, the German Hall Association and the Adelphi

Club are the chief social organizations. The principal church

buildings are the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception

(Roman Catholic), a fine specimen of Gothic architecture,

built of brownstone, with spires 210 ft. high; the cathedral

of All Saints (Protestant Episcopal), an English Gothic

structure of pink sandstone designed by R. W. Gibson and

begun in 1883; St Peter's Episcopal Church (French Gothic),

of Hudson River bluestone; Emmanuel Baptist Church, of white

granite; the Madison Avenue Reformed Church; and St Joseph's

(Roman Catholic), of bluestone and Caen stone with marble

trimmings. Among the educational institutions are the Albany

Medical College (1839) and the Albany Law School (1851),

both incorporated since 1873 with the Union University, the

Collegiate Department of which is at Schenectady; the Albany

College of Pharmacy (1881), also part of Union University; the

Albany Academy (1813), in which Joseph Henry, while a member

of the faculty, perfected in 1826--1832 the electro-magnet

and began his work on the electric telegraph; the Albany

Academy for Girls, founded in 1814 as the Albany Female

Academy (name changed in 1906); and a State Normal College

(1890), with a Model School. The hospitals and charitable

institutions include St Vincent's Orphan Asylum, the Lathrop

Memorial (for children of working mothers), Albany City

Hospital, the Homeopathic Hospital, St Peter's Hospital,

the Albany City Orphan Asylum and the House of the Good

Shepherd. There are a county penitentiary and a State

armoury. The city has 95 acres of boulevards and avenues

under park supervision and several fine parks (17, with 307

acres in 1907), notably Washington (containing Calverley's

bronze statue of Robert Burns, and Rhind's ``Moses at the Rock

of Horeb''), Beaver and Dudley, in which is the old Dudley

Observatory--the present Observatory building is in Lake

Avenue, south-west of Washington Park, where is also the Albany

Hospital. In the beautiful rural cemetery, north of the city,

are the tombs of President Chester A. Arthur and General Philip

Schuyler. The city owns a fine water-supply and a filtration plant

covering 20 acres, with a capacity of 30,000,000 gallons daily

and storage reservoirs with a capacity of 227,000,000 gallons.

The first newspaper in Albany was the Gazetle, founded in

1771. The Argus, founded in 1813 by Jesse Buel (1778--1839)

and edited from 1824 to 1854 by Edwin Croswell (1797-1871), was

lontthe organ of the coterie of New York politicians known .

as the ``Albany Regency,'' and was one of the most influential

Democratic papers in the United States. Previously to their

holding office, Daniel Manning (1831-1887), secretary of the

treasury in President Cleveland's cabinet, was president of the

Argus company, and Daniel Scott Lamont (1851-1905), secretary

of war during President Cleveland's second administration,

was managing editor of the newspaper. The Evening Journal,

founded in 1830 as an anti-Masonic organ, and for thirty-five

years edited by Thurlow Weed, was equally influential as

an organ of the Whig and later of the Republican party.

Albany is an important railway and commercial centre, particularly

as a distributing point for New England markets, as a lumber

market and--though to a much less extent than formerly-as

a depot for transhipment to the south and west. Among the

city's manufactories are breweries, iron and brass foundries,

stove factories, knitting mills, cotton mills, clothing

factories, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments,

cigar and cigarette factories, and manufactories of adhesive

pastes, court plaster, spring beds, ribbed underwear, aniline

dyes, chemicals, gas meters, fire-brick, and glazed paper and

cardboard. The value of the total factory product in 1905

was $20,208,715, which was 17% greater than that for 1900.

