3. The congress or conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, held in the

autumn of 1818, was primarily a meeting of the four allied

powers--Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia--to decide

the question of the withdrawal of the army of occupation from

France and the nature of the modifications to be introduced

in consequence into the relations of the four powers towards

each other, and collectively towards France. The congress,

of which the first session was held on the 1st of October,

was attended by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, the

emperor Francis I. of Austria, and Frederick William III. of

Prussia, in person. Great Britain was represented by Lord

Castlereagh and the duke of Wellington, Austria by Prince

Metternich, Russia by Counts Capo d'Istria and Nesselrode,

Prussia by Prince Hardenberg and Count Bernstorff. The duc de

Richelieu, by favour of the allies, was present on behalf of

France. The evacuation of France was agreed to in principle

at the first session, the consequent treaty being signed on

the 9th of October. The immediate object of the conference

being thus readily disposed of, the time of the congress was

mainly occupied in discussing the form to be taken by the

European alliance, and the ``military measures,'' if any, to

be adopted as a precaution against a fresh outburst on the

part of France. The proposal of the emperor Alexander I.

to establish a ``universal union of guarantee'' on the broad

basis of the Holy Alliance, after much debate, broke down on

the uncompromising opposition of Great Britain; and the main

outcome of the congress was the signature, on the 15th of

November, of two instruments: (1) a secret protocol confirming

and renewing the quadruple alliance established by the treaties

of Chaumont and Paris (of the 20th of November 1815) against

France; (2) a public ``declaration'' of the intention of the

powers to maintain their intimate union. ``strengthened by the

ties of Christian brotherhood,'' of which the object was the

preservation of peace on the basis of respect for treaties.

The secret protocol was communicated in confidence to Richelieu;

to the declaration France was invited publicly to adhere.

Besides these questions of general policy, the congress concerned

itself with a number of subjects left unsettled in the hurried

winding up of the congress of Vienna, or which had arisen

since. Of these the most important were the questions as to

the methods to be adopted for the suppression of the slave

trade and the Barbary pirates. In neither case was any

decision arrived at, owing (1) to the refusal of the other

powers to agree with the British proposal for a reciprocal

right of search on the high seas; (2) to the objection of

Creat Britain to international action which would have involved

the presence of a Russian squadron in the Mediterranean. In

matters of less importance the congress was more unanimous.

Thus, on the urgent appeal of the king of Denmark, the king of

Sweden (Bernadotte) received a peremptory summons to carry out

the terms of the treaty of Kiel; the petition of the elector

of Hesse to be recognized as king was unanimously rejected;

and measures were taken to redress the grievances of the

German mediatized princes. The more important outstanding

questions in Germany, e.g. the Baden succession, were after

consideration reserved for a further conference to be called at

Frankfort. In addition to these a great variety of questions

were considered, from that of the treatment of Napoleon at St

Helena, to the grievances of the people of Monaco against

their prince and the position of the Jews in Austria and

Prussia. An attempt made to introduce the subject of the

Spanish colonies was defeated by the opposition of Great

Britain. Lastly, certain vexatious questions of diplomatic

etiquette were settled once for all (see DIPLOMACY.) The

congress, which broke up at the end of November, is of

historical importance mainly as marking the highest point

reached in the attempt to govern Europe by an international

committee of the powers. The detailed study of its proceedings

is highly instructive in revealing the almost insurmountable

obstacles to any really effective international system.

AUTHORITIES.--- F.O. Records (the volumes marked Continent,

Aix-la-Chapelle, To and from Viscount Castlereagh): State

Papers: (3) F.. de Martens, Nouveau recueil de traites,

&c. (Gottingen, 1817-1842); F. de Martens, Recueil des

traites conclus par la Russie, &c. 1874 in progr.); F. von

Gentz, Deleches inedites, &c., ed. Baron Prokesch-Osten,

3 vols. (1876-1877); Metternich, Memoirs; Wellington,

Suppl. Despatches; Castlereagh, Correspondence, &c.

AIX-LES-BAINS, a town of France, in the department of Savoie,

near the Lac du Bourget, and 9 m. by rail N. of Chambery. Pop.

(1901) 4741. It is 846 ft. above the level of the sea. It was a

celebrated bathing-place, under the name of Aquae Gratianae,

in the time of the Romans, and possesses numerous ancient

remains. The hot springs, which are of sulphureous quality,

and have a temperature of from 109 deg. to 113 deg. F., are still much

frequented, attracting annually many thousands of visitors.

They are used for drinking as well as for bathing purposes.

AIYAR, SIR SHESHADRI (1845-1901), native statesman of Mysore,

India, was the son of a Brahman of Palghat in the district of

Malabar. He was educated at the provincial school at Calicut

and the presidency college in Madras, and entered the government

service as a translator. In 1868 he was transferred to Mysore

under Runga Charlu, and for thirteen years filled various

offices in that state; but when Mysore was restored to native

rule in 1881, he became personal assistant to Runga Charlu, whom

he succeeded as diwan in 1885 . For the next seventeen years

he laboured assiduously to promote the economic and industrial

development of the state, and proved an able assistant to the

Maharaja Chamarajendra. By means of railway, irrigation and

mining works, he added greatly to the wealth of the state, and

put it on a sound financial footing. He retired in 1900, was

made K.C.S.I. in 1893 and died on the 13th of September 1901.

AIYAR, SIR TIRUVARUR MUTUSWAMY (1832-1895), native Indian

judge of the high court of Madras, was born of poor parents in

the village of Vuchuwadi, near Tanjore, on the 28th of January

1832. His widowed mother was forced by poverty to remove with

Mutuswamy and his brother to Tiruvarar, where the former learnt

Tamil, and soon set to work under the village accountant at a

monthly salary of one rupee. About this time he lost his mother,

whose memory he cherished with reverence and affection to the

last. His duty took him to the court-house of the tehsildar, Mr

Naiken, who soon remarked his extraordinary intelligence and

industry. There was an English school at Tiruvarar, where

Mutuswamy managed to pick up an elementary knowledge of the English

language. Mr Naiken then sent him to Sir Henry Montgomery's

school at Madras, as a companion to his nephew, and there he

won prizes and scholarships year after year. In 1854 he won

a prize of 500 rupees offered to the students of the Madras

presidency by the council of education for the best English

essay. This success brought him to the notice of Sir

Alexander Arbuthnot and Mr Justice Holloway. He was offered

help to proceed to England and compete for the civil service,

but being a Brahman and married, he declined to cross the

ocean. Instead he entered the subordinate government service,

and was employed in such various posts as school-teacher,

record-keeper in Tanjore, and in 1856 deputy-inspector of

schools. At this time the Madras authorities instituted the

examination for the office of pleaders, and Mutuswamy came out

first in the first examination, even beating Sir T. Madhavarao,

his senior by many years. Mutuswamy was then appointed in

succession district munsiff at Tranquebar, deputy-collector

in Tanjore in 1859, sub-judge of south Kanara in 1865, and

a magistrate of police at Madras in 1868. While serving in

the last post he passed the examination for the degree of

bachelor of laws of the local university. He was next employed

as a judge of the Madras small causes court, until in 1878

he was raised to the bench of the high court, which office

he occupied with ability and distinction for over fifteen

years, sometimes acting as the chief justice. He attended by

invitation of the viceroy the imperial assemblage at Delhi in

1877. In 1878 he received the honour of C.I.E. and in 1893

the K.C.I.E. was conferred on him. But he did not live long

to enjoy this dignity, dying suddenly in 1895. Mutuswamy was

too devoted to his official work to give much time to other

pursuits. Still he took his full share in the affairs of

the Madras university, of which he was nominated a fellow

in 1872 and a syndic in 1877, and was well acquainted with

English law, literature and philosophy. He was through

life a staunch Brahman, devout and amiable in character,

with a taste for the ancient music of India and the study

of the Vedas and other departments of Sanskrit literature.

AJACCIO, the capital of Corsica, on the west coast of the

island, 210 m. S.E. of Marseilles. Pop. (1906) 19,021.

Ajaccio occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded

hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The

harbour, lying to the east of the town, is protected on the

south by a peninsula which carries the citadel and terminates

in the Citadel jetty; to the south-west of this peninsula

lies the Place Bonaparte, a quarter frequented chiefly

by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the

town. Apart from one or two fine thoroughfares converging to

the Place Bonaparte, the streets are mean and narrow and the

town has a deserted appearance. The house in which Napoleon

I, was born in 1769 is preserved, and his associations

with the town are everywhere emphasized by street-names and

statues. The other buildings, including the cathedral of the

16th century, are of little interest. The town is the seat

of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century and of a

prefect. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,

training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library;

the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch. founded

by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763. Ajaccio

has small manufactures of cigars and macaroni and similar

products, and carries on shipbuilding, sardine-fishing and

coral-fishing. Its exports include timber, citrons, skins,

chestnuts and gallic acid. The port is accessible by the largest

ships, but its accommodation is indifferent. In 1904 there

entered 603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,980, and cleared

608 vessels with a tonnage of 202,502. The present town of

Ajaccio lies about two miles to the south of its original

site, from which it was transferred by the Genoese in 1492.

Occupied from 1553 to 1559 by the French, it again fell to the

Genoese after the treaty of Cateau Cambresis in the latter

year. The town finally passed to the French in 1768. Since

1810 it has been capital of the . department of Corsica.

AJAIGARH, or ADJYGURH, a native state of India, in

Bundelkhand, under the Central India agency. It has an

area of 771 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 78,236.

The chief. who is a Bundela Rajput, bears the title of sawai

maharaja. He has an estimated revenue of about L. 15,000, and

pays a tribute of L. 460. He resides at the town of Naushahr,

at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the

state takes its name. This fort is situated on a very steep

hill, more than 800 ft. above the town of the same name;

and contains the ruins of temples adorned with elaborately

carved sculptures. It was captured by the British in

1809. The town is subject to malaria. The state suffered

severely from famine in 1868-1869, and again in 1896-1897.

AJANTA (more properly AJUJNTHI), a village in the

dominions of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India (N. lat. 20 deg. 32'

by E. long. 75 deg. 48'), celebrated for its cave hermitages and

halls. The caves are in a wooded and rugged ravine about 3 1/2

m. from the village. Along the bottom of the ravine runs the

river Wagura, a mountain stream, which forces its way into

the valley over a bluff on the east, and forms in its descent

a beautiful waterfall, or rather series of waterfalls, 200 ft.

high, the sound of which must have been constantly audible to

the dwellers in the caves. These are about thirty in number,

excavated in the south side of the precipitous bank of the ravine,

and vary from 35 to 110 ft. in elevation above the bed of the

torrent. The caves are of two kinds---dwelling-halls and

meeting-halls. The former, as one enters from the pathway

along the sides of the cliff, have a broad verandah, its roof

supported by pillars, and giving towards the interior on to

a hall averaging in size about 35 ft. by 20 ft. To left and

right, and at the back, dormitories are excavated opening

on to this hall, and in the centre of the back, facing the

entrance, an image of the Buddha usually stands in a niche.

The number of dormitories varies according to the size of the

hall, and in the larger ones pillars support the roof on all

three sides, forming a sort of cloister running round the

hall. The meeting-halls go back into the rock about twice as far

as the dwelling-halls; the largest of them being 94 1/2 ft. from

the verandah to the back, and 41 1/4 ft. across, including the .

cloister. They were used as chapter-houses for the meetings

of the Buddhist Order. The caves are in three groups, the

oldest group being of various dates from 200 B.C. to A.D.

200, the second group belonging, approximately, to the

6th, and the third group to the 7th century A.D. Most of

the interior walls of the caves were covered with fresco

paintings, of a considerable degree of merit, and somewhat

in the style of the early Italian painters. When first

discovered, in 1817, these frescoes were in a fair state of

preservation, but they have since been allowed to go hopelessly to

ruin. Fortunately, the school of art in Bombay, especially

under the supervision of J. Griffiths, had copied in colours

a number of them before the last vestiges had disappeared,

and other copies of certain of the paintings have also been

made. These copies are invaluable as being the only evidence

we now have of pictorial art in India before the rise of

Hinduism. The expression ``Cave Temples'' used by Anglo-Indians

of such halls is inaccurate. Ajanta was a kind of college

monastery. Hsuan Tsang informs us that Dinnaga, the

celebrated Buddhist philosopher and controversialist, author

of well-known books on logic, resided there. In its prime

the settlement must have afforded accommodation for several

hundreds, teachers and pupils combined. Very few of the

frescoes have been identified, but two are illustrations

of stones in Arya Sura's Jataka Mala, as appears

from verses in Buddhist Sanskrit painted beneath them.

See J. Burgess and Bhagwanlal lndraji, Inscriptions from

the Cave Temples of Western India (Bombay, 1881); J.

Fergusson and L. Burgess, Cave Temples of India (London,

1880); J. Griffiths, Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples

of Ajanta (London, 2 vols., 1896--1897). (T. W. R. D.)

