Act 1903, the powers and duties of the Board of Trade under the

Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts, the Sea Fisheries Regulation

Acts and other acts relating to the industry of fishing, were

transferred from that department to the Board of Agriculture,

and its name was changed to its present form. The Department

of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland covers

much the same ground. The Annual report of the proceedings

of the Board of Agriculture under the Tithe and other Acts

for 1902 contains a full account of its powers and duties.

In the British colonies the interests of agriculture are

looked after in New South Wales, by an under-secretary

for mines and agriculture; in Victoria, by a member of

the executive council who holds the portfolio of lands

and agriculture; in Queensland, by an under-secretary for

agriculture; in New Zealand, by a minister for lands and

agriculture; in Canada (see, for more detail, the article

Canada, Canadian Agriculture), by a minister for agriculture

(the various provinces have also departments of agriculture).

The government of India has a secretary of revenue and

agriculture. Cape Colony has a secretary for agriculture, a

member of the cabinet; in the Transvaal Colony the director

of agriculture is a departmental secretary; in Natal, the

minister for agriculture is a member of the executive council,

and the establishment consists, in addition, of a secretary, a

director of agriculture, an entomologist, a dairy expert and a

conservator of forests. Cyprus has a director of agriculture.

United States--The Department of Agriculture dates its rank as

an executive department from 1889. It was first established as

a department in 1862, ranking as a bureau, with a commissioner in

charge. In addition to the commissioner there were appointed

a statistician, chemist, entomologist and superintendent

of a propagatory and experimental farm. Its scope was then

somewhat limited, but its work was gradually enlarged by the

appointment of a botanist in 1868, a microscopist in 1871,

the creation of a forestry department in 1877, a bureau of

animal industry in 1884 and the establishment of agricultural

experiment stations throughout the country in 1887. In 1889

the department became an executive department, the principal

official being designated Secretary of Agriculture, with

a seat in the president's cabinet. His salary is $8000 a

year. The secretary is now charged with the supervision

of all business relating to the agricultural and productive

industries. The fisheries have a separate bureau, and

the public lands and mining interests are cared for in the

Department of the Interior; but with these exceptions, all

the productive interests are looked after by the Department of

Agriculture. The department now comprises (1) the weather

bureau, which has charge of the forecasting of weather; the

issue of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals

for the benefit of agriculture, commerce and navigation; the

gauging and reporting of rivers; the reporting of temperature

and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar and

other interests; the display of frost and cold waves signals;

and the distribution of meteorological information in the

interest of agriculture and commerce; (2) the bureau of animal

industry, which makes investigations as to the existence of

contagious pleuro-pneumonia and other dangerous and communicable

diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their

extirpation, makes original investigations as to the nature

and prevention of such diseases, and reports on the conditions

and means of improving the animal industries of the country;

(3) the bureau of plant industry, which studies plant life

in all its relations to agriculture. Its work is classified

under the general subjects of pathological investigations,

physiological investigations, taxonomic investigations,

agronomic investigations, horticultural investigations and

seed and plant introduction investigations; (4) the forest

service, which is occupied with experiments, investigations

and reports dealing with the subject of forestry, and with

the dissemination of information upon forestry matters; (5)

the bureau of chemistry, which investigates methods proposed

for the analysis of plants, fertilizers and agricultural

products, and makes such analyses as pertain in general to

the interests of agriculture; (6) the bureau of soils, which

is entrusted with the investigation, survey and mapping of

soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the

rise of alkali in the soil and the drainage of soils; and the

investigation of the methods of growing, curing and fermentation

of tobacco in the different tobacco districts; (7) the bureau

of entomology, which obtains and disseminates information

regarding insects injurious to vegetation; (8) the bureau of

biological survey, which studies the geographic distribution

of animals and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the

country; it also investigates the economic relations of birds

and mammals, and recommends measures for the preservation of

beneficial, and the destruction of injurious, species; (9) the

division of accounts and disbursements; (10) the division of

publications; (11) the bureau of statistics, which collects

information as to the condition, prospects and harvests of

the principal crops, and of the number and status of farm

animals. It records, tabulates and co-ordinates statistics

of agricultural production, distribution and consumption, and

issues monthly and annual crop reports for the information

of producers and consumers. The section of foreign markets

makes investigations and disseminates information concerning

the feasibility of extending the demands of foreign markets

for the agricultural products of the United States; the bureau

also makes investigations of land tenures, cost of producing

farm products, country life education, transportation and

other lines of rural economies; (12) the library; (13) the

office of experiment stations which represents the department

in its relations to the experiment stations which are now in

operation in all the states; it collects and disseminates general

information regarding agricultural schools, colleges, stations,

and publishes accounts of agricultural investigations at home

and abroad; it also indicates lines of inquiry for the stations,

aids in the conduct of co-operative experiments, reports upon

their expenditures and work, and in general furnishes them with

such advice and assistance as will best promote the purposes

for which they were established; it conducts investigations

relative to irrigation and drainage; (14) the office of public

roads, which collects information concerning systems of road

management, conducts investigations regarding the best method

of road-making, and prepares publications on this subject.

In the following countries there are state departments of

agriculture:---Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, (industry, agriculture

and public works), Bulgaria (commerce and agriculture), Denmark,

France, Norway (agriculture and public accounts), Italy, Japan

(agriculture and commerce), Prussia (agriculture, woods and

forests), Russia (agriculture and crown domains), Sweden.