History.---Albany was probably the second place to be

permanently settled within the borders of the original Thirteen

Colonies. It seems likely that French traders ascended

the river as far as the site of the present city in the

first half of the sixteenth century, and according to some

writers a temporary trading post was established here about

1540. Albany's authentic history, however, may be dated from

1614, when Dutch traders built on Castle Island, opposite the

city, a post which they named Fort Nassau. Three years later

the fort was removed to the mainland, and near here in 1618

the Dutch made their first treaty with the Iroquois. In 1624

arrived eighteen families of Dutch Walloons, the first actual

permanent settlers, as distinguished from traders. In that

year, on a hill near the site of the present Capitol, Fort

Orange was built, and around it, as a centre, the new town

grew. At first it was known by the Dutch simply as the

``fuyck'' (hoop), from the curve in the river at this point,

whence was soon derived the name Beverfuvck or Beverwvck. In

1629 the Dutch government granted to Killiaen van Rensselaer,

an Amsttrdam diamond merchant, a tract of land (24 sq. m.)

centring at Fort Orange. Over this tract, the first patroonship

granted in the colony, he had the usual powers and rights of a

patroon. The grant was named Rensselaerwyck in his honour,

became a ``manor'' in 1685, and remained in the family until

1853. The colonists whom he settled upon his grant (1630) were

industrious, and ``Beverwvck'' became increasingly prosperous.

From this time the town, on account of its favourable commercial

and strategic position at the gateway of the Iroquois country

and at the head of navigation on the Hudson river, was for

a century and a half one of the most important places in the

colonies. In 1664. with the transfer of New Netherlands

to English control, the name ``Beverwvck'' was changed to

``Albany''-one of the titles of the duke of York (afterward James

II.). In 1673 the town was acain for a short time under Dutch

control. In 1686 Governor Donaan granted to Albany a city

charter, which provided for an elected council. The first

mayor appointed by the aovernor was Peter Schuyler (1657-1724).

In 1689 was held here the first inter-colonial convention in

America, when delegates from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth,

Connecticut and New York met to treat with representatives of

the Five Nations and to plan a system of colonial defence.

During the 18th century there was a great influx of English

colonists, and in 1714 the first English church was erected.

During the French and Indian wars Albany was a starting-point

for expeditions against Canada and the Lake Champlain

country. In June 1754, in Dursuance of a recommendation

of the Lords.of Trade, a convention of representatives of

Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Connecticut, New

Vork, Pennsylvania and Maryland met here for the purpose of

confirming and establishing a closer league of friendshiq with

the Iroquois and of arranging for a Dermanent union of the

colonies. The Indian affairs having been satisfactorily

adiusted, the convention, after considerable debate. in which

Benjamin Franklin, Stephen Hopkins and Thomas Hutchinson

took a leading part, adopted (July 11) a plan foraunionof the

colonies, which was in great part similar to one submitted

to the convention by Franklin. This plan provided for a

representative governing body to be known as the Grand Council,

to which each colony should elect delegates (not more than

seven or less than two) for a term of three years. This body

was to have control of Indian affairs, impose taxes, nominate

all civil officers, authorize the opening of new lands to

settlement, and in general have charge of colonial defence,

and of the enlistment, equipment and maintenance of an army.

An executive or viceroy, to be known as the president-general,

was to have the veto power over the acts of the Grand Council

and the right of appointment of military officers. Finally,

it was provided that the acts of the Grand Council should

be valid unless vetoed by the crown within a period of three

years. Neither the British government nor the growing party

in the colonies which was clamouring for colonial rights

received the plan with favour--- the former holding that

it gave the colonies too much independence, and the latter

that it gave them too little. 4.he strategic importance of

Albany was fully recognized during the War of Independence,

and it was against Albany that Burgoyne's expedition was

directed. Albany became the permanent state capital in

1797. In 1839 it became the centre of the ``Anti-Rent

War,'' which was precipitated by the death of Stephen

van Rensselaer (1764-1839), the last of the patroons; the

attempt of his heirs to collect overdue rents resulting

in disturbances which necessitated the calling out of the

militia, spread into several counties where there were large

landed estates, and were not entirely settled until 1847.

See William Barnes, The Settlement and Early History of

Albany (Albany, 1864): J. Munsell, The Annals of Albany

(10 vols., Albany, 1859-1859: 2nd ed., 4 vols., 1869-1871);

E. B. O'Callaghan, Documentary History of the State of New

York, vol. iii. (Albany, 1850): A. J. Weise, The History

of the City of Albany (Albany, 1884); G. R. Howell and J.