AJAX (Gr. Aias), a Greek hero, son of Oileus, king of

Locris, called the ``lesser'' or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish

him from Ajax, son of Telamon. In spite of his small stature,

he held his own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was

brave, next to Achilles in swiftness of foot and famous

for throwing the spear. But he was boastful, arrogant and

quarrelsome; like the Telamonian Ajax, he was the enemy of

Odysseus, and in the end the victim of the vengeance of Athene,

who wrecked his ship on his homeward voyage (Odyssey, iv.

499). A later story gives a more definite account of the offence

of which he was guilty. It is said that, after the fall of

Troy, he dragged Cassandra away by force from the statue of

the goddess at which she had taken refuge as a suppliant, and

even violated her (Lycophron, 360, Quintus Smyrnaeus xiii.

422). For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm on the coast

of Euboea, and he himself was struck by lightning (Virgil,

Aen. i. 40). He was said to have lived after his death in the

island of Leuke. He was worshipped as a national hero by the

Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always left

a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when drawn

up in battle array. He was the subject of a lost tragedy by

Sophocles. The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently

represented in Greek works of art, for instance on the chest

of Cypselus described by Pausanias (v. 17) and in extant works.

AJAX, son Of Telamon, king of Cyprus, a legendary hero of

ancient Greece. To distinguish him from Ajax, son of Oileus,

he was called the ``great'' or Telamonian Ajax. In Homer's

Iliad he is described as of great stature and colossal

frame, second only to Achilles in strength and bravery, and

the ``bulwark of the Achaeans.', He engaged Hector in single

combat and, with the aid of Athene, rescued the body of Achilles

from the hands of the Trojans. In the competition between

him and Odysseus for the armour of Achilles, Agamemnon, at

the instigation of Athene, awarded the prize to Odysseus.

This so enraged AJax that it caused his death (Odyssey, xi.

541). According to a later and more definite story, his

disappointment drove him mad; he rushed out of his tent and

fell upon the flocks of sheep in the camp under the impression

that they were the enemy on coming to his senses, he slew

himself with the sword which he had received as a present from

Hector. This is the account of his death given in the Ajax

of Sophocles (Pindar, Nemea, 7; Ovid, Met. xiii. 1). From

his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus,

which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name

AI, also expressive of lament (Pausanias i. 35. 4). His ashes

were deposited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory

at the entrance of the Hellespont. Like Achilles; he is

represented as living after his death in the island of Leuke

at the mouth of the Danube (Pausanias iii. 19. 11). Ajax,

who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of

Aeacus and the great-grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero

of the island of.Salamis, where he had a temple and an image,

and where a festival called Aianteia was celebrated in his

honour (Pausanias i. 35). At this festival a couch was set up,

On which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which

recalls the Roman lectisternium. The identification of Ajax

with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned

the Athenians, after Salamis had come into their possession,

on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted a line in

the Iliad (ii. 557 or 558), for the purpose of supporting

the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic

hero; he was worshipped at Athens, where he had a statue in the

market-place, and the tribe Aiantis was called after his name.

Many illustrious Athenians---Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades,

the historian Thucydides---traced their descent from Ajax.

See D. Bassi, La Leggenda di Aiace Telamonio (1890); P.

Girard, ``Ajax, fils de Telamon,'' 1905, in Revue des

etudes grecques, tome 18; J. Vurtheim, De Ajacie Origine,

Cultu, Patria (Leiden, 1907), accord. ing to whom he and Ajax

Oileus, as depicted in epos, were originally one, a Locrian

daemon somewhat resembling the giants. When this spirit put on

human form and became known at the Saronic Gulf, he developed

into the ``greater'' Ajax, while among the Locrians he remained

the ``lesser.'' In the article GREEK ART fig. 13 (from a

black-figured Corinthian vase) represents the suicide of Ajax.

AJMERE, or AJMER, a city of British India in Ra)putana.

which gives its name to a district and also,to a petty

province called Ajmere-Meirwara. It is situated in 26 deg.

27, N. lat. and 74 deg. 44, E. long., on the lower slopes

of Taragarh hill, in the Aravalli mountains. To the

north of the city is a large artificial lake called the

Anasagar, whence the water supply of the place is derived.

The chief object of interest is the darga, or tomb of a

famous Mahommedan saint named Mayud-uddin. It is situated at

the foot of the Taragarh mountain, and consists of a block of

white marble buildings without much pretension to architectural

beauty. To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress,

performed a pilgrimage on foot from Agra in accordance

with the terms of a vow he had made when praying for a

son. The large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the

whole way, to mark the daily halting-place of the imperial

pilgrim, are still extant. An ancient Jain temple, now

converted into a Mahommedan mosque, is situated on the lower

slope of the Taragarh hill. With the exception of that part

used as a mosque, nearly the whole of the ancient temple

has fallen into ruins, but the relics are not excelled in

beauty of architecture and sculpture by any remains of Hindu

art. Forty columns support the r00f, but no two are alike,

and great fertility of invention is manifested in the

execution Of the ornaments. The summit of Taragarh hill,

overhanging Ajmere, is crowned by a foot, the lofty thick

battlements of which run along its brow and enclose the

table-land. The walls are 2 m. in circumference, and the

fort can only be approached by steep and very roughly paved

planes, commanded by the fort and the outworks, and by the

hill to the west. On coming into the hands of the English,

the fort Was dismantled by order of Lord William Bentinck,

and is now converted into a sanatorium for the troops at

Xasirabad. Ajmere was founded about the year 145 A.p. by

AJi, a Chauhan, who established the dynasty which continued

to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of fortune) while

the repeated waves of Mahommedan invasion swept over India,

until it eventually became an appanage of the crown Of Delhi in

1193. Its internal government, however, was handed over to

its ancient rulers upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the

conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Delhi till 1365,

when it was captured by the ruler of Mewar. In 1509 the place

became a source of Contention between the chiefs of Mewar and

Marwar, and was ultimately Conquered in 1532 by the latter

prince, who in his turn in 1559 had to give way before the emperor

Akbar. It continued in the hands of the Moguls, with occasional

revolts, till 1770, when it was ceded to the Mahrattas, from

which time up to 1818 the unhappy district was the scene of

a continual struggle, being seized at different times by the

Mewar and Marwar rajas, from whom it was as often retaken by

the Mahrattas. In 1818 the latter ceded it to the British

in return for a payment of 50,000 rupees. Since then the

country has enjoyed unbroken peace and a stable government.

The modern city is an important station on the Rajputana

railway, 615 m. from BOmbay and 275 m. from Delhi, with a

branch running due south to the Great Indian Peninsula main

line. The city is well laid out with wide streets and handsome

houses. The city trade chiefly consists of salt and opium.

The former is inlported in large quantities from the Sambar

lake and Ramsur. Oil-making is also a profitable branch of

trade. Cotton cloths are manufactured to some extent, for

the dyeing Of which the city has attained a high reputation2

The educational institutions include the Majo Rajkumar

college, opened in 1875, for training the sons of the nobles of

Rajputana, on the lines of an English public school. Population

(1901) 73,839, showing an increase of 10% in the decade.

The DISTRICT OF AJMERE, which forms the largest part of

the province of Ajmere-Merwara, has an area of 2069 sq.

m. The eastern portion of the district is generally flat,

broken only by gentle undulations, but the western parts, from

north-west to south-west, are intersected by the great Aravalli

range. Many of the valleys in this region are mere sandy

deserts, with an occasional oasis of cultivation, but there

are also some very fertile tracts; among these is the plain

on which lies the town of Ajmere. This valley, however, is

not only fortunate in possessing a noble artificial lake, but

is protected by the massive walls of the Nagpathar range or

Serpent rock, which forms a harrier against the sand. The

only hills in the district are the Aravalli range and its

offshoots. Ajmere is almost totally devoid of rivers, the Banas

being the only stream which can be dignified with that name,

and it only touches the south-eastern boundary of the district

so as to irrigate the pargana of Samur. Four small streams

---the Sagarmati, Saraswati, Khari and Dai-also intersect the

district. In the dry weather they are little more than brooks.

The population in 1901 was 7453, showing a decrease of 13% in the

decade. Besides the city of Ajmere, the district contains the

military station of Nasirabad, with a population of 22,494.

AJMERE-MERWARA, a division or petty province of British

India, in Rajputana, consisting of the two districts of

Ajmere and Merwara, separated from each other and isolated

amid native states. The administration is in the hands of a

commissioner, subordinate to the governor-general's agent for

Rajputana. The capital is Ajmere city. The area is 2710 sq.

m. The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmere,

may be considered as the highest point in the plains of

Hindustan; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the

country slopes away on every side---towards river valleys on

the east, south, west and towards the desert region on the

north. The Aravalli range is the distinguishing feature of the

district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmere and

Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India.

The rain which falls on one side drains into the Chambal,

and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the other

side into the Luni, which discharges itself into the Runn of

Cutch. The province is on the border of what may be called

the arid ``zone''; it is the debatable land between the

north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the

influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the

Nerbudda valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at

Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kotah

and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal

river. The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Cutch are

deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those

countries, and the greater part of the remainder is deposited

on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli mountains,

leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower,

and still less for Ajmere. It is only when the monsoon is in

considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from

it. The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the

Ganges from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of

Rajputana, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude

of Ajmere. On the varying strength of these two monsoons

the rainfall of the district depends. The agriculturist

in Ajmere-Merwara can never rely upon two good harvests in

succession. A province subject to such conditions can hardly

be free from famine or scarcity for any length of time;

accordingly it was visited by two famines, one of unprecedented

severity, and one scarcity, in the decade 1891-1901. In

June 1900 the number of persons in receipt of relief was

143,000, being more than one fourth of the total population.

In 1901 the population was 476,912, showing a decrease of 12%

in the decade, due to the results of famine. Among Hindus,

the Rajputs are land-holders, and the Jats and Gujars are

cultivators. The Jains are traders and money-lenders.

The aboriginal tribe of Mers are divided between Hindus and

Mahommedans. The chief crops are millet, wheat, cotton and

oil-seeds. There are several factories for spinning and pressing

cotton, the chief trading centres being Beawar and Kekri.

AJODHYA, an ancient city of India, the prehistoric capital of

Oudh, in the Fyzabad district of the United Provinces. It is

situated on the right bank of the Gogra. In the present day

the old city has almost entirely disappeared, and its site

is marked only by a heap of ruins; but in remote antiquity

Ajodhya was one of the largest and most magnificent of Indian

cities. It is said to have covered an area of 96 m., and

was the capital of the kingdom of Kosala, the court of the

great king Dasaratha, the fifty-sixth monarch of the Solar

line in descent from Raja Manu. The opening chapters of the

Ramayana recount the magnificence of the city, the glories

of the monarch and the virtues, wealth and loyalty of his

people. Dasaratha was the father of Rama Chandra, the hero

of the epic. A period of Buddhist supremacy followed the

death of the last king of the Solar dynasty. On the revival

of Brahmanism Ajodhya was restored by King Vikramaditya

(c. 57 B.C..) Kosala is also famous as the early home

of Buddhism, and of the kindred religion of Jainism, and

claims to be the birthplace of the founders of both these

faiths. The Chinese traveller, Hsuan Tsang, in the 7th

century, found 20 Buddhist temples with 3000 monks at

Ajodhya among a large Brahmanical population. The modern

town of Ajodhya contains 96 Hindu temples and 36 Mussulman

mosques. Little local trade is carried on, but the great fair

of Ramnami held every year is attended by about 500,000 people.

AKABA, GULF OF, the Sinus Aelaniticus of antiquity,

the eastern of the two divisions into which the Red Sea

bifurcates near its northern extremity. It penetrates into

Arabia Petraea in a N.N.E. direction, from 28 deg. to 29 deg. 32'

N., a distance of 100 m., and its breadth varies from 12 to 17

m. The entrance is contracted by Tiran and other islands,

so that the passage is rendered somewhat difficult; and its

navigation is dangerous on account of the numerous coral

reefs, and the sudden squalls which sweep down from the

adjacent mountains, many of which rise perpendicularly to a

height of 2000 ft. The gulf is a continuation southward of

the Jordan-'Araba depression. Raised beaches on the coast

show that there has been a considerable elevation of the

sea-bed. The only well-sheltered harbour is that of Dahab

(the Golden Port) on its western shore, about 33 m. from

the entrance and 29 m. E. of Mount Sinai. Near the head of

the gulf is Jeziret Faraun (medieval Graye), a rocky islet

with the ruins of a castle built by Baldwin I. (c. 1115).

About 2 1/2 m. from the head of the gulf and on its eastern

side is the TOMN OF AKABA, with a picturesque medieval

castle, built for the protection of pilgrims on there way

from Egypt to Mecca. In the neighbourhood are extensive

groves of date palms, and there is an ample supply of good

water. Akaba is of considerable historical interest and of

great antiquity, being the Elath or Eloth of the Bible, and

one of the ports whence Solomon's fleet sailed to Ophir.