AGRIGENTUM (Gr. `Akragas mod. Girgenti (q.v.)),

an ancient city on the south coastof Sicily, 2 1/2m. from the

sea. It was founded (perhaps on the site of an early Sicanian

settlement) by colonists from Gela about 582 B.C., and,

though the lastest city of importance founded by the Greeks in

Sicily, soon acquired a position second to that of Syracuse

alone, owing to its favourable situation for trade with Carthage

and to the fertility of its territory. Pindar (Pyth. xii.

2) calls it kallista brotean polion. The buildings for

which it is famous all belong to the first two centuries of its

existence. Phalaris, who is said to have roasted his enemies

to death in a brazen bull (Pindar, Pyth.. i. 184), ruled as

tyrant from 570 to 554. What form of government was established

after his fall is uncertain; we know only that, after a

long interval, Theron became tyrant (488-473); but his son

Thrasydaeus was expelled after an unsuccessful war with Hiero

in 472 and a democracy established. In the struggle between

Syracuse and Athens (415-413) the city remained absolutely

neutral. Its prosperity continued to increase (its population

is given at over 200,000) until in 405 B.C., despite the

help of the Siceliot cities, it was captured and plundered

by the Carthaginians, a blow from which it never entirely

re-covered. It was colonized by Timoleon in 338 B.C. with

settlers from Veha in Lucania, and in the time of the tyrant

Phintias (289-279) it had regained some of its power. In the

First Punic War, however, it was sacked by the Romans (261) and

the Carthaginians (255), and finally in the Second Punic War

by the Romans (210). But it still retained its importance as

a trading and agricultural centre, even in the Roman period,

exporting not only agricultural products but textile fabrics and

sulphur. In the local museum are tiles used for stamping

cakes of sulphur, which show that the mines, at any rate from

the 3rd century, were imperial property leased to contractors.

The site is one of great natural strength and remarkable

beauty, though quite unlike that of other Greek cities in

Sicily. The northern portion of it consists of a lofty ridge

with two summits, the westernmost of which is occupied by

the modern town (985 ft.), while the easternmost, which is

slightly higher, bears the name of Rock of Athena, owing to its

identification in modern days with the acropolis of Acragas as

described by Polybius, who places upon it the temple of Zeus

Atabyrius (the erection of which was attributed to the half

mythical Phalaris) and that of Athena.1 It must be confessed

that the available space (about 70 X 20 yds.) on the eastern

summit (where there are some remains of ancient buildings) is

so small that there would be only room for a single temple,

which must have been occupied by the two deities jointly,

if the new theory is correct (see Notizie degli scavi,

1902, 387 and reff.). In the modern town, on the other hand,

the remains of one temple are to be seen in the church of S.

Maria dei Greci, while the other is generally supposed to have

occupied the site of the cathedral, though no traces of it are

visible. But whichever of these two summits was the acropolis

proper2 it is certain that both were included in the circuit

of the city walls. On the north both summits are defended

by cliffs; on the south the ground slopes away somewhat

abruptly from the eastern summit towards the plateau on which

the town stood, while the western summit is separated from

this plateau by a valley traversed by a branch of the Hypsas

[mod. drago], the deep ravine of which forms the western

boundary and defence of the city. On the east of the city is

the valley of the Acragas [Fiume S. Biagio], from which the

city took its name and which, though shallower than that of

the Hypsas, still affords a sufficient obstacle to attack,

and the two unite a little way to the south of the town; at

the mouth was the ancient harbour, small and now abandoned.

The most famous remains of the ancient city are the temples,

the most important of which form a row along the low cliffs

at the south end of the city. All are built in the Doric

style, of the local porous stone, which is of a warm red

brown colour, full of fossil shells and easily corroded

when exposed to the air. It should be noted that their

traditional names, with the exception of that of Zeus and

that of Asclepius, have no foundation in fact, while the

attribution of the temple in antis, into the cella of

which the church of S. Biagio has been built, is uncertain.3

They are described in R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die

griechishen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin, 1890),

138-184. Of all these temples the oldest is probably that

of Heracles, while the best preserved are those of Hera and

Concordia, which are very similar in dimensions; the latter,

indeed, lacks nothing but its roof, owing its preservation

to its conversion into the cathedral in 597 by Gregory II.,

bishop of Girgenti. Both temples belong to the best period

of the Doric style and are among the finest in existence.

In front of the former, as in front of those of Heracles and

Zeus, stood a huge altar for burnt offerings, as long as the

facade of the temple itself. The cella of the temple of

Heracles underwent considerable modifications in Roman times,

and the discovery in it of a statue of Asclepius seems to

show that the cult of this deity superseded the original one.

In the colossal temple of Zeus the huge Atlantes (figures

of Atlas), 25 ft. in height, are noticeable. They seem to

have stood in the intercolumniations half-way up the outside

wall and to have supported the epistyle. The collapse both

of this temple and of that of Heracles must be attributed

to an earthquake; many fallen blocks of the former were

removed in 1756 for the construction of the harbour of Porto

Empedocle. The four columns erected on the site of the temple

of Castor and Pollux are a modern (and incorrect) restoration

in which portions of two buildings have been used. Of that of

Hephaestus only two columns remain, while of that of Asclepius,

a mile to the south of the town, an anta and two pillars are

preserved. It was in the latter temple that the statue of

the god by Myron stood; it had probably been carried off to

Carthage, was given to the temple by P. Scipio Africanus from

the spoils of that city and aroused the cupidity of Verres.