Tenney, Bi-centennial History of Albany (New York, 1886);

Amasa I. Parker, Landmarks of Albany County (Syracuse,

1897); and Cuyler Reynolds, Albany Chronicles; or Albany

Mayors anid Contemporaneous Chronology (Albany, 1907).

ALBANY, a municipal town in the county of Plantagenet, West

Australia, on Princess Royal Harbour, a branch of King George

Sound, 352 m. by rail and 254 m. directly S.S.E. of Perth. Pop.

(1901) 3650. It is the chief health resort of the state, and

its climate is one of the finest in Australia; it has a mean

annual temperature of 58.6 deg. F., and the summer heat is never

excessive. One of the features of the town is the Marine

Drive, some 5 1/2 m. in circuit around the hills overlooking the

harbour. Albany has several flourishing industries, of

which the chief are brewing, coach-building, printing and

tanning. In addition it has the finest harbour in West

Australia. A pier extends for 1700 ft. into the sea, giving

safe accommodation to the large steamers which call at the

port. The Great Southern railway has a line to the seaward

end of the pier, and affords direct communication with the

interior of the colony. The harbour is protected by forts

and there is a garrison in the town. King George Sound,

of which Albany is the township, was first occupied in 1826

and a penal settlement was established. No attempt was made

to colonize the locality until after this settlement was

given up in 1831. Albany became a municipality in 1871.

ALBATEGNIUS (c. 850--929), an Arab prince and astronomer,

correctly designated Mahommed ben Gebir al Batani, his surname

being derived from his native town, Batan in Mesopotamia. From

his observations at Aracte and Damascus, where he died, he was

able to correct some of Ptolemy's results, previously taken on

trust. He compiled new tables of the sun and moon, long

accepted as authoritative, discovered the movement of the sun's

apogee, and assigned to annual precession the improved value of

55'' Perhaps independently of Aryabhatta (born at Pataliputra

on the Ganges 476 A.D.), he introduced the use of sines in

calculation, and partially that of tangents. His principal

work, De Motu Stellarum, was published at Nuremberg in 1537

by Melanchthon, in a blundering Latin translation by Plato

Tiburtinus (fl. 1116), annotated by Regiomontanus. A reprint

appeared at Bologna in 1645. The original MS. is preserved

at the Vatican; and the Escorial library possesses in MS. a

treatise of some value by him on astronomical chronology.

Albategnius takes the highest rank among Arab astronomers.

See Houzeau, Bibliographie astronomique, i. 467; M. Marie, Histoire

des sciences, ii. 113; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie,

p. 67; Delambre, Hist. de l'astr. au moyen age, ch. ii.;

Phil. Trans. 1693 (913), where E. Halley supplies corrections

to some of the observations recorded in De Motu Stellarum.

ALBATROSS (from the Port. Alcatraz, a pelican), the name

of a genus of aquatic birds (Diomedea), closely allied to the

petrels, and belonging, like them, to the order Tubinares.

In the name Diomedea, assigned to them by Linnaeus, there

is a reference to the mythical metamorphosis of the companions

of the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds. The beak is large,

strong and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in

a large hook; the wings are narrow and very long; the feet

have no hind toe, and the three anterior toes are completely

webbed. The best known is the common or wandering albatross

(D. exulans), which occurs in all parts of the Southern

Ocean. It is the largest and strongest of all sea-birds.