By the Romans, who made it a military post, it was called

Aelana. It continued to be the seat of great commercial

activity under the early Moslem caliphs, who corrupted

the name to Haila or Ailat. In the 10th century an Arab

geographer described it as the great port of Palestine and

the emporium of the Hejaz. In the 12th century the town

suffered at the hands of Saladin and thereafter fell into

decay. In 1841 the town was recognized by Turkey, together

with the Sinai peninsula, as part of Egypt. At that time

Egyptian pilgrims frequented Akaba in large numbers. In 1892,

on the accession of the khedive Abbas II., Turkey resumed

possession of Akaba, the Egyptian pilgrims having deserted

the land route to Mecca in favour of a sea passage. In 1906

the construction was begun of a branch line joining Akaba to

the Mecca railway and thus giving through communication with

Beirut. Early in the same year the Turks occupied Taba, a

village at the mouth of a small stream g m. by land W. by

S. of Akaba, near which is the site, not identified, of the

Ezion-Geber of Scripture, another of the ports whence the

argosies of the Israelites saileffi. Taba being on the Egyptian

side of the frontier, Great Britain intervened on behalf of

Egypt, and in May 1906 secured the withdrawal of the Turks.

AKA HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier of

India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Akas.

It lies north of the Darrang district of Eastern Bengal and

Assam, and is bounded on the east by the Daphla Hills and on

the west by independent Bhutia tribes. The Aka country is very

difficult of access, the direct road from the plains leading

along the precipitous channel of the Bhareli river, which

divides the Aka from the Daphla country. The Akas are a brave

people, and the men are strong and well-made. Their reputation

as raiders is sufficiently shown in the division of the tribe

into two clans, the Hazari-khoas or ``eaters of a thousand

hearths,'' and the Kapah-chors or ``thieves that lurk in the

cotton fields.'' In the early years of British occupation,

about 1820, they gave much trouble; and in 1883 they broke out

once more into their old habits. They raided into the British

district of Darrang and carried off several native forest

officers as hostages. An expedition was sent against them

under General Sale Hill with 860 troops, which was completely

successful. All its objects were satisfactorily accomplished,

namely, the recovery of the captives, the surrender of all

firearms, the payment of the fine inflicted by government, the

complete submission of the tribe and the survey of the country.

AKALKOT, a native state of India, in the Deccan division

of Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs, situated

between the British district of Sholapur and the nizam's

dominions. It forms part of the Deccan table-land, and has

a cool and agreeable climate. Area 498 sq. m.; pop. (1901)

82,047, showing an increase of 8% in the decade. Estimated

revenue, L. 26,586; the tribute is L. 1000. The chief, who

is a Mahratta of the Bhonsla family, resides at Poona on

a pension, while the state is under British management.

The town of Akalkot is situated near the Great Indian

Peninsula railway, which traverses the state. Pop. 8348.

AKBAR, AKHBAR or AKBER, JELLALADIN MAHOMMED (1542-1605),

one of the greatest and wisest of the Mogul emperors. ' He

was born at Umarkot in Sind on the 14th of October 1542, his

father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne a short time

before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more than twelve years'

exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, which, however, he

had held only for a few months when he died. Akbar succeeded

his father in 1556 under the regency of Baira n Khan, a

Turkoman noble, whose energy in repelling pretenders to the

throne, and severity in maintaining the discipline of the army,

tended greatly to the consolidation of the newly recovered

empire. Bairam, however, was naturally despotic and cruel;

and when order was somewhat restored, Akbar found it necessary

to take the reins of government into his own hands, which he

did by a proclamation issued in March 1560. The discarded

regent lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to

establish an independent principality in Malwa, but at last

he was forced to cast himself on Akbar's mercy. The emperor

not only freely pardoned him, but magnanimously offered him

the choice of a high place in the army or a suitable escort

for a pilgrimage to Mecca, and Bairam preferred the latter

alternative. When Akbar ascended the throne, only a small

portion of what had formerly been comprised within the Mogul

empire owned his authority, and he devoted himself with great

determination and success to the recovery of the revolted

provinces. Over each of these, as it was restored, he placed a

governor, whom he superintended with vigilance and wisdom.

He tried by every means to develop and encourage commerce; he

had the land accurately measured for the purpose of rightly

adjusting taxation; he gave the strictest instructions to

prevent extortion on the part of the taxgatherers, and in

many other respects displayed an enlightened and equitable

policy. Thus it happened that, in the fortieth year of Akbar's

reign, the empire had more than regained all that it had lost,

the recovered provinces being reduced, not to subjection only as

before, but to a great degree of peace, order and contentment.

Akbar's method of dealing with what must always be the chief

difficulty of one who has to rule widely diverse races, affords

perhaps the crowning evidence of his wisdom and moderation

In religion he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant

exclusiveness of that creed was quite foreign to his

character. Scepticism as to the divine origin of the

Koran led him to seek the true religion in an eclectic

system. He accordingly set himself to obtain information

about other religions, sent to Goa, requesting that the

Portuguese missionaries there should visit him, and listened

to them with intelligent attention when they came. As the

result of these inquiries, he adopted the creed of pure

deism and a ritual based upon the system of Zoroaster. The

religion thus founded, however, having no vital force, never

spread beyond the limits of the court, and died with Akbar

himself. But though his eclectic system failed, the spirit

of toleration which originated it produced in other ways many

important results, and, indeed, may be said to have done more

to establish Akbar's power on a secure basis than all his

economic and social reforms. He conciliated the Hindus by

giving them freedom of worship; while a- the same time he

strictly prohibited certain barbarous Brahmanical practices,

such as trial by ordeal and the burning of widows against their

will. He also abolished all taxes upon pilgrims as an

interference with the liberty of worship, and the capitation

tax upon Hindus, probably upon similar grounds. Measures

like these gained for him during his lifetime the title of

``Guardian of Mankind,'' and caused him to be held up as a

model to Indian princes of later times, who in the matter of

religious toleration have only too seldom followed his example.

Akbar was a munificent patron of literature. He established

schools throughout his empire for the education of both

Hindus and Moslems, and he gathered round him many men of

literary talent, among whom may be mentioned the brothers

Feizi and Abul Fazl. The former was commissioned by Akbar

to translate a number of Sanskrit scientific works into

Persian; and the latter (see ABUL FAzl) has left, in the

Akbar-Nameh, an enduring record of the emperor's reign.

It is also said that Akbar employed Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit

missionary, to translate the four Gospels into Persian.

The closing years of Akbar's reign were rendered very

unhappy by the misconduct of his sons. Two of them died in

youth, the victims of intemperance; and the third, Salim,

afterwards the emperor Jahangir, was frequently in rebellion

against his father. These calamities were keenly felt by

Akbar, and may even have tended to hasten his death, which

occurred at Agra on the 15th of October 1605. His body was

deposited in a magnificent mausoleum at Sikandra, near Agra.

See G. B. Malleson, Akbar (``Rulers of India'' series), 1890.

AKCHA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The town lies

42 m. westward of Balkh on the road to Andkhui. It is protected

by a mud wall and a citadel. Estimated population d000, chiefly

Uzbegs. The khanate is small, but well watered and populous.

The rivers rising in the southern mountains, which no longer

reach the Oxus, terminate in vast swamps near Akcha, and into

these the debris of such vegetation as yearly springs up on the

slopes of the southern hills is washed down in time of flood.

AKEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the

Elbe, 25 m. E. S. E. of Magdeburg, with a branch line to

Cothen (8 m.). Pop. (1900) 7358. It has manufactures of

cloth, leather, chemicals and optical instruments; large

quantities of beetroot sugar are produced in the neighbourhood;

and there is a considerable transit trade on the Elbe.

AKENSIDE, MARK (1721-1770), English poet and physician.

was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the 9th of November 1721.

He was the son of a butcher, and was slightly lame all his

life from a wound he received as a child from his father's

cleaver. All his relations were dissenters, and, after attending

the free school of Newcastle, and a dissenting academy in the

town. he was sent (1739) to Edinburgh to study theology with

a view to becoming a minister, his expenses being paid from

a special fund set aside by the dissenting community for the

education of their pastors. He had already contributed ``The

Virtuoso, in imitation of Spenser's style and stanza'' (1737)

to the Gentleman's Magazine, and in 1738 ``A British

Phillipic, occasioned by the Insults of the Spaniards, and the

present Preparations for War'' (also published separately).

After he had spent one winter as a student of theology, he

entered his name as a student of medicine. He repaid the

money that had been advanced for his theological studies, and

with this change of mind he seems to have drifted to a mild

deism. His politics, says Dr Johnson, were characterized by

an ``impetuous eagerness to subvert and confound, with very

little care what shall be established,'' and he is caricatured

in the republican doctor of Smollett's Peregrine Pickle. He

was elected a member of the Medical Society of Edinburgh in

1740. His ambitions already lay outside his profession,

and his gifts as a speaker made him hope one day to enter

parliament. In 1740 he printed his ``Ode on the Winter

Solstice'' in a small volume of poems. In 1741 he left

Edinburgh for Newcastle and began to call himself surgeon,

though it is doubtful whether he practised, and from the

next year dates his life-long friendship with Jeremiah Dyson

(1722-1776). During a visit to Morpeth in 1738 he had

conceived the idea of his didactic poem, ``The Pleasures of

the Imagination.'' He had already acquired a considerable

literary reputation when he came to London about the end of

1743, and offered the work to Dodsley for L. 120. Dodsley

thought the price exorbitant, and only accepted the terms

after submitting the Ms. to Pope, who assured him that this

was ``no everyday writer.'' The three books of this poem

appeared in January 1744. His aim, Akenside tells us in the

preface, was ``not so much to give formal precepts, or enter

into the way of direct argumentation, as, by exhibiting the

most engaging prospects of nature, to enlarge and harmonize

the imagination, and by that means insensibly dispose the

minds of men to a similar taste and habit of thinking in

religion, morals and civil life.'' Akenside's powers

fell short of this lofty design; his imagination was not

brilliant enough to surmount the difficulties inherent in a

poem dealing so largely with abstractions; but the work was

well received by the general public. His success was not

unchallenged. Gray wrote to Thomas Wharton that it was

``above the middling,'' but ``often obscure and unintelligible

and too much infected with the Hutchinson1 jargon.''

Into a note added by Akenside to the passage in the third

book dealing with ridicule, William Warburton chose to read

a reflexion on himself. Accordingly he attacked the author

of the Pleasures of the Imagination---which was published

anonymously--in a scathing preface to his Remarks on Several

Occasional Reflections, in answer to Dr Middleton (1744).

This was answered, nominally by Dyson, in An Epistle to the

Rev. Mr Brarburton, in which Akenside no doubt had a hand.

It was in the press when he left England in 1744 to secure a

medical degree at Leiden. In little more than a month he had

completed the necessary dissertation, De ortu et incremento

foetus humani, and received his diploma. Returning to

England he attempted without success to establish a practice in

Northampton. In 1744 he published his Epistle to Curio,

attacking William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) for having

abandoned his liberal principles to become a supporter of the

government, and in the next year he produced a small volume

of Odes on Several Subjects, in the preface to which he

lays claim to correctness and a careful study of the best

models. His friend Dyson had meanwhile left the bar, and had

become, by purchase, clerk to the House of Commons. Akenside

had come to London and was trying to make a practice at

Hampstead. Dyson took a house there, and did all he could

to further his friend's interest in the neighbourhood. But

Akenside's arrogance and pedantry frustrated these efforts,

and Dyson then took a house for him in Bloomsbury Square,

making him independent of his profession by an allowance

stated to have been L. 300 a year, but probably greater,

for it is asserted that this income enabled him to ``keep a

chariot,'' and to live ``incomparably well.'' In 1746 he wrote

his much-praised ``Hymn to the Naiads,'' and he also became a

contributor to Dodsley's Museum, or Literary and Historical

Register. He was now twenty-five years old, and began to devote

1 The reference is to Francis Hutcheson (1604-1746), author of an

inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725).

himself almost exclusively to his profession. He was an acute

and learned physician. He was admitted M.D. at Cambridge in

1753, fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1754, and

fourth censor in 1755. In June 1755 he read the Gulstonian

lectures before the College, in September 1756 the Croonian

lectures, and in 1759 the Harveian oration. In January

1759 he was appointed assistant physician, and two months

later principal physician to Christ's Hospital, but he was

charged with harsh treatment of the poorer patients, and his

unsympathetic character prevented the success to which his

undeniable learning and ability entitled him. At the accession

of George III. both Dyson and Akenside changed their political

opinions, and Akenside's conversion to Tory principles was

rewarded by the appointment of physician to the queen.

Dyson became societary to the treasury, lord of the treasury,

and in 1774 privy Councillor and cofferer to the household.