The other remains within the city walls are of surprisingly

small importance; near the picturesque church of S. Nicolo

is the so-called Oratory of Phalaris, a shrine of the 2nd

century B.C., 27 1/4 ft. long (including the porch) by 23 1/3

ft. wide; and not far off on the east is a large private house

with white tesselated pavements, probably pre-Roman in origin

but slightly altered in the Roman period (R. P. Jones and

E. A. Gardner in JOURNAL OF HELLENIC STUDIES, xxvi., 1906,

207). Foundations of other buildings are to be seen in other

parts of the site, but of little interest. The huge fishpond,

spoken of by Diodorus as being 7 stadia in circumference (xi.

25), is to be seen at the south-west corner of the city; it is

an enormous excavation in the rock with drains in its sides, at

the bottom of which there is now a flourishing orange garden.

Demeter Hera Con-

(Acragas?) Lacinia. cordia. Heracles. Zeus.

Length excluding

steps4 90? 125 129 1/4 220 361

Breadth 40 1/2 55 1/2 55 1/2 83 173 1/2

Length of cella .. 93 96 1/4 156 332

Breadth of cella .. 32 1/2 31 1/2 45 3/4 144 1/4

Height of columns

with capital .. 21 22 33 62 1/2?

Diameter of

columns at

bottom .. 4 1/2 4 1/2 6 1/2 14

Original number

of columns .. 34 34 38 38

Class In antis. Perip- Perip- Perip- Pseudo

teros teros teros Peripteros

hexa- hexa- hexa- hexa-

stylos. stylos. stylos. stylos.

Approximate date 450 B.C. 480-440 440-420 500 B.C. 450 B.C.

B.C. B.C.

Unnamed

Castor near Castor

and and Hephae-

Pollux. Pollux. scus. Asclepius. Athena.

Length excluding

steps (1) .. .. .. .. ..

Breadth .. 67 1/4 57 1/2 30 1/2 45

Length of cella 91 .. .. .. ..

Breadth of cella 33 .. .. .. ..

Height of columns

with capital 19 1/2 .. .. .. ..

Diameter of

columns at

bottom 4 .. 5 3 1/3 4 2/3

Original number

of columns 34 .. .. .. ..

Class Perip- .. Perip- Prostylos Perip-

teros teros pseudo teros

hexa- hexa- perip-

stylos. stylos. teros.

Approximate date 338-210. .. after 338 before 210 488-472

B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C. B.C.

The line of the city walls can be distinctly traced for

most of the circuit, but the actual remains of them are

inconsiderable. On the east and west the ravines already

mentioned afforded, in the main, a sufficient protection,

so that a massive wall was unnecessary, while near the

south-eastern angle a breastwork was formed by the excavation

of the natural rock,5 which in later times was honeycombed with

tombs. E. A. Freeman attributes the southern portion of the

walls to Theron (Hist. of Sic. ii. 224), but the question

depends upon the date of the temple of Heracles; and if

Koldewey and Puchstein are right in dating it so early as 500

B.C., it is probable that the wall was in existence by that

time. Close to this temple on the west is the site of the

gate known in later times as the porta aurea, through

which the modern road passes, so that no traces now remain.

Tombs of the Greek period have mainly been found on the west of

the town, outside the probable line of the walls, between the

Hypsas and a small tributary, the latter having been spanned by

a bridge, now called Ponite dei Morti, of which one massive

pier, 45 ft. in width, still exists. Just outside the south

wall is a Roman necropolis, with massive tombs in masonry, and

a Christian catacomb, and a little farther south a tomb in two

stories, a mixture of Doric and Ionic architecture, belonging

probably to the 2nd century B.C., though groundlessly called

the Tomb of Theron. A village of the Byzantine period has

been explored at Balatizzo, immediately to the south of the

modern town (Notizie degli scavi, 1900, 511-520). The walls

of the dwellings are entirely cut out of the natural rock.

See J. Schubring, Historische Topographie von Akragas

(Leipzig, 1570); R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, op. cit.; C.

Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Encyclopadie, i. 1187. (T. As.)

1 E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (Oxford, 1891), i. 438,

accepts the name ``Rock of Athena'' and yet puts the acropolis on

the site of the modern town, arguing further that the cathedral

hill was an acropolis within an acropolis (II. and XVII.).

2 Some writers place Kamikos, the city of the mythical Sican

Kokalos, on the site of Acragas or its acropolis; but it appears

to have lain to the north-west, possibly at Caltabellotta, 10m.

north-east of Sciacca. We hear of it even in the Punic Wars as a

fortified post of Acragas (E. A. Freeman, Hist. of Sic. i. 495).

3 The attribution to Demeter is supported by the discovery

of votive terra-cottas, representing Demeter and Kore

in the neighbourhood, while the conjecture that it was

dedicated to the river-god Acragas rests on its position

above the river, in the valley of which, indeed, a

statue which may represent the deity has been discovered.