The length of the body is stated at 4 ft., and the weight at

from 15 to 25 lb. . It sometimes measures as much as 17 ft.

between the tips of the extended, wings, averaging probably

from 10 to 12 ft. Its strength of wing is very great. It

often accompanies a ship for days--not merely following it,

but wheeling in wide circles round it---without ever being

observed to alight on the water. and continues its flight,

apparently untired, in tempestuous as well as in moderate

weather. It has even been said to sleep on the wing, and

Moore alludes to this fanciful ``cloud-rocked slumbering''

in his Fire Worshippers. It feeds on small fish and on the

animal refuse that floats on the sea, eating to such excess

at times that it is unable to fiy and rests helplessly on the

water. The colour of the bird is white, the back being

streaked transversely with black or brown bands, and the wings

dark. Sailors capture the bird for its long wing-bones, which

they manufacture into tobacco-pipe stems. The albatross lays

one egg; it is white, with a few spots, and is about 4 in.

long. In breeding-time the bird resorts to solitary island

groups, like the Crozet Islands and the elevated Tristan

da Cunha, where it has its nest--a natural hollow or a

circle of earth roughly scraped together--on the open

ground. The early explorers of the great Southern Sea cheered

themselves with the companionship of the albatross in its

dreary solitudes; and the evil hap of him who shot with his

cross-bow the bird of good omen is familiar to readers of

Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Several species of

albatross are known; for the smaller forms see MALLEMUCK.

ALBAY, a city and the capital of the province of Albay,

Luzon, Philippine Islands, near an inlet on the W. shore

of the Gulf of Albay, 215 m. by wagon-road S.E. of Manila.

Pop. (1903) 14,049; in October 1907 the towns of Daraga (pop.

1903, 18,695) and Legaspi (pop. 1903, 9206) were merged with

Albay, making its total population, on the basis of the 1903

census, 41,950. Albay is one of the most important cities

of the Philippine Islands. It is built on level ground

near the S. base of Mount Mayon, a beautiful volcanic peak,

7916 ft. high, from which it is sheltered by the Linguin

hills. The surrounding country is one of the most important

hemp-producing districts in the Philippines; sinamay is woven

here, and large quantities of hemp are shipped from here to

Manila. Cocoa, copra, sugar and sweet potatoes are other

important products of the district. The language is

Bicol. The old town, called Cagsaua, which stood a short

distance E.N.E. of the new, was completely destroyed by an

eruption of the volcano in 1814 (about 1200 people being

killed), and the new town was almost entirely destroyed by

the insurgents in February 1900, an ancient stone church of

much beauty (in what was formerly Daraga) being left standing

on an elevated site commanding a view of the surrounding

country. The town was rebuilt on a larger scale by Americans.

ALBEDO (from Lat. albus, white), ``whiteness,''

a word used principally in astronomy for the degree

of reflected light; the light of the sun which is

reflected from the moon is called the albedo of the moon.

ALBEMARLE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The name Albemarle, which

now forms the title of the earldom held by the English

family of Keppel, is an early variant of the French Aumale

(Lat. Alba dlarla), other forms being Aubemarle and

Aumerle, and is described in the patent of nobility granted

in 1696-1697 by William III. to Arnold Joost van Keppel

as ``a town and territory in the dukedom of Normandy.''

The fief of Aumale (q. v.) was granted by the archbishop

of Rouen to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the

Conqueror, who erected it into a countship. On Odo's death

his son Stephen succeeded not only to the countship of Aumale,

but to the lordships of Holderness, of Bytham in Lincolnshire,

&c., which were subsequently known as the ``Fee and Honor of

Albemarle.'' Stephen, who as a crusader had fought valiantly at

Antioch, died about 1127, leaving by his wife Hawise, daughter

of Ralph de Mortimer, a son---William of Blois, known as

``le Gros.'' William, who distinguished himself at the battle

of the Standard (1138), and shared with King Stephen in the

defeat of Lincoln (1141), married Cicely, daughter of William

FitzDuncan, grandson of Malcolm, king of Scotland, who as ``lady

of Harewood'' brought him vast estates. He founded abbeys

at Meaux in Holderness and at Thornton, and died in 1179.

His elder daughter and heiress Hawise married (1) William de

Mandeville, 3rd earl of Essex (d. 1189), (2) William de Fortibus

(de Fors, de Fortz or des Forts1), (3) Baldwin de Betun or

Bethune, all of whom bore the title of earls of Albemarle.