Akenside died on the 23rd of June 1770, at his house in

Burlington Street, where the last ten years of his life had

been spent. His friendship with Dyson puts his character in

the most amiable light. Writing to his friend so early as

1744, Akenside said that the intimacy had ``the force of an

additional conscience, of a new principle of religion,'' and

there seems to have been no break in their affection. He

left all his effects and his literary remains to Dyson, who

issued an edition of his poems in 1772. This included the

revised version of the Pleasures of Imagination, on which

the author was engaged at his death. The first book of this

work defines the powers of imagination and discusses the

various kinds of pleasure to be derived from the perception

of beauty; the second distinguishes works of imagination from

philosophy; the third describes the pleasure to be found in the

study of man, the sources of ridicule, the operations of the

mind, in producing works of imagination, and the influence

of imagination on morals. The ideas were largely borrowed

from Addison's essays on the imagination and from Lord

Shaftesbury. Professor Dowden complains that ``his tone is

too high-pitched; his ideas are too much in the air; they do

not nourish themselves in the common heart, the common life

of man.'' Dr Johnson praised the blank verse of the poems, but

found fault with the long and complicated periods. Akenside's

verse was better when it was subjected to severer metrical

rules. His odes are very few of them lyrical in the strict

sense, but they are dignified and often musical, while the few

``inscriptions'' he has left are felicitous in the extreme.

The best edition of Akenside's Poetical Works is that prepared

(1834) by Alexander Dyce for the Aldine Edition of the British

Poets, and reprinted with small additions in subsequent issues

of the series. See Dyce's Life of Akenside prefixed to his

edition, also Johnson's Lives of the Poets, and the Life,

Writings and Genius of Akenside (1832) by Charles Bucke.

AKERMAN, JOHN YONGE (1806-1873), English antiquarian,

distinguished chiefly in the department of numismatics, was

born in Wiltshire. He became early known in connexion with his

favourite study, having initiated the Numismatic Journal in

1836. In the following year he became the secretary of the

newly established Numismatic Society. In 1848 he was elected

secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, an office which

he was compelled to resign in 1860 on account of failing

health. Akerman published a considerable number of works on

his special subject, the more important being a Catalogue

of Roman Coins (1839); a Numismatic Manual (1840); Roman

Coins relating to Britain (1844); Ancient Coins--Hispania,

Gallia, Britannia (1846); and Numismatic Illustrations of

the New Testament (1846). He wrote also a Glossary of Words

used in Wiltshire (1842); Wiltshire Tales, illustrative of

the Dialect (1853); and Remains of Pagan Saxondom (1855).

AKHALTSIKH (Georgian Akhaltsikhe, ``new fortress''),

a fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, government of

Tiths, 68 m. E. of Batum, in 41 deg. 40' N. lat., 43 deg. 1' E.

long., on a tributary of the Kura, at an altitude of 3375

ft. The new town is on the right bank of the river,

while the old town and the fortress are on the opposite

bank. There is trade in silk, honey and wax, and brown coal

is found in the neighbourhood. The silver filigree work is

famous. Pop. (1897) 15,387, of whom many were Armenians, as

against 15,977 in 1867. From 1579 to 1828 Akhaltsikh was the

capital of Turkish Armenia. In the last-mentioned year it

was captured by the Russians. The Turks invested it in 1853.

AK-HISSAR (anc. Thyateira, the ``town of Thya''), a town

situated in a fertile plain on the Gurduk Chai (Lycus), in

the Aidin vilayet, 58 m. N.E. of Smyrna. Pop. about 20,000,

Mussulmans forming two-thirds. Thyateira was an ancient town

re-peopled with Macedonians by Seleucus about 290 B.C. It

became an important station on the Roman road from Pergamum to

Laodicea, and one of the ``Seven Churches'' of Asia (Rev. ii.

18), but was never a metropolis or honoured with a neocorate,

though made the centre of a conventus by Caracalla. The

modern town is connected with Smyrna by railway, and exports

cotton, wool, opium, cocoons and cereals. The inhabitants are

Greeks, Armenians and Turks. The Greeks are of an especially

fine type, physical and moral, and noted all through Anatolia

for energy and stability. W. M. Ramsay believes them to be

direct descendants of the ancient Christian population; but

there is reason to think they are partly sprung from more

recent immigrants who moved in the 18th century from western

Greece into the domain of the Karasmans of Manisa and Bergama,

as recorded by W. M. Leake. Cotton of excellent quality

is grown in the neighbourhood, and the place is celebrated

for its scarlet dyes. Perebus Thyatirenorum (1893).

AKHMIM, or EKHMIM, a town of Upper Egypt, on the right

bank of the Nile, 67 m. by river S. of Assiut, and 4 m. above

Suhag, on the opposite side of the river, whence there is railway

communication with Cairo and Assuan. It is the largest town on

the east side of the Nile in Upper Egypt, having a population

in 1007 of 25,795, of whom about a third were Copts. Akhmim

has several mosques and two Coptic churches, maintains a weekly

market, and manufactures cotton goods, notably the blue shirts

and check shawls with silk fringes worn by the poorer classes of

Egypt. Outside the walls are the scanty ruins of two ancient

temples. In Abulfeda's days (13th century A.D.) a very

imposing temule still stood here. Akhmim was the Egyptian Apu

or Khen-min, in Coptic Shmin, known to the Greeks as Chemmis

or Panopolis, capital of the 9th or Chemmite nome of Upper

Egypt. The ithyphallic Min (Pan) was here worshipped as

``the strong Horus.'' Herodotus mentions the temple dedicated

to ``Perseus'' and asserts that Chemmis was remark-. able

for the celebration of games in honour of that hero, after

the manner of the Greeks, at which prizes were given; as a

matter of fact some representations are known of Nubians and

people of Puoni (Somalic coast) clambering up poles before the

god Min. Min was especially a god of the desert routes on the

east of Egypt, and the trading tribes are likely to have

gathered to his festivals for business and pleasure, at Coptos

(which was really near to Neapolis, Kena) even more than at

Akhmim. Herodotus perhaps confused Coptos with Chemmis.

Strabo mentions linen-weaving as an ancient industry of

Panopohs, and it is not altogether a coincidence that the

cemetery of Akhmim is one of the chief sources of the beautiful

textiles of Roman and Coptic age that are brought from

Egypt. Monasteries abounded in this neighbourhood from a very

early date; Shenout (Sinuthius), the fiery apostle and prophet

of the Coptic national church, was a monk of Atrepe (now

Suhag), and led the populace to the destruction of the pagan

edifices. He died in 451; some years earlier Nestorius, the

ex-patriarch, had succumbed perhaps to his persecution and to old

age, in the neighbourhood of Akhmim. Nonnus, the Greek poet, was

born at Panopolis at the end of the 4th century. (F. LL. G.)

AKHTAL [GHIYYTH IBN HYRITH} (c. 640-710), one of the most

famous Arabian poets of the Omayyad period, belonged to the tribe

of Taghlib in Mesopotamia, and was, like his fellow-tribesmen,

a Christian, enjoying the freedom of his religion, while not

taking its duties very seriously. Of his private life .few

details are known, save that he was married and divorced,

and that he spent part of his time in Damascus, part with his

tribe in Mesopotamia. In the wars of the Taghhbites with the

Qaisites he took part in the field, and by his satires. In the

literary strife between his contemporaries Jarir and Lerazdaq

he was induced to support the latter poet. Akhtal, Jarir and

Ferazdaq form a trio celebrated among the Arabs, but as to

relative superiority there is dispute. In the'Abbasid period

there is no doubt that Akhtal's Christianity told against his

reputation, but Abu'Ubaida placed him highest of the three

on the ground that amongst his poems there were ten flawless

qasidas (elegies), and ten more nearly so, and that this could

not be said of the other two. The chief material of his poems

consists of panegyric of patrons and satire of rivals, the latter

being, however, more restraified than was usual at the time.

The Poetry of al-Akhtal has been published at the Jesuit press

in Beirut, 1891. A full account of the poet and his times

is given in H. Lammens' Le chantre des Omiades (Paris, 1895)

(a reprint from the Journal Asiatique for 1894). (G. W. T.)

AKHTYRKA, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov,

near the Vorskla river, connected by a branch (11 m.)

with the railway from Kiev to Kharkov. It has a beautiful

cathedral, built after a plan by Rastrelh in 1753, to which

pilgrims resort to venerate an ikon of the Virgin. There

are manufactures of light woollen stuffs and a trade in

corn, cattle and the produce of domestic industries. The

environs are fertile, the orchards producing excellent

fruit. A fair is held on the 9th of May. The place was founded

by the Poles in 1642. Pop. (1867) 17,411; (1900) 25,965.

AKKA (TIKEI-TIKKI), a race of African pygmies first seen

by the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870, when he was in the

Mangbettu country, N.W. of Albert Nyanza. The home of the Akka

is the dense forest zone of the Aruwimi district of the Congo

State. They form a branch of the primitive pygmy negroid

race. and appear to be divided into groups, each with its own

chief. Of all African ``dwarfs'' the Akka are believed the

best representatives of the ``little people'' mentioned by

Herodotus. Giovanni Miani, the Italian explorer who followed

Schweinfurth, obtained two young Akka in exchange for a dog and a

calf. These, sent to Italy in 1873, were respectively 4 ft. 4

in. and 4 ft. 8 in. high, while the tallest seen by Schweinfurth

did not reach 5 ft. None of the four Akka brought to Europe

in 1874 and 1876 exceeded 3 ft. 4 in. The average height of

the race would seem to be somewhat under 4 ft., but sufficient

measurements have not been taken to allow of a conclusive

statement. Schweinfurth says the Akka have very large and

almost spherical skulls (this last detail proves to be an

exaggeration). They are of the colour of coffee slightly

roasted, with hair almost the same colour, woolly and tufted;

they have very projecting jaws, flat noses and protruding

lips, which give them an ``ape-like'' appearance. Marked

physical features are an abdominal protuberance which makes

all Akka look like pot-bellied children, and a remarkable

hollowing of the spine into a curve like an d. Investigation

has shown that these are not true racial characteristics, but

tend to disappear, the abdominal enlargement subsiding after

some weeks of regular and wholesome diet. The upper limbs are

long, and the hands, according to Schweinfurth, are singularly

delicate. The lower limbs are short, relatively to the

trunk, and curve in somewhat, the feet being bent in too,

which gives the Akka a top heavy, tottering gait. There is a

tendency to steatopygia among the women. The Akka are nomads,

living in the forests, where they hunt game with poisoned

arrows, with pitfalls and springs set everywhere, and with

traps built like huts, the roofs of which, hung by tendrils

only, fall in on the animal. They collect ivory and honey,

manufacture poison, and bring these to market to exchange

for cereals, tobacco and iron weapons. They are courageous

hunters, and do not hesitate to attack even elephants, both

sexes joining in the chase. They are very agile, and are

said by the neighbouring negroes to leap about in the high

grass like grasshoppers. They are timid as children before

strangers, but are declared to be malevolent and treacherous

fighters. In dress, weapons and utensils they are as the

surrounding negroes. They build round huts of branches

and leaves in the forest clearings. They seem in no way a

degenerate race, but rather a people arrested in development

by the forest environment. Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa

(London, 1873); Dr W. Pleyte, Chapitres supplementaires du

Livre des Morts, traduction et commontaire (Leiden, 1883);

Sir H. H. Johnston, Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902).

AKKAD (Gr. versions aroad and achad), a Hebrew name,

mentioned only once in the Old Testament (Gen. x. 10), for

one of the four chief cities, Akkad, Babel, Erech and Calneh,

which constituted the nucleus of the kingdom of Nimrod in

the land of Shinar or Babylonia. This Biblical city, Akkad,

was most probably identical with the northern Babylonian city

known to us as Agade (not Agane, as formerly read), which

was the principal seat of the early Babylonian king Sargon

I. (Sargani-Sarali), whose date is given by Nabonidus,

the last Semitic king of Babylonia (555-537 B.C.), as

3800 B.C., which is perhaps too old by 700 or 1000 years.i

The probably non-Semitic name Agade occurs in a number of

inscriptions2 and is now well attested as having been the name

of an important ancient capital. The later Assyro-Babylonian

Semitic form Akkadu (``of or belonging to Akkad'') is,

in all likelihood, a Semitic loan form from the non-Semitic

name Agade, and seems to be an additional demonstration of

the identity of Agade and Akkad. The usual signs denoting

Akkadu in the Semitic narrative inscriptions were read in

the non-Semitic idiom uri-ki or ur-ki, ``land of the city,''

which simply meant that Akkadu was the land of the city par

excellence, i.e. of the city of Agade of Sargon I., which

remained for a long period the leading city of Babylonia.3

It is quite probable that the non-Semitic name Agade may mean

``crown (aga) of fire (de)''4 in allusion to Istar,

``the brilliant goddess,'' the tutelar deity of the morning

and evening star and the goddess of war and love, whose cult

was observed in very early times in Agade. This fact is again

attested by Nabonidus, whose record 5 mentions that the Istar

worship of Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess

Anunit, another personification of the Istar idea, whose

shrine was at Sippar. It is significant in this connexion that

there were two cities named Sippar, one under the protection

of Shamash, the sun-god, and one under this Anunit, a fact

which points strongly to the probable proximity of Sippar and

Agade. In fact, it has been thought that Agade-Akkad was

situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates,

and was probably the oldest part of the city of Sippar.