4 Dimensions in English feet.

5 Polybius ix. 27 keitai to teixos epi petras akrotomon kai

perirrogos e men autofnous e de xeiropoieton.

AGRIMONY (from the Lat. agrimonia, a transformation of

argemone, a word of unknown etymology), a slender perennial

herb (botanical name, agrimonia eupatoria, natural order

Rosaceae), 1 1/2 to 3 ft. high, growing in hedge-banks, copses and

borders of fields. The leafy stem ends in spikes of small yellow

flowers. The flower-stalk becomes recurved in the fruiting

stage, and the fruit bears a number of hooks which enable it

to cling to rough objects, such as the coat of an animal, thus

ensuring distribution of the seed. The plant is common in

Britain and widely spread through the north temperate region.

The underground woody stem is astringent and yields a yellow dye.

The name has been unsystematically given to several

other plants; for instance: bastard, Dutch, hemp or

water agrimony (eupatorium cannabinum); noble or

three-leaved agrimony (anemone hellalica); water agrimony

(bideus); and wild agrimony (potentilla anserina.)

AGRIONIA, an ancient Greek festival, which was celebrated

annually at Orchomenus in Boeotia and elsewhere, in honour

of Dionysus Agrionius, by women and priests at night. The

women, after playfully pretending for some time to search for

the god, desisted, saying that he had hidden himself among the

Muses. The tradition is that the daughters of Minyas, king of

Orchomenus, having despised the rites of the god, were seized

with frenzy and ate the flesh of one of their children. At this

festival it was originally the custom for the priest of the god

to pursue a woman of the Minyan family with a drawn sword and

kill her. (Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 102, Quaest. Graecae 38.)

AGRIPPA, a sceptical philosopher, whose date cannot

be accurately determined. He must have lived later than

Aenesidemus, who is generally said to have been a contemporary of

Cicero. To him are ascribed the five tropes pente tropoi

which, according to Sextus Empiricus, summarize the attitude

of the later ancient sceptics. The first trope emphasizes

the disagreement of philosophers on all fundamental points;

knowledge comes either from the senses or from reason. Some

thinkers hold that nothing is known but the things of sense;

others that the things of reason alone are known; and so

on. It follows that the only wise course is to be content

with an attitude of indifference, neither to affirm nor to

deny. The second trope deals with the validity of proof;

the proof of one so-called fact depends on another fact which

itself needs demonstration, and so on ad infinitum. The

third points out that the data of sense are relative to the

sentient being, those of reason to the intelligent mind; that in

different conditions things themselves are seen or thought to be

different. Where, then, is the absolute criterion? Fourthly,

if we examine things fairly, we see that in point of fact all

knowledge depends on certain hypotheses, or facts taken for

granted. Such knowledge is fundamentally hypothetical,

and might well be accepted as such without the labour of a

demonstration which is logically invalid. The fifth trope

points out the impossibility of proving the sensible by

the intelligible inasmuch as it remains to establish the

intelligible in its turn by the sensible. Such a process is

a vicious circle and has no logical validity. A comparison

of these tropes with the ten tropes enumerated in the article

AENESIDEMUS shows that scepticism has made an advance into

the more abtruse questions of metaphysics. The first and the

third include all the ideas expressed in the ten tropes, and

the other three systematize the more profound difficulties

which new thinkers had developed. Aenesidemus was content

to attack the validity of sense-given knowledge; Agrippa goes

further and impugns the possibility of all truth whatever.

His reasons are those of modern scepticism, the reasons

which by their very nature are not susceptible of disproof.

See Diogenes Laertius x. 88, and Zeller's Greek

Philosophy. Also the articles SCEPTICISM; AENESIDEMUS.

AGRIPPA, HEROD, I. (c. 10 B.C.-A.D. 44), king of Judea,

the son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the

Great, was born about 10 B.C. His original name was Marcus

Julius Agrippa. Josephus informs us that, after the murder

of his father, Herod the Great sent him to Rome to the court

of Tiberius, who conceived a great affection for him, and

placed him near his son Drusus, whose favour he very soon

won. On the death of Drusus, Agrippa, who had been recklessly

extravagant, was obliged to leave Rome, overwhelmed with

debt. After a brief seclusion, Herod the Tetrarch, his uncle,

who had married Herodias, his sister, made him Agoranomos

(Overseer of Markets) of Tiberias, and presented him with

a large sum of money; but his uncle being unwilling to

continue his support, Agrippa left Judea for Antioch and soon

after returned to Rome, where he was welcomed by Tiberius

and became the constant campanion of the emperor Gaius

(Caligula), then a popular favourite. Agrippa being one

day overheard by Eutyches, a slave whom he had made free,

to express a wish for Tiberius' death and the advancement of

Gaius, was betrayed to the emperor and cast into prison.