In the Assyro-Babylonian literature the name Akkadu appears

as part of the royal title in connexion with Sumer; viz.

non-Semitic: lugal Kengi (ki) Uru (ki) = sar mat Sumeri u

Akkadi, ``king of Sumer and Akkad,'' which appears to have

meant simply ``king of Babylonia.'' It is not likely, as many

scholars have thought, that Akkad was ever used geographically

as a distinctive appellation for northern Babylonia, or that

the name Sumer (q.v.) denoted the southern part of the land,

because kings who ruled only over Southern Babylonia used

the double title ``king of Sumer and Akkad,'' which was also

employed by northern rulers who never established their sway

farther south than Nippur, notably the great Assyrian conqueror

Tiglathpileser III. (745--727 B.C..) Professor Mccurdy has

very reasonably suggested 6 that the title ``king of Sumer

and Akkad'' indicated merely a claim to the ancient territory

and city of Akkad together with certain additional territory,

but not necessarily all Babylonia, as was formerly believed.

A discussion of the interesting question relating to

the non-Semitic so-called Sumero-Akkadian language

and race will be found in the article SUMER.

1 Prince, Nabonidus, p. v. 2 in the Sargon inscriptions;

Bab. Exped. of the Univ. of Penn. also xi. pl. 49, nr.

119 and in Nebuchadnezzar, col. ii. line 50 (Hilprecht,

Freibrief Neb.); Cun. Texts from Bab. Tablets, pl.

1, nr. 91146, line 3. 3Rogers, History of Babylonia and

Assyria, i. pp. 365, 373-374. 4 prince, ``Materials for

a Sumerian Lexicon,'' pp. 23, 73, Journal of Biblical

Literature, 1906. 5 I. Rawl. 69, col. ii. 48 and iii.

28. 6 History, Prophecy and the Monuments, i. sec. 110.

LITERATURE.---Schmder, Zur Frage n. d. Ursprung d. altbab.

Kultur (1883); Keilinschriften und Geschichteforschung, pp.

533 fr; Fried. Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? (1881), p.

198; Paul Haupt, Akkadische und Sumerische Keilschrifttexte

(1881), pp. 133 ff.; Die Sumerische Akkadische Sprache,

Verh. 5-ten Orient. Cong. ii. pp. 249-287; Die sumerischen

Familiengesetze (1879); Zimmern, Babylonische Busspsalmen

(1885), pp. 71 f.; Hommel, Gesch. Bab. Assyr. (1885),

pp. 240 ff.; Tiele, Bab. Assyr. Gesch. (1888), p. 68; W.

H. Ward, Hebraica (1886), pp. 79-86; Mccurdy, Presb. and

Ref. Review, Jan. 1891, pp. 58-81; History, Prophecy and

the Monuments (1894), sec. sec. 79-85, 94-110; Hugo Winckler,

Untersuchungen zur altorientallischen Geschichte (1886), pp. 65

ff. In Rabbinical literature, Louis Ginzberg, in Monatschrift,

xliii. 486; and Jewish Encyclopaedia, i. p. 149. (J. D. PR.)

AKKERMAN (in old Slav. Byelgorod, ``white town''), a

town, formerly a fortress, of south-west Russia, in the

government of Bessarabia, situated on the right bank of the

estuary (liman) of the Dniester, 12 m. from the Black Sea.

The town stands on the site of the ancient Milesian colony of

Tyras. Centuries later it was rebuilt by the Genoese, who called

it Mauro Castro. The Turks first acquired possession of it in

1484. It was taken by the Russians in 1770, 1774 and 1806,

but each time returned to the Turks, and not definitely annexed

to Russia until 1881 . A treaty concluded here in 1826 between

Russia and the Porte secured considerable advantages to the

former. It was the non-observance of this treaty that led to

the war of 1S28. The harbour is too shallow to admit vessels

of large size, but the proximity of the town to Odessa secures

for it a thriving business in wine, salt, fish wool and

tallow. The salt is obtained from the saline lakes (limans)

in the neighbourhood. The town, with its suburbs, contains

beautiful gardens and vineyards. It is surrounded by

ramparts, and commanded by a citadel. Pop. (1900) 32,470.

AKMOLINSK, one of the governments belonging to the

governor-generalship of the Steppes in Asiatic Russia, formerly

known as the Kirghiz Steppe; bounded by the government of Turgai

on the W., by that of Tobolsk on the N., of Semi-palatinsk

on the E., and of Syr-darya on the S. Area 229,544 sq. m.,

of which 4535 are lakes. In the north the government is low

and dotted with salt lakes, and is sandy on the banks of the

Irtysh in the north-east. An undulating plateau stretches

through the middle, watered by the Ishim and its tributary the

Nura. The plains gradually rise southwards, where a broad

spur of the Tarbagatai mountains stretches north-westwards,

containing gold, copper and coal. Many lakes, of which the

largest is Teniz, are scattered along the northern slope of these

hills. Farther south, towards Lake Balkash, on the southeastern

frontier, is a wide waterless desert, Bek-pak-dala, or Famine

Steppe. This section of the government is drained by the

Sary-su and Chu, the latter on the southern boundaryline.

The climate is continental and dry, the average temperatures

at the town of Akmolinsk being for the year 35 deg. , January

1.5 deg. , July 70 deg. ; rainfall, only 9 in. The population, which

was 686,863 in 1897 (324,587 women), consists chiefly of

Russians in the northern and middle portions, and of Kirghiz

(about 350,000), who breed cattle, horses and sheep. The

urban population was only 74,069. Agriculture is successfully

carried on in the north, the Siberian railway running between

Petropavlovsk and Omsk through a very fertile, well-populated

region. Steamers ply on the Irtysh. The government is divided

into five districts, the chief towns of which are: Omsk (pop.

53,050 in 1900), formerly capital of West Siberia, now capital

of this government and also of the governor-generalship of

the Steppes; Akmolinsk, or Akmolly (9560 in 1897), on the

Ishim, 260 m. S.S.W. of Omsk, and chief centre for the

caravans coming from Tashkent and Bokhara; Atbasar (3030);

Kokchetav (5000); and Petropavlovsk (21,769 in 1901).

AKOLA, a town and district of India, in Berar, otherwise

known as the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The town is on

the Murna tributary of the Purna river, 930 ft. above the sea,

Akola proper being on the west bank, and Tajnapeth, containing

the government buildings and European residences, on the east

bank. It is a station on the Nagpur branch of the Great

Indian Peninsula railway and is 383 m. E.N.E. of Bombay. It

had a population (1901) of 29,289. It is walled, and has a

citadel built in the early years of the 19th century. Akola

is one of the chief centres of the cotton trade in Berar,

and has numerous ginning factories and cotton presses. Among

the educational establishments are a government high school,

and an industrial school supported by a Protestant mission.

The DISTRICT OF AKOLA as. reconstituted in 1905 has an

area of 4111 sq. n1.. the popi:lation of this area in 1901

being 754,804. (Before the alteration of the boundaries the

area of the district was 2678 sq. m., and the population

582,540.) The surface of the country is generally flat,

the greater part being situated in the central valley of

Berar. On the north it is bounded by the Melghat

hills. By the addition of Basim and Mangrul laluks in

1005, the district includes the eastern part of the Ajanta

hills, with peaks rising to 2000 ft., and the tableland of

Basim (q.v..) North of the Ajanta hills the country is

drained eastward by the I,urna affluent of the Tapti and its

tributaries. None of the rivers is navigable. The climate

resembles that of Berar generally, but the beat during April

to mid-June, when the rains begin, is very great, the average

temperature at the town of Akola in May for the twenty-five

years ending 1901 being 94.4 deg. F. But even during the hot

season the nights are cool. The annual rainfall averages 34

in. In the Purna valley the soil is everywhere a rich lilack

loam, and nearly the whole of the land is cultivated. Very

little.land is under irrigation. The principal crop is

cotton, and the staple grain millet. Wheat and pulses are also

grown. The history of Akola is not distinguished from that

of the other portions of Berar. In 1317--1318 it was added

to the Delhi empire, became independent under the Bahmani

dynasty in 1348, and in 1596 again fell under the sv'ay of the

Moguls. In 1724 it came, with the rest of Berar, under the

dominion of the nizam, being assigned to the British in 1853.

AKRON, a city and the county-seat of Summit county, Ohio,

U.S.A., on the Little Cuyaboga river, about 35 m. S. by E. of

Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 27,601; (1900) 42,728, of whom 7127

were foreign-born (3227 being German, 1104 English, and

641 Irish); (1910) 69,067. It is served by the Baltimore &

Ohio, the Erie, the Northern fj!:io, and the Cleveland, Akron

& Columbus railways, by inter-urban electric lines and by

the Ohio Canal. The city is situated in a region abounding

in lakes, springs and hills; it is about 1000 ft. above

sea-level, whence its name (from Oir. akron, height);

and attracts many summer visitors. It is the seat of

Buchtel College (co-educational; non-sectarian), which was

founded by the Ohio Universalist Convention in 1870, was

opened in 1872, and was named in honour of its most liberal

benefactor, John R. Buchtel (18221802), a successful business

man who did much to promote the industrial development of

Akron. Buchtel College provides three courses leading to

the degrees of A.B., Ph.B. and S.B.; it has a school of

music, a school of art and an academy; in 1908 there were 267

students. Coal is mined in the neighbourhood. The river

furnishes considerable water-power; and among the city's most

important manufactures are rubber and elastic goods (value,

1905, $13,396,974; 83.9% of the total of this industry in

the state and 21.3% of the total for the United States,

Akron ranking first among the cities of the country in this

industry), printing and publishing product (value, 1905,

$2,834,639), foundry and machine-shop product (value, 1905,

$2,367,764), and pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay (value,

1905, $1,718,033; nearly twice the value of the output in 1900,

Akron ranking fourth among the cities of the United States in

this industry in 1905). Other important manufactures are food

preparations (especially of oats) and flour and grist mill

products. The value of the total manufactured products

(under the ``factory'' system) in 1905 was $34,004,243, an

increase in five years of 54.5%. Akron was settled about

1825, was incorporated as a village in 1836, was made the

county-seat in 1842, and in 1865 was chartered as a city.

See S. N. Lane, Fifty Years and over of

Akron and Sumnnit County (Akron, 1892).

AK-SHEHR (anc. Philomelioii), a town in Asia Minor, in

the Ronia vilayet, situated at the edge of a fertile plain, on

the north side of the Sultan Dagh. Philomelion was probably a

Pergamenian foundation on the great Graeco-Roman highway from

Ephesus to the east, and to its townsmen the Smyrniotes wrote

the letter that describes the martyrdom of Polycarp.

Cicero, on his way to Cilicia, dated some of his extant

correspondence there; and the place played a considerable

part in the frontier wars between the Byzantine emperors

and the sultanate of Rum. It became an important Seljuk

town, and late in the 14th century passed into Ottoman

hands. There Bayezid Yilderim is said by Ali of Yezd to

have died after his defeat at Angora. The place still enjoys

much repute among Turks, as the burialplace of Nur-ed-din

Khoja. The town has a station on the Anatolian railway,

about 60 m. from Afium-Rara-Hissar and 100 m. from Konia.

AKSU (White Water), a town of the Chinese empire, Eastern

Turkestan, in 41 deg. 7' N. and 79 deg. 7' E. of Uch-Turfan and 270

m. N.E. of Yarkand, near the left bank of the Aksu river,

which takes its origin in the Tien-shan (Tian-shan) mountains

and joins the Tarim. It belongs to the series of oases

(Uch-Turfan, Bai, Koucha, &c.) situated at the southern foot of

the eastern Tien-shan mountains. The tov'n, which is supposed

to have about 6000 houses, is enclosed by a wall. It is an

important centre for caravan routes and has a considerable

trade. There are some cotton manufactures; and the place

is celebrated for its richly ornamented saddlery made from

deerskin. A Chinese garrison is stationed here, and copper and

iron are wrought in the neighbourhood by exiled Chinese criminals.

Extensive cattle-breeding is carried on by the inhabitants.

AKYAR, a city and distact in the Arakan division of

Burma. The city is situated at the confluence of the three

large rivers Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu, and is the most

flourishing city in the Arakan division. Originally it

was a mere fishing village, but when the British government

in 1826 removed the restrictions on trade imposed by the

Burmese, Akyab quickly grew into an important seat of maritime

commerce. After the cession of Arakan by the treaty of Yandaboo

in that year the old capital of Myohaung was abandoned as

the seat of government, and Akyab on the sea-coast selected

instead. During the first forty years of British rule it

increased from a village to a town of 15,536 inhabitants, and

now it is the third port of Burma, with a population in 1901 of

31,687. It contains the usual public buildings and several

large rice mills. The chief exports are rice and oil.

The district lies along the north-eastern shores of the Bay

of . Bengal, with an area of 5136 sq. m. and a population

in 1901 of q81,666. It forms the northernmost district of

Lower Burma, and consists of the level tract lying between

the sea and the Arakan Yoma mountains, and of the broken

country formed by a portion of their western spurs and

valleys. The forests form a most important feature of Akyab

district and contain a valuable supply of timber of many

kinds. The central part of the district consists of three

fertile valleys, watered by the Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu.

These rivers approach each other at their mouths, and form

a vast network of tidal channels, creeks and islands. Their

alluvial valleys yield inexhaustible supplies of rice, which

the abundant water carriage brings down to the port of Akyab

at a very cheap rate. The four chief towns are Khumgchu

in the extreme north-east of the district; Koladaing in the

centre; Arakan, farther down the rivers; and Akyab on the

coast, where their mouths converge. This district passed into

the hands of the British, together with the rest of Arakan

division, at the close of the first Burmese war of 1825--1826.

Akyab was the metropolitan province of the native kingdom of

Arakan, and the history of that country centres in it. In

1871 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed

under a special administration, with a view to the better

government of the wild tribes which inhabit them. (J. G. SC.)

ALA (from Lat. ala, a wing), a word used technically

by analogy with its meaning of ``wing.'' In physiology,

it means any wing-like process, such as one of the lateral

cartilages of the nose. In botany, one of the side petals

of a papilionaceous corolla, &c. In architecture, a side

apartment or recess of a Romanhouse (the origin of ``aisle'').

ALABAMA, a southern state of the American Union, situated

between 84 deg. 51' and 88 deg. 31' W. long. and about 30 deg. 13' and

35 deg. N. lat., bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia, S. by

Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi. Its

total area is 51,998 sq. m., of which 719 are water surface.

Physical Features.--The surface of Alabama in the N. and

N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified

and picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently

undulating plain having a general incline south-westward

toward the Mississippi and the Gulf. Extending entirely

across the state of Alabama for about 20 m. S. of its N.

boundary, and in the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is

the Cumberland Plateau, or Tennessee Valley region, broken

into broad table-lands by the dissection of rivers. In the

N. part of this plateau, W. of Jackson county, there are about

1000 sq. m. of level highlands from 700 to 800 ft. above the

sea. South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on

each side of the Tennessee river, is a delightful country of

gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from 500 to 800

ft. To the N.E. of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged

section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and

valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations range from

400 to 1800 ft. In the remainder of this region, the S.

portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain,

extending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys,

and Asing precipitouslyon the N. side 500 ft. above them

or 1000ft. above the sea. Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau

region on the S.E. is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as

Coosa Valley) region, which is the S. extremity of the great

Appalachian Mountain system, and occupies an area within the

state of about 8000 sq. m. This is a limestone belt with

parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form

mountains. Although the general direction of the mountains,

ridges and valleys is N.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of

the most prominent characteristics. In the N.E. are several

flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and Lookout are the

most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the Georgia

line of little more than 1800 ft. and gradually decreasing in

height toward the S.W., where Sand Mountain is a continuation of

Raccoon. South of these the mountains are marked by steep

N.W. sides, sharp crests and gently sloping S.E. sides.

South-east of the Appalachian Valley region, the Piedmont

Plateau also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and

occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which Randolph

and Clay counties, together with the N. part of Tallapoosa and

Chambers, form the principal portion. Its surface is gently

undulating and has an elevation of about 1000 ft. above the

sea. The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on

hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau. The

remainder of the state is occupied by the coastal plain. This

is crossed by foot-hills and rolling prairies in the central

part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about 600

ft., becomes lower and more level toward the S.W., and in

the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated above the

sea. The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the W.N.W.

by the Tennessee river and its tributaries; all other parts

of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appalachian Valley

region the Coosa is the principal river; and in the Piedmont

Plateau, the Tallapoosa. In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee

in the W., the Alabama (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa)

in the W. central, and in the E. the Chattahoochee, which

forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. The Tombigbee

and Alabama unite near the S.W. corner of the state, their

waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile and Tensas

rivers. The Black Warrior is a considerable stream which joins

the Tombigbee from the E. The valleys in the N. and N.E. are

usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad

and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the

stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning

of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee

rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such

sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast.

The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the

Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics.

Climate and Soil.---The climate of Alabama is temperate and

fairly uniform. The heat of summer is tempered in the S. by the

winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the N. by the elevation

above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in

the S.W. along the coast, and lowest in the N.E. among the

highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67 deg. F., the mean

for the summer 81 deg. , and for the winter 52 deg. ; and at Valley

Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59 deg. , the mean

for the summer 75 deg. , and for the winter 41 deg. . At Montgomery,

in the central region, the average annual temperature is

66 deg. , with a winter average of 49 deg. , and a summer average of

81 deg. . The average winter minimum for the entire state is 35 deg. ,

and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the

thermometer falls below the freezing-point. At extremely rare

intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero, as was the

case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13th of February

1899, when an absolute minimum of 17 deg. was registered at Valley

Head. The highesl temperature ever recorded was 109 deg. in

Talladega county in 1902. The amount of precipitation is

greatest along the coast (62 in.) and evenly distributed

through the rest of the state (about 52 in.). During each

winter there is usually one fall of snow in the S. and two

in the N.; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes,

during' an entire winter, the ground is not covered with

snow. Hail-storms occur in the spring and summer, but are seldom

destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and are confined chiefly

to the coast. Thunderstorms occur throughout the year, but

are most common in the summer. The prevailing winds are from

the S. As regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four

regions. Extending from the Gulf northward for one hundred

and fifty miles is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain,

also called the ``Timber Belt,'' whose soil is sandy and

poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this

is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the ``Black

Prairie,'' which includes some 13,000 sq. m. and seventeen

counties. It receives its name from its soil (weathered from

the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour,

almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone

and marl formations, especially adapted to the production

of cotton; hence the region is also called the ``Cotton

Belt.'' Between the ``Cotton Belt'' and the Tennessee Valley

is the mineral region, the ``Old Land'' area---``a region of

resistant rocks''--whose soils, also derived from weathering

in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the

granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the

gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region

is the ``Cereal Belt,'' embracing the Tennessee Valley and

the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays

and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less

fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations.

Agriculture.---Agriculture is the principal occupation in

Alabama, giving employment to 64.5% of the population. The

farm acreage in 1900 was 20,685,427 acres (62% of the entire

surface of the state), of which 8,654,991 acres (41.8%) were

improved. Under the system of slave labour which existed

before 1860, the average size of the plantations tended to

increase, but since 1860 the reverse has been true, the

average plantation in 1860 being 346 acres, and in 190092.7

acres. The average value per acre of farm land was $11.86

in 1860 and $8,67 in 1900. As to method of cultivation,

36.3 per cent of the farms were in 1900 managed by the

owners, 33.3% by cash renters, 24.4(R by share tenants, and

the remaining 6% by other methods. The chief product is

cotton, cultivated extensively in the ``Black Belt'' and

less extensively in the other portions of the state. Cotton

has always been the principal source of wealth, the amount

of its exports at Mobile increasing from 7000 bales in 1818

to 25,000 bales in 1821, and the total product of the state

in 1840 being double that of 1830. This was accompanied

by an extensive employment of slave labour, and from 1820

until 1860 the rate of increase of the blacks was greater

than that of the whites. The success of the economic system

was such that in 1860 the cotton crop of Alabama was nearly

1,000,o00 bales (989,955 bales), being 18.4% of the entire

cotton product of the United States. The disorganization of

labour resulting from the Civil War and the emancipation of

slaves, was the cause of a temporary decline in the cotton

crop. In 1889 the crop again approximated to 1,000,000 bales

(915,210 bales, being 12.2% of the entire crop of the United

States), and in 1899 it exceeded that amount, Alabama being

fourth among the states of the entire country. The total value

of the farm products of Alabama in 1899 was $91,387,409; in

1889, $66,240,190; and in 1879, $56,872,994. The average

yield per acre has also increased under the system of free

labour. In recent years there has been a tendency to diversify

crops Indian corn, wheat and oats being mised extensively in

the ``Cereal Belt.'' In 1906, according to the Year-Book

of the Department of Agriculture, the following were the

acreages, yields and values of Alabama's more important

crops (excepting cotton):---Indian corn, 2,990,387 acres,

47,849,392 bushels, $30,623,611; wheat, 98,639 acres, 1,085,029

bushels, $1,019,927; oats, 184,179 acres, 3,167,879 bushels,

$1,615,618; hay, 56,350 acres, 109,882 tons, $1,461,431 .

Minerals.--The chief feature of Alabama's industrial life

since 1880 has been the exploitation of her iron and coal

resources. The iron ore (found chiefly in the region of

which Birmingham is the centre) is primarily red haematite

and (much less important) brown haematite; though as regards

the latter Alabama ranked first among the states of the

Union in 1905 (with 781,561 tons). The total production of

all classes of iron ores was 3,782,831 tons in 1905, Alabama

ranking third in the Union in this respect. The production

of bituminous coal has also increased very rapidly. Coal

was first discovered in the state in 1834, and in 1840 the

total production was 946 tons; in 1870 it was 13,200 short

tons. The real development of the mines began in 1881 and

1882, and the product increased from 420,000 tons in 1881

to 1,568,000 in 1883. By 1890 it had increased to 4,090,409

tons, by 1900 to 8,394,275 tons, and by 1905 to 11,866,069

tons, valued at $14,387,721, making Alabama sixth of the

coal-producing states. Nearly 85% of the coal is produced

in three counties (Jefferson, Walker and Bibb), though the

coalbearing formations cover about 40% of the northern half

of the state. Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and bauxite

have also been discovered, but the greater richness of the

iron and coal deposits has prevented their development.

Manufactures.---The growth of manufactures in Alabama

has been as remarkable as the revelation of mineral

wealth. In 1880 the capital invested in manufactures was

$9,668,008, little more than that ($9,098,181) in 1860;

by 1890 it had increased to $46,122,571, or 377.1%; and

in 1900 it amounted to $70,370,081, or 52.6% more than in

1890. On account of the proximity of coal, iron and

limestone, the manufactures of iron and steel are the most

extensive. In 1895 it was demonstrated that Alabama pig-iron

could be sent to Liverpool and sold cheaper than the English

product, and Birmingham (Alabama) came consequently to rank

next to Middlesborough and Glasgow among the world centres

of the pig-iron trade. The pig-iron produced in the state

in 1860 was valued at $64,590, in 1870 at $210,258, in

1880 at $1,405,356, in 1900 at $13,487,769, and in 1905 at

$16,614,577. In the production of foundry pig-iron Alabama

held first rank both in 1900 and in 1905. The manufacture of

steel, though in its infancy, gave promise of equalling that

of iron, and the coke industry is also Of growing importance,

the product of Alabama during the five years from 1896 to 1901

showing a greater increase, relatively, than that of the other

states. In 1900 the state ranked sixth and in 1905 fifth

among the states of the United States in the manufactures

of iron and steel. In 1905 the value of the product was

2.7% of the value of the total iron and steel product of the

country, and 22.6% of the value of all the state's factory

products. In 1900 and in 1905 Alabama ranked second among

the states of the Union in the production of coke, its product

being more than one-tenth of that for the whole country, and

more than one-twentieth (5.2% in 1000; 5.7% in 1905) of all

the factory products of the state. The demand for coke is

due to the rapidly growing iron and steel industry. Great

possibilities were also shown for the production of lumber and

naval stores. Approximately three-fourths of the total area

of the state is woodland. In the ``Timber Belt'' the forests

of long leaf pine have an estimated stand of 21,192 million

ft.; and in 1905 the product of sawed lumber was valued at

$13,563,815. Of this, yellow pine represented $11,320,909,

oak $886,746, and poplar $627,686. In the decade 1890-1900

the number of turpentine factories increased from 7 to

152, and their product in 1900 and in 1905 ranked Alabama

third among the states in that industry. The value of the

turpentine and rosin products in 1905 was $ 2,434,365 .

The manufacture of cotton goods has also developed rapidly.

As late as 1890 there were only 13 cotton mills in Alabama,

one more than the number in 1850; in 19-0 there were 31,

representing a capital of $11,638,757 and an annual product

valued at $8,153,136, an increase of 272. 2% Over the product

($2,190,771) of 1890; in 1905 there wers 46 establishments,

representing a capital of $24,758,049 (an increase of

112`7% over that of 1900), and having a product (for the

year) of $16,760,332, an increase of 105.6% over that for

1900. To encourage the establishment of cotton mills the

legislature of 1896-1897 exempted from taxation during the

succeeding ten years all capital that should be invested in

the manufacture of cotton, provided that $50,000 or more be

invested in buildings and machinery. Other industries of

less importance are flour, fertilizers and tanned leather.

Communications.---The navigable mileage of the Alabama

rivers is 2000 m., but obstructions often prevent the formation

of a continuous route, notably the ``Muscle Shoals'' of the

Tennessee, extending from a point 10 m. below Decatur to

Florence, a distance of 38 m. To remove or circumvent these

impediments, and to improve the Mobile harbour, the United

States government spent, between 1870 and 1904, approximately

$12,000,000: As the streams in the mineral region are not

navigable, the railways are the carriers of its products.2

Here all the large systems of the southern states find an

entrance, the Mobile & Ohio, the Southern (Queen & Crescent

Route), the Louisville & Nashville, and the Frisco system

affording communication with the Mississippi and the

west, and the Southern, Seaboard Air Line, Atlantic Coast

Line, and the Central of Georgia forming connexions with

northern and Atlantic states. Mobile, the only seaport of

the state, has a channel 30 ft. deep, on which the national

government spends large sums of money; yet an increasing

amount of Alabama cotton is sent to New Orleans for shipment,

and Pensacola, Florida, receives much of the lumber.