In A.D. 37 Caligula, having ascended the throne, heaped

wealth and favours upon Agrippa, set a royal diadem upon his

head and gave him the tetrarchy of Batanaea and Trachonitis,

which Philip, the son of Herod the Great, had formerly

possessed. To this he added that held by Lysanias; and Agrippa

returned very soon into Judea to take possession of his new

kingdom. In A.D. 39 he returned to Rome and brought

about the banishment of Herod Antipas, to whose tetrarchy he

succeeded. On the assassination of Caligula (A.D. 41)

Agrippa contributed much by his advice to maintain Claudius

in possession of the imperial dignity, while he made a show

of being in the interest of the senate. The emperor, in

acknowledgment, gave him the government of Judea, while the

kingdom of Chalcis in Lebanon was at his request given to

his brother Herod. Thus Agrippa became one of the greatest

princes of the east, the territory he possessed equalling in

extent that held by Herod the Great. He returned to Judea

and governed it to the great satisfaction of the Jews. His

zeal, private and public, for Judaism is celebrated by

Josephus and the rabbis; and the narrative of Acts xii. gives

a typical example of it. About the feast of the Passover

A.D. 44, James the elder, the son of Zebedee and brother

of John the evangelist, was seized by his order and put to

death. He proceeded also to lay hands on Peter and imprisoned

him. After the Passover he went to Caesarea, where he had

games performed in honour of Claudius, and the inhabitants of

Tyre and Sidon waited on him to sue for peace.. According to

the story in Acts xii., Agrippa, gorgeously arrayed, received

them in the theatre, and addressed them from a throne, while

the audience cried out that his was the voice of a god. But

``the angel of the Lord smote him,'' and shortly afterwards

he died ``eaten of worms.'' The story in Acts differs slightly

from that in Josephus, who describes how in the midst of

his elation he saw an owl perched over his head. During his

confinement by Tiberius a like omen had been interpreted as

portending his speedy release, with the warning that should

he behold the same sight again he would die within' five

days. He was immediately smitten with violent pains, and

after a few days died. Josephus says nothing of his being

``eaten of worms,'' but the discrepancies between the two

stories are of slight moment. A third account omits all the

apocryphal elements in the story and says that Agrippa was

assassinated by the Romans, who objected to his growing power.

See articles in Ency, Bibl. (W. J. Woodhouse),

Jewish Ency. (M. Brann), with further relerences; N.

S. Libowitz, Herod and Agrippa (New York, 2nd ed.,

1898); Gratz, Geschchte d. Juden, iii. 318-361.

AGRIPPA, HEROD, II. (27-100), son of the preceding, and

like him originally Marcus Julius Agrippa, was born about

A.D. 27, and received the tetrarchy of Chalcis and the

oversight of the Temple on the death of his uncle Herod,

A.D. 48. In A.D. 53 he was deprived of that kingdom by

Claudius, who gave him other provinces instead of it. In

the war which Vespasian carried on against the Jews Herod

sent him 2000 men, by which it appears that, though a Jew in

religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the Romans, whose

assistance indeed he required to secure the peace of his own

kingdom. He died at Rome in the third year of . Trajan,

A.D. 100. He was the seventh and last king of the family of

Herod the Great. It was before him and his sister Berenice

(q.v., B.2) that St Paul pleaded his cause at Caesarea (Acts

xxvi.). He supplied Josephus with information for his history.

AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS (63-12 P.C.), Roman statesman and

general, son-in-law and minister of the emperor Augustus,

was of humble origin. He was of the same age as Octavian

(as the emperor was then called), and was studying with him

at Apollonia when news of Julius Caesar's assassination (44)

arrived. By his advice Octavian at once set out for Rome.

Agrippa played a conspicuous part in the war against Lucius, .

brother of Mark Antony, which ended in the capture of Perusia

(40). Two years later he put down a rising of the Aquitallians

in Gaul, and crossed the Rhine to punish the aggressions of the

Germans. On his return he refused a triumph but accepted

the consulship (37). At this time Sextus Pompeius, with whom

war was imminent, had command of the sea on the coasts of

Italy. Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour

for his ships, which he accomplished by cutting through the

strips of land which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the

sea, thus forming an outer harbour; an inner one was also

made by joining the lake Avernus to the Lucrinus (Dio Cassius

xlviii. 49; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxvi. 24). About this time

Agrippa married Pomponia, daughter of Cicero's friend Pomponius

Atticus. Having been appointed naval commander-in-chief he

put his crews through a course of training, until he felt

in a position to meet the fleet of Pompeius. In 36 he was

victorious at Mylae and Naulochus, and received the honour

of a naval crown for his services. In 33 he was chosen

aedile and signalized his tenure of office by effecting great

improvements in the city of Rome, restoring and building

aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the sewers, and constructing

baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also first

gave a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art.