Population.---In 1880 the inhabitants of Alabama numbered

1,262,505; in 1890, 1,513,017, an increase of 17%:; in 1900,

1,828,697, a further increase of 20%. This population is

notable for its large proportion of negroes (45.23%), its

insignificant foreign element (.08%), and the small percentage

of urban inhabitants (10%). As regards church membership,

the Baptists are much the most numerous, followed by the

Methodists, the Roman Catholics and the Presbyterians. In

1900 there were 201 incorporated cities, towns and villages

in the state, but of these only nine had a population in

excess of 5000, and only three a population in excess of

25,000. These three were Mobile (38,469), Birmingham

(38,415), and Montgomery (30,346), the capital of the

state. Other important cities, with their populations, were

Selma (8713), Anniston (9695), Huntsville (8068), Bessemer

(6358), Tuscaloosa (5094), Talladega (5056), Eufaula (4532)

and Tuskegee (2170). In 1910 the population was 2,138,003.

Government.---Alabama has been governed ui,der five

constitutions, the original constitution of 1819, the revision

of 186b, the constitutions of 1868 and 1875, and the present

constitution. which was framed in 1901. The last has a number

of notable provisions. It lengthened the term of service of

executive and legislative officials from two to four years,

made that of the judiciary six years, provided for quadrennial

sessions of the legislature, and introduced the office of

lieutenant-governor. The passage of local or special bills

by the legislature was prohibited. A provision intended to

prevent lobbying is that no one except legislators and the

representatives of the press may be admitted to the floor of

the House except by unanimous vote. No executive official

can succeed himself in office, and the governor cannot be

elected or appointed to the United States Senate, or to any

state office during his term as governor, or within one year

thereafter. Sheriffs whose prisoners suffer mob violence may be

impeached. The constitution eliminated the negro from politics

by a suffrage clause which went int0 effect in 1903. This

limits the right to vote to those who can read and write any

article of the constitution of the United States, and have

worked or been regularly engaged in some lawful employment,

business or occupation, trade or calling for the greater part

of the twelve months next preceding the time they offer to

register, unless prevented from labour or ability to read and

write by physical disability, or who own property assessed at

$300 upon which the taxes have been paid; but those who have

served in the army or navy of the United States or of the

Confederate States in time of war, their lawful descendants in

every degree, and persons of good character ``who understand

the duties and obligations of citizenship under a republican

form of government,'' are relieved from the operation of this

law provided they registered prior to the 20th of December

1902. The second of these exceptions is known as the

``Grandfather Clause.'' No man may vote in any election who

has not by the 1st of February next preceding that election

paid all poll taxes due from him to the state. In 1902

nine-tenths of the negroes in the state were disqualified from

voting.3 The constitution of 1901 (like that of 1867) and

special statutes require separate schools for white and negro

children. A ``Jim Crow'' law was enacted in 1891. Buying,

selling or offering to buy or sell a vote has for penalty

disfranchisement, and since 1891 the Australian ballot system

has been used. The governor, auditor and attorney-general

are required to prepare and present to each legislature a

general revenue bill, and the secretary of state, with the

last two officers, constitute a board of pardons who make

recommendations to the governor, who, however, is not bound

to follow their advice in the exercise of his pardoning

power. State officials are forbidden to accept railway passes

from railway companies, and individuals are forbidden to

receive freight rebates. The constitution of 1901 exempted

a homestead of 80 acres of farm land, or of a house and lot

not exceeding $2000 in value, from liability for any debt

contracted since the 30th of July 1868 except for a mortage

on it to which the wife consented; personal property to the

value of $1000 is exempted. Under the civil code of 1897

the earnings of a wife are her separate property, and it is

provided that ``no woman, nor any boy under age of twelve

years, shall be employed to work or labour in or about any

mine in this state.'' By acts of 1903 child labour under 12

years is forbidden in any factory unless for suoport of ``a

widowed mother or aged or disabled father,'' or unless the

child is an indigent orphan; ``no child under the age of

ten years shall be so employed under any circumstances.''

Certificates of children's ages are necessary before a child

is employed; false certification is forbidden under penalty of

a fine of from $5 to $100 or hard labour not exceeding three

months. No child under 13 may do night work at all. No

child under 16 may do more than 48 hours a week of light

work. No child of less than 12 is allowed to work more than

66 hours in any one week. An able-bodied parent who does not

work when he has the opportunity, unless ``idle under strike

orders, or lock-outs,'' and who hires out his minor children,

is declared a vagrant and may be fined $500 and imprisoned

or sentenced to hard labour for not more than six months.

All amendments to the constitution must be approvedbya

three-fifths vote of each house of the legislature and

then ratified by the people. The legislature of 1900--1901

established a department of archives and history whose

aim is to preserve documents and historical records.

Education.---Public education for Mobile was authorized

by the legislature of 1826, but it was not provided until

1852. Two years later (1854) a sch00l system for the entire

state was inaugurated. Its support was derived from public

land given by the United States to the state of Alabama for

educational purposes in 1819, and special taxes or tuition

fixed by each township. The Civil War demoralized the

nascent system. An important step in its revival seemed

to be made in the constitution of 1868, which forbade any

private recompense for instruction in the public schools

and appropriated one-fifth of the state's revenue to common

schools. But the attempt to teach whites and blacks in the same

schools, and the corruption in the administration of funds,

made the results unsatisfactory. The constitution of 1875

abolished the one-fifth revenue provision, made the support

of the schools, except that derived from the land grant of

1819, and poll taxes, depend upon the appropriation of the

legislature, and established separate schools for whites and

blacks. Progress has been slow but steady. According to

the constitution of 1901 the legislature is required to levy,

in addition to the poll tax, an annual tax for education at

the rate of 30 to 65 cents on the hundred dollars' worth of

property, and practically every county in the state had made

in 190G an appropriation for its schools of a one mill tax on

$i00. The school fund in 1900 amounted to $1,000,000, an

increase of 37% over the average a1+ual fund of the preceding

decade; for the year ending the 30th of September 1907

the amount certified for apportionment by the state was

$1,150,261.40, and the total annual expenditure was about

$1,600,000; in 1906 the school census showed 697,465 children

of school age. The legislature of 1907 voted an increase

of $300,000 in the appropriation for the common school fund,

and granted state-aid for rural school-houses; but its most

important work probably was the establishment of county high

schools. The rural schools have an annual term of five

to seven months only. The percentage of illiterates

dechnedfrom 50.97% in 1880 to 41% in 1890, and 34% in 1900,

when Alabama ranked third among the states in illiteracy.

There are also a number of institutions for higher education in

Alabama. The most important of these are the university of

Alabama (co-educational---opened in 1831), at Tuscaloosa, the

institution being part of the public school system maintained

by the state; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at Auburn, a

``state college for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic

arts,'' organized in 1872 according to the United States

land grant act for the promotion of industrial education; the

Southern University (incorporated 1856--Methodist Episcopal,

South), at Greensboro; Howard College (Baptist), at East Lake

(Birmingham); Spring Hill College (1830--Roman Catholic), near

Mobile; Talladega College (for negroes), at Talladega; the Tuskegee

Normal and Industrial Institute (for negroes), at Tuskegee;

and state normal schools at Florence, Jacksonville, Troy and

Livingston, and, for negroes, at Montgomery, Tuskegee and Normal.

Public Institutions.---Alabama supports various philanthropic

and penal institutions: a home for Confederate veterans, at

Mountain Creek; an institution for the deaf, an academy for the

blind, and a school for the negro deaf, dumb and blind, all

at Talladega; a hospital for the insane, opened in 1860, at

Tuscaloosa; a penitentiary, established in 1839, at Wetumpka;

and a state industrial school for white boys, at East Lake

(Birmingham); and a state industrial school for white girls at

Montevallo. These institutions are managed by trustees who

are appointed by the governor. In addition to the usual

method of employing convicts in the penitentiary or on state

farms, Alabama, like other southern states, also hires its

convicts to labour for private individuals. Reports of

abuses under this system caused the legislature in 1901 to

order a special investigation, the results of which led in

1903 to a new system of leasing to contractors, whereby the

prisoners are kept under the direct supervision of state

officials. In this same year a system of peonage that

had grown up in the state attracted wide attention, and

a Federal grand jury at a single term of court indicted a

number of men for holding persons as ``peons.'' Many similar

cases were found later in other southern states, but those

in Alabama being the first discovered attracted the most

attention. The system came into existence in isolated

communities through the connivance of justices of the peace

with white farmers. The justices have jurisdiction over petty

offences, of which negroes are usually the guilty parties,

and the fines imposed would sometimes be paid by a white

farmer, who would thus save the accused from imprisonment,

but at the same time would require him to sign a contract

to repay by his labour the sum advanced. By various devices

the labourer would then be kept constantly in debt to his

employer and be held in involuntary servitude for an indefinite

time. The ``peons'' as a rule were negroes, but a few white

ones were found; and in several instances negroes were found

holding members of their own race in peonage. A law forbidding

under severe penalties a labourer from hiring himself to a

second employer without giving notice of a prior contract,

and an employer from hiring a labourer known by him to be

bound by such a contract, had aided in the development of the

system, though it had been enacted for a different purpose.

The Federal authorities, as soon as the existence of peonage

became known, took active measures to stamp it out, and were

supported by the press and by the leading citizens of the

state. Up to 1907 the state licensed the sale of liquor,

and liquor licence fees were partly turned over to the public

school fund; there was a dispensary system in some counties;

and in 1907 one-third of the counties of the state (22 out

of 67) were ``dry.'' Besides, saloons had been forbidden

within 5 m. of certain churches and school-houses, so that

liquor was sold scarcely at all except in incorporated towns,

where in many cases local dispensaries were established.

In the 1907 state legislature a county local option bill was

passed in February, and immediately afterward the Sherrod

anti-shipping bill was enacted forbidding the acceptance

of liquors for shipment, transportation or delivery to

prohibition districts, and penalising the soliciting of orders

for liquor in ``dry'' districts with a punishment of $500

fine and six months' imprisonment with hard labour. In a

special session of the legislature in November 1907 a law was

passed forbidding the sale of liquor within the state, this

prohibition to come into effect on the 1st of January 1909.

Finance.---One-half of the income of the state is derived

from general taxes, the other sources of revenue being

licences, a special school tax, poll tax and the lease of the

convicts. The state debt, for which legislative corruption

in the years 1868-1872 was largely responsible, amounted

on the 1st of October 1906 to $9,057,000. Measures for its

relunding, but not for its extinction, have been taken. The

constitution of 1901 prohibits the increase of the debt for

any other purposes than the suppression of insurrection or

resistance to invasion, and the assumption of corporate debts

by cities and towns is also restricted. All banks, except

national banks, are subject to examination by a public official,

and their charters expire within twenty years of their issue.

History.---The first Europeans to enter the limits of the

present state of Alabama were Spaniards, who claimed this

region as a part of Florida. It is possible that a member of

Panfilo de Narvaez's expedition of 1528 entered what is now

southern Alabama, but the first fully authenticated visit n'as

that of Hernando de Soto, who made an arduous but fruitless

journey along the Coosa, Alabama and Tombigbee rivers in

1539. The English, too, claimed the region north of the

Gulf of Mexico, and the territory of modern Alabama was

included in the province of Carolina, granted by Charles

II. to certain of his favourites by the charters of 1663 and

1665. English traders of Carolina were frequenting the valley

of the Alabama river as early as 1687. Disregarding these

claims, however, the French in 1702 settled on the Mobile

river and there erected Fort Louis, which for the next nine

years was the seat of government of Louisiana. In 1711 Fort

Louis was abandoned to the floods of the river, and on higher

ground was built Fort Conde, the germ of the present city of

Mobile, and the first permanent white settlement in Alabama.

Later, on account of the intrigues of the English traders

with the Indians, the French as a means of defence established

the military posts of Fort Toulouse, near the junction of

the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and Fort Tombecbe on the

Tombigbee river. The grant of Georgia to Oglethorpe and his

associates in 1732 included a portion of what is now northern

Alabama, and in 1739 Oglethorpe himself visited the Creek

Indians west of the Chattahoochee river and made a treaty with

them. The peace of Paris, in 1763, terminated the French

occupation, and England came into undisouted possession of

the region between the Chattahoochee and the Mississippi. The

portion of Alabama below the 31st parallel then became a part

of West Florida, and the portion north of this line a part

of the Illinois country,'' set apart, by royal proclamation,

for the use of the Indians. In 1767 the province of West

Florida was extended northward to 32 deg. 28' N. lat., and a

few years later, during the War for Independence, this region

fell into the hands of Spain. By the treaty of Versailles,

on the 3rd of September 1783, England ceded West Florida to

Spain; but by the treaty of Paris, signed the same day, she

ceded to the United States all of this province north of 31 deg. ,

and thus laid the foundation for a long controversy. By the

treaty of Madrid, in 1795, Spain ceded to the United States

her claims to the lands east of the Mississippi between 31 deg.

and 32 deg. 28'; and three years later (1798) this district was

organized by Congress as the Mississippi Territory. A strip

of land 12 or 14 m. wide near the present northern boundary

of Alabama and Mississippi was claimed by South Carolina;

but in 1787 that state ceded this claim to the general

government. Georgia likewise claimed all the lands between

the 31st and 35th parallels from its present western boundary

to the Mississippi river, and did not surrender its claim

until 1802; two years later the boundaries of the Mississippi

Territory were extended so as to include all of the Georgia

cession. In 1812 Congress annexed to the Mississippi Territory

the Mobile District of West Florida, claiming that it was

included in the Louisiana Purchase; and in the following year

General James Wilkinson occupied this district with a military

force, the Spanish commandant offering no resistance. The

whole area of the present state of Alabama then for the

first time became subject to the jurisdiction of the United

States. In 1817 the Mississippi Territory was divided; the

western portion became the state of Mississippi, and the

eastern the territory of Alabama, with St Stephens, on the

Tombigbee river, as the temporary seat of government. In

1819 Alabama was regularly admitted to the Union as a state.

One of the first problems of the new commonwealth was that of

finance. Since the amount of money in circulation was not

sufficient to meet the demands of the increasing population,

a system of state banks was instituted. State bonds were

issued and public lands were sold to secure capital, and the

notes of the banks, loaned on security, became a medium of

exchange. Prospects of an income from the banks led the

legislature of 1836 to abolish all taxation for state purposes.

This was hardly done, however, before the panic of 1837 wiped

out a large portion of the banks' assets; next came revelations

of grossly careless and even of corrupt management, and in

1843 the banks were placed in liquidation. After disposing

of all their available assets, the state assumed the remaining

liabilities, for which it had pledged its faith and credit,

and these form a part ($3,445,000) of its present indebtedness.

The Indian problem was important. With the encroachment

of the white settlers upon their hunting-grounds the Creek

Indians began to grow restless, and the great Shawnee chief

Tecumseh, who visited them in 1811, fomented their discontent.

When the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain in

1812 gave the Creeks assurance of British aid they rose in

arms, massacred several hundred settlers who had taken refuge

in Fort Mims, near the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee

rivers, and in a short time no white family in the Creek

country was safe outside a palisade. The Chickasaw and Choctaw

Indians, however, remained the faithful allies of the whites,

and volunteers from Georgia, South Carolina and Tennessee,

and later United States troops, marched to the rescue of the

threatened settlements. In the campaign that followed the most

distinguished services were rendered by General Andrew Jackson,

whose vigorous measures broke for ever the power of the Creek

Confederacy. By the treaty of Fort Jackson (9th of August

1814) the Creeks ceded their claims to about one-half of the

present state; and cessions by the Cherokees, Chickasaws and

Choctaws in 1816 left only about one-fourth of Alabama to the

Indians. In 1832 the national government provided for the

removal of the Creeks; but before the terms of the contract were

effected, the state legislature formed the Indian lands into

counties, and settlers flocked in. This caused a disagreement

between Alabama and the United States authorities; although

it was amicably setrled, it engendered a feeling that the

policy of the national government might not be in harmony with

the interests of the state---a feeling which, intensified by

the slavery agitation, did much to cause secession in 1861.

The political history of Alabama may be divided

into three periods, that prior to 1860, the years

from 1860 to 1876, and the period from 1876 onwards.

The first of these is the only period of altogether healthy

political life. Until 1832 there was only one party in the

state, the Democratic, but the question of nullification caused

a division that year into the (Jackson) Democratic party and

the State's Rights (Calhoun Democratic) party; about the same

time, also, there arose, chiefly in those counties where the

proportion of slaves to freemen was greater and the freemen

were most aristocratic, the Whig party. For some time the

Whigs were nearly as numerous as the Democrats, but they

never secured control of the state government. The State's

Rights men were in a minority; nevertheless under their active

and persistent leader, William L. Yancey (1814-1863), they

pvevailed upon the Democrats in 1848 to adopt their most radical

views. During the agitation over the introduction of slavery

into the territory acquired from Mexico, Yancey induced the

Democratic State Convention of 1848 to adopt what is known

as the ``Alabama Platform,'' which declared in substance

that neither Congress nor the government of a territory

had the right to interfere with slavery in a territory,

that those who held opposite views were not Democrats, and

that the Democrats of Alabama would not support a candidate

for the presidency if he did not agree with them on these

questions. This platform was endorsed by conventions in

Florida and Virginia and by the legislatures of Georgia and

Alabama. Old party lines were broken by the Compromise of

1850. The State's Rights party, joined by many Democrats,

founded the Southern Rights party, which demanded the

repeal of the Compromise, advocated resistance to future

encroachments and prepared for secession, while the Whigs,

joined by the remaining Democrats, formed the party known as

the ``Unionists,'' which unwillingly accepted the Compromise

and denied the ``constitutional'' right of secession. The

``Unionists'' were successful in the elections of 1851 and

1852, but the feeling of uncertainty engendered in the south

by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the course

of the slavery agitation after 1852 led the State Democratic

convention of 1856 to revive the ``Alabama Platform''; and when

the `i Alabama Platform'' failed to secure the formal approval

of the Democratic National convention at Charleston, South

Carolina, in 1860, the Alabama delegates, followed by those

of the other cotton ``states,'' withdrew. Upon the election

of Abraham Lincoln, Governor Andrew B. Moore, according to

previous instructions of the legislature, called a state

convention on the 7th of January 1861 After long debate this

convention adopted on the 11th of January an ordinance of

secession, and Alabama became one of the Confederate states of

America, whose government was organized at Montgomery on the 4th

of February 1861. Yet secession was opposed by many prominent

men, and in North Alabama an attempt was made to organize

a neutral state to be called Nickajack; but with President

Lincoln's call to arms all opposition to secession ended.

In the early part of the Civil War Alabama was not the scene

of military operations, yet the state contributed about

120,000 men to the Confederate service, practically all her

white population capable of bearing arms, and thirty-nine

of these attained the rank of general. In 1863 the Federal

forces secured a foothold in northern Alabama in spite of

the opposition of General Nathan B. Forrest, one of the

ablest Confederate cavalry leaders. In 1864 the defences

of Mobile were taken by a Federal fleet, but the city held

out until April 1865; in the same month Selma also fell.

According to the presidential plan of reorganization, a

provisional governor for Alabama was appointed in June 1865; a

state convention met in September of the same year, and declared

the ordinance of secession null and void and slavery abolished;

a legislature and a governor were elected in November, the

legislature was at once recognized by the National government,

and the inauguration of the governor-elect was permitted after

the legislature had, in December, ratified the thirteenth

amendment. But the passage, by the legislature, of vagrancy

and apprenticeship laws designed to control the negroes who

were flocking from the plantations to the cities, and its

rejection of the fourteenth amendment, so intensified the

congressional hostility to the presidential plan that the

Alabama senators and representatives were denied their seats in

Congress. In 1867 the congressional plan of reconstruction

was completed and Alabama was placed under military

government. The negroes were now enrolled as voters and

large numbers of white citizens were disfranchised.4 A Black

Man's Party, composed of negroes, and political adventurers

known as ``carpet-baggers,'' was formed, which co-operated

with the Republican party. A constitutional convention,

controlled by this element, met in November 1867, and framed

a constitution which conferred suffrage on negroes and

disfranchised a large class of whites. The Reconstruction Acts

of Congress required every new constitution to be ratified by

a majority of the legal voters of the state. The whites of

Alabama therefore stayed away from the polls, and, after five

days of voting, the constitution wanted 13,550 to secure a

majority. Congress then enacted that a majority of the

votes cast should be sufficient, and thus the constitution

went into effect, the state was admitted to the Union in

June 1868, and a new governor and legislature were elected.

The next two years are notable for legislative extravagance and

corruption. The state endorsed railway bonds at the rate of

$12,000 and $16,000 a mile until the state debt had increased

from eight millions to seventeen millions of dollars, and similar

corruption characterized local government. The native white

people united, formed a Conservative party and elected a governor

and a majority of the lower house of the legislature in 1870;

but, as the new administration was largely a failure, in 1872

there was a reaction in favour of the Radicals, a local term

applied to the Republican party, and affairs went from bad to

worse. In 1874, however, the power of the Radicals was

finally broken, the Conservative Democrats electing all state

officials. A commission appointed to examine the state debt

found it to be $25,503,000; by compromise it was reduced to

$15,000,000. A new constitution was adopted in 1875, which

omitted the guaranty of the previous constitution that no one

should be denied suffrage on account of race, colour or previous

condition of servitude, and forbade the state to engage in internal

improvements or to give its credit to any private enterprise.

Since 1874 the Democratic party has had constant control of

the state administration, the Republicans failing to make

nominations for office in 1878 and 1880 and endorsing the ticket

of the Greenback party in 1882. The development of mining and

manufacturing was accompanied by economic distress among the

farming classes, which found expression in the Jeffersonian

Democratic party, organized in 1892. The regular Democratic

ticket was elected and the new party was then merged into

the Populist party. In 1894 the Republicans united with the

Populists, elected three congressional representatives, secured

control of many of the counties, but failed to carry the state,

and continued their opposition with less success in the next

campaigns. Partisanship became intense, and charges of corruption

of the ignorant negro electorate were made. Consequently

after division on the subject among the Democrats themselves,

as well as opposition of Republicans and Populists, a new

constitution with restrictions on suffrage was adopted in 1901.

The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of Alabama:--

Governors of the Territory.

William Wyatt Bibb . . . . 1817-1819

Governors of the State.

William Wyatt Bibb . . . . 1819-1820 Democrat.

Thomas Bibb 5 . . . . . . 1820-1821 "

Israel Pickens . . . . . . 1821-1825 "

John Murphy . . . . . . . 1825-1829 "

Gabriel cloore . . . . . . 1829-1831 "

Samuel B. Moore . . . . . 1831 "

John Gayle . . . . . . . . 1831-1835 "

Clement C. Clay . . . . . 1835-1837 "

Hugh M`Vay 6 . . . . . . . 1837 "

Arthur P. Bagby . . . . . 1837-1841 "

Benjamin Fitzpatrick 7 . . 1841-1845 "

Joshua L. Martin . . . . . 1845-1847 "

Reuben Chapman . . . . . . 1847-1849 "

Henry W. Collier . . . . . 1849-1853 "

John A. Winston . . . . . 1853-1857 "

Adrew B. Moore . . . . . . 1857-1861 "

John Gill Shorter . . . . 1861-1863 "

Thomas H. Watts . . . . . 1863-1865 "

Lewis E. Parsons . . . . . 1865 Provisional.

Robert M. Patton . . . . . 1865-1867 Republican.

Wager Swayne . . . . . . . 1867-1868 Military.

William H. Smith . . . . . 1868-1870 Republican.

Robert B. Lindsay . . . . 1870-1872 Democrat.

David P. Lewis . . . . . . 1872-1874 Republican.

Ceorge S. Houston . . . . 1874-1878 Democrat.

Rufus W. Cobb . . . . . . 1878-1882 "

Edward A. O'Neal . . . . . 1882-1886 "

Thomas Seay . . . . . . . 1886-1890 "

Thomas G. Jones . . . . . 1890-1894 "

William C. Oates . . . . . 1894-1896 "

Joseph F. Johnston . . . . 1896-1900 "

William J. Samford . . . . 1900-1901 "

William D. Jellis . . . . 1901-1907 "

B. B. Comer . . . . . . . 1907 "

BIBLIOGRAPHY.---For an elaborate bibliography of Alabama

(by Thomas M. Owen) see the Annual Report of the American

Historical Association for 1807 (Washington, 1898).

Information regarding the resources, climate, population

and industries of Alabama may be found in the reports of the

United Statescensus,and in the publications of the United

States Department of Agriculture, the United States Geological

Survey, the Bulletins of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment

Station (published at Auburn, from 1888), the Bulletins

and Reports of the Alabama Geological Survey (published at

Tuscaloosa and Montgomery), and in the following works:--B.

F. Riley's Alabama As It Is (Montgomery, 1893), and Saffold

Berney's Handbook of Alabama (2nd ed., Birmingham, 1892)

Information concerning the history of the state may be obtained

in William G. Brown's History of Alabama (New York, 1900);

Newton W. Bates's History and Civil Government of Alabama

(Florence, Ala, 1892); Willis Brewer's Alabama: Her History,

Resources, War Record and Public Men (Montgomery, 1872); A.

Davis Smith's and T. A. Deland's Northern Alabama, Historical

and Biographical (Birmingham, 1888); Albert J. Pickett's

History of Alabama (5th ed., 2 vols., Birmingham, Ala., 1900),

which contains a valuable compilation of the ``Annals of Alabama

from 1819 to 1900,'' by Thomas M. Owen; and Walter L. Fleming's

Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama (New York, 1905). .