The emperor's boast that he had found the city of brick but

left it of marble (``marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam

accepisset,'' Suet. Aug. 29) might with greater propriety

have been uttered by Agrippa. He was again called away to

take command of the fleet when the war with Antony broke

out. The victory at Actium (31), which gave the mastery of

Rome and the empire of the world to Octavian, was mainly due to

Agrippa. As a token of signal regard Octavian bestowed upon

him the hand of his niece Marcella (28). We must suppose

that his wife Pomponia was either dead or divorced. In 27

Agrippa was consul for the third time, and in the following

year the senate bestowed upon Octavian the emperial title of

Augustus. Probably in commemoration of the battle of Actium,

Agrippa built and dedicated the Pantheum still in existence as La

Rotonda. The inscription on the portico states that it was

erected by him during his third consulship. His friendship

with Augustus seems to have been clouded by the jealousy of

his father-in-law Marcellus, which was probably fomented by

the intrigues of Livia, the second wife of Augustus, who feared

his influence with her husband. The result was that Agrippa

left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governorship of Syria

--a sort of honourable exile; but as a matter of fact he only

sent his legate to the East, while he himself remained at

Lesbos. On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a

year, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could

not dispense with his services. It is said that by the advice

of Maecenas he resolved to attach Agrippa still more closely

to him by making him his son-in-law. He accordingly induced

him to divorce Marcella and marry his daughter Julia (21),

the widow of Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty

and abilities and her shameless profligacy. In 19 Agrippa

was employed in putting down a rising of the Cantabrians in

Spain. He was appointed governor of Syria a second time

(17), where his just and prudent administration won him the

respect and good-will of the provincials, especially the Hebrew

population. His last public service was the bloodless

suppression of an insurrection in Pannonia (13). He died

at Campania in March of the year following his fifty-first

year. Augustus honoured his memory by a magnificent funeral.

Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on

geography. Under his supervision Julius Caesar's design

of having a complete survey of the empire made was carried

out. From the materials at hand he constructed a circular

chart, which was engraved on marble by Augustus and afterwards

placed in the colonnade built by his sister Polla. Amongst

his writings an autobiography, now lost, is referred

to. Agrippa left several children; by Pomponia, a daughter

Vipsania, who became the wife of the emperor Tiberius; by Julia

three sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar and Agrippa Postumus, and

two daughters, Agrippina the elder, afterwards the wife of

Germanicus, and Julia, who married Lucius Aemihus Pauilus.

See Dio Cassius xlix.-liv.; Suetonius, Augustus; Velleius

Paternulus ii.; Josephus, Antiq. Jud. xv. 10, xvi. 2;

Turnbull, Three Dissertations, one of the characters of

Horace, Augustus and Agrippa (1740); Frandsen, Marcus

Vipsanius Agrippa (1836); Motte, Etude sur Marcus

Agrippa (1872); Nispi-Landi, Marcus Agrippa e suoi

tempi (1901); D. Detlefsen, Ursprung, Einrichtung und

Bedeutung der Erdkarte Agrippas (1906); V. Gardthausen,

Augustus und seine Zeit, vol. i. 762 foll., ii. 432 foll.

AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, HENRY CORNELIUS (1486-1535) German

writer, soldier, physician, and by common reputation a magician,

belonged to a family many members of which had been in the

service of the house of Habsburg, and was born at Cologne on

the 14th of September 1486. The details of his early life are

somewhat obscure, but he appears to have obtained a knowledge

of eight languages, to have studied at the university of

Cologne and to have passed some time in France. When quite

young he entered the service of the German king, Maximilian

I., and in 1508 was engaged in an adventurous enterprise in

Catalonia. He probably served Maximilian both as soldier

and as secretary, but his wonderful and varied genius was not

satisfied with these occupations, and he soon began to take

a lively interest in theosophy and magic. In 1509 he went to

the university of Dole, where he lectured on John Reuchlin's

De Verbo Mirifico, but his teaching soon caused charges

of heresy to be brought against him, and he was denounced

by a monk named John Catilinet in lectures delivered at

Ghent. As a result Agrippa was compelled to leave Dole;

proceeding to the Netherlands he took service again with

Maximilian. In 1510 the king sent him on a diplomatic mission

to England, where he was the guest of Colet, dean of St Paul's,

and where he replied to the accusations brought against him by

Catilinet. Returning to Cologne he followed Maximilian to

Italy in 1511, and as a theologian attended the council of

Pisa, which was called by some cardinals in opposition to a

council called by Pope Julius II. He remained in Italy for

seven years, partly in the service of William VI., marquis of

Monferrato, and partly in that of Charles III., duke of Savoy,

probably occupied in teaching theology and practising medicine.

In 1515 he lectured at the university of Pavia on the Pimander

of Hermes Trismegistus, but these lectures were abruptly

terminated owing to the victories of Francis I., king of

France. In 1518 the efforts of one or other of his patrons

secured for Agrippa the position of town advocate and orator,

or syndic, at Metz. Here, as at Dole, his opinions soon

brought him into collision with the monks, and his defence

of a woman accused of witchcraft involved him in a dispute

with the inquisitor, Nicholas Savin. The consequence of

this was that in 1520 he resigned his office and returned to

Cologne, where he stayed about two years. He then practised

for a short time as a physician at Geneva and Freiburg,

but in 1524 went to Lyons on being appointed physician to

Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I. In 1528 he gave up this

position, and about this time was invited to take part in

the dispute over the legality of the divorce of Catherine

of Aragon by Henry VIII.; but he preferred an offer made by

Margaret, duchess of Savoy and regent of the Netherlands, and

became archivist and historiographer to the emperor Charles

V. Margaret's death in 1530 weakened his position, and the

publication of some of his writings about the same time aroused

anew the hatred of his enemies; but after suffering a short

imprisonment for debt at Brussels he lived at Cologne and

Bonn, under the protection of Hermann of Wied, archbishop of

Cologne. By publishing his works he brought himself into

antagonism with the Inquisition, which sought to stop

the printing of De occulta philosophia. He then went to

France, where he was arrested by order of Francis I. for

some disparaging words about the queen-mother; but he was

soon released, and on the 18th of February 1535 died at

Grenoble. He was married three times and had a large

family. Agrippa was a man of great ability and undoubted

courage, but he lacked perseverance and was himself responsible

for many of his misfortunes. In spite of his inquiring

nature and his delight in novelty, he remained a Catholic, and

had scant sympathy with the teaching of the reformers. His

memory was nevertheless long defamed in the writings of the

monks, who placed a malignant inscription over his grave.

Agrippa's work, De occulta philosophia, was written about

1510, partly under the influence of the author's friend, John

Trithemius, abbot of Wurzburg, but its publication was delayed

until 1531, when it appeared at Antwerp. It is a defence

of magic, by means of which men may come to a knowledge of

nature and of God, and contains Agrippa's idea of the universe

with its three worlds or spheres. His other principal work,

De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum et Artium Atque

Excellentia Verbi Dei Declamatio, was written about 1527

and published at Antwerp in 1531. This is a sarcastic attack

on the existing sciences and on the pretensions of learned

men. In it Agrippa denounces the accretions which had grown

up around the simple doctrines of Christianity, and wishes

for a return to the primitive belief of the early Christian

church. He also wrote De Nobilitate et Praecellentia Deminei

Sexus, dedicated to Margaret of Burgundy, De Matrimonii

Sacramento and other smaller works. An edition of his

works was published at Leiden in 1550 and they have been

republished several times. See H. Morley, Life of H. C.

Agrippa (London, 1856); A. Prost, Les Sciences at les arts

occultes au xvi. Siecle: Corneille Agrippa sa vie et ses

oeuvres (Paris, 1881); A. Daguet, Cornelius Agrippa (Paris, 1856).

AGRIPPINA, the ``elder,'' daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa

by his third wife Julia, was the grand-daughter of Augustus

and the wife of Germanicus. She accompanied her husband to

Germany, when the legions on the Rhine revolted after the

death of Augustus (A.D. 14). Three years later she was in

the East with Germanicus (q.v.), who died at Antioch in

19, poisoned, it was said, by order of Cn. Calpurnius Piso,

governor of Syria. Eager to avenge his death, she returned

to Rome and boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus.

To avoid public infamy Piso committed suicide. Tiberius and

his favourite Sejanus feared that her ambition might lead

her to attempt to secure the throne for her children, and

she was banished to the island of Pandataria off the coast of

Campania, where she died on the 18th of October 33, starved

to death by herself, or, according to some, by order of

Tiberius. Two of her sons, Nero and Drusus, had already

fallen victims to the machinations cf Sejanus. Agrippina

had a large family by Germanicus, several of whom died young,

while only two are of importance-- Agrippina the ``younger''

and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded Tiberius under the name of

Caligula. It is remarkable that, although Tiberius had

ordored the execution of his elder brothers, by his will he

left Caligula one of the heirs of the empire. Agrippina was

a woman of the highest character and exemplary morality.

There is a portrait of her in the Capitoline Museum at Rome,

and a bronze medal in the British Museum representing the

bringing back of her ashes to Rome by order of Caligula.

See Tac. Ann. i.-vi.; Suetonius, Tiberius, 53; Dio Cassius

lvii. 6, lviii. 22, lix. 3; Elizabeth Hamilton, Memoirs

of the Life of Agrippina (1804): Burkhard, Agrippina, des

Agrippa Tochter (1846); Stahr, Romische Kaiserfrauen (1880).

AGRIPPINA, the ``younger'' (A.D. 16-59), daughter of

Germanicus and Agrippina the elder, sister of Caligula and

mother of Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the Rhine,

afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae (mod.

Cologne). Her life was notorious for intrigue and perfidy.

By her first husband, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, she was the

mother of the emperor Nero; her second husband was Passienus

Crispus, whom she was accused of poisoning. Assisted by

the influential freedman Tallas, she induced her uncle the

emperor Claudius to marry her after the death of Messalina,

and adopt the future Nero as heir to the throne in place of

Britannicus. Soon afterwards she poisoned Claudius and secured

the throne for her son, with the intention of practically

ruling on his behalf. Being alarmed at the influence of

the freedwoman Acte over Nero, sbe threatened to support

the claims of the rightful heir Britannicus. Nero thereupon

murdered the young prince and decided to get rid of his

mother. Pretending a reconciliation, he invited her to

Baiae, where an attempt was made to drown her on a vessel

especially constructed to founder. As this proved a failure,

he had her put to death at her country house. Agrippina

wrote memoirs of her times, referred to by Tacitus (Ann.

iv. 53). Her character is set forth in Racine's Britannicus.

See Tac.Ann. xii., xiii., xiv.; Dio Cassius lix.-lxi.; Suetonius,

NERO, 34; Stahr, Agrippina. die Mutter Neros (1880); Raffay, Die

Memoiren der Kaiserin Agrippina (1884); B. W. Henderson, The Life

and Principate of the Emperor Nero (1903); also article NERO.

AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival held at Agrae near

Athens, in honour of Artemis Agrotera, in fulfilment of

a vow made by the city, before the battle of Marathon,

to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that

of the Persians slain in the conflict. The number being

so great, it was decided to offer 100 goats yearly.

See Plutarch, De Malignitate Herodoti, 26; Xenophon, Anab. iii. 2.

12; Aelian, Var. Hist. ii. 25; Schol. on Aristophanes, Equites, 660.

AGUADILLA, a town and port near the northern extremity

of the W. coast of Porto Rico. Pop. (1899) 6425. It has

a fairly good and safe anchorage, and is the commercial

outlet for a very fertile agricultural district. The town

is attractively situated and well built, and is connected

by railway with Mayaguez, 20 m. distant, and also with

Ponce and San Juan. The neighbouring district produces

sugar-cane, tobacco, cattle, cocoanuts, oranges and lemons.

The bay is supposed to have been first visited by Columbus

(November 1493), though the town was not founded until 1775.

AGUADO, ALEXANDRE MARIE, marquis de Las Marismas del

Guadalquivir, viscount de Monte Ricco (1784-1842), Spanish

banker, was born of Jewish parentage at Seville, on the 29th

of June 1784. He began life as a soldier, fighting with

distinction in the Spanish war of independence on the side

of Joseph Bonaparte. After the battle of Baylen (1808) he

entered the French army, in which he rose to be colonel and

aide-de-camp to Marshal Soult. He was exiled in 1815, and

immediately started business as a commission-agent in Paris,

where, chiefly through his family connexions in Havana and

Mexico, he acquired in a few years enough wealth to enable

him to undertake banking. The Spanish government gave him

full powers to negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830 and

1831; and Ferdinand VII. rewarded him with the title of

marquis, the decorations of several orders and valuable mining

concessions in Spain. Aguado also negotiated the Greek loan of

1834. In 1828, having become possessed of large estates in

France, including the chateau Margaux, famous for its wine,

he was naturalized as a French citizen. He died at Gijon in

Spain on the 14th of April 1842, leaving a fortune computed

at 60,000,000 francs, and a splendid collection of pictures

which at his death was bought by the French government.

AGUASCALIENTES, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N., E.

and W. by the state of Zacatecas, and S. by Jalisco. Pop.

(est. 1900) 102,416, a gradual decrease since the census

years of 1895 and 1879; area, 2970 sq. m. The state occupies

an elevated plateau, extending from two spurs of the Sierra

Madre, called the Sierra Fria and Sierra de Laurel, eastward

to the rolling fertile plains of its eastern and south-eastern

districts. It is well watered by numerous small streams and

one larger river, the Aguascalientes or Rio Grande, and has

a mild healthy climate with a moderate rainfall. The fertile

valleys of the north and west are devoted to agriculture

and the plains to stockraising. Indian corn, flour, cattle,

horses, mules and hides are exported to the neighbouring

states. Mining industries are still undeveloped, but considerable

progress has been made in manufactures, especially of textile

fabrics. The state has good railway communications and a

prosperous trade. The capital, Aguascalientes, named from

the medicinal hot springs near it, is a flourishing commercial

and manufacturing city. Pop. (est. 1900) 35,052. It has

cotton factories, smelting works, potteries. tanneries,

distilleries, and wagon and tobacco factories. It is a station

on the Mexican Central railway, 364 m. by rail north-west of

the city of Mexico, and is connected by rail with Tampico on

the Gulf of Mexico. The city is well built, has many fine

churches and good public buildings, street cars and electric

lights. The surrounding district is well cultivated and

produces an abundance of fruit and vegetables. Other prominent

towns of the state are Rincon de Romos (or Victoria de

Calpulalpam), Asientos de Ibarra and Calvillo, the first

having more and the others less than 5000 inhabitants.

AGUE (from Lat. acuta, sharp; sc. febris, fever), the

common name given to a form or stage of malarial disease;

the ague fit is the cold, shivering stage, and hence the

word is also loosely used for any such paroxysm. Simple

ague is of much the same type whether in temperate or

tropical climates, and may take various forms (quotidian,

tertian, quartan), passing into ``remittent fever.'' The

symptoms are discussed, together with causation, &c., in

the article MALARIA. For ``brow-ague'' see NEURALGIA.

AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D' (1668-1751), chancellor of

France, illustrious for his virtues, learning and talents,

was born at Limoges, of a family of the magistrature. His

father, Henri d' Aguesseau, a hereditary councillor of the

parlement of Metz, was a man of singular ability and breadth

of view who, after holding successively the posts of intendant

of Limousin, Guyenne and Languedoc, was in 1685 called to

Paris as councillor of state, appointed director-general of

commerce and manufactures in 1695, president of the council of

commerce in 1700 and a member of the council of the regency for

finance. By him Francois d'Aguesseau was early initiated into

affairs and brought up in religious principles deeply tinged with

Jansenism. He studied law under Jean Domat, whose influence is

apparent in both the legal writings and legislative work of the

chancellor. When little more than twenty-one years of age he

was, through his father's influence with the king, appointed

one of the three advocates-general to the parlement of Paris;

and the eloquence and learning which he displayed in his first

speech gained him a very high reputation. D'Aguesseau was in

fact the first great master of forensic eloquence in France.

In 1700 he was appointed procurator-general; and in this

office, which he filled for seventeen years, he gained

the greatest popularity by his defence of the rights of

the Gallican Church in the Quietist troubles and in those

connected with the bull Unigenitus (see JANSENISM.) In

February 1717 he was made chancellor by the regent Orleans;

but was deprived of the seals in January of the following

year and exiled to his estate of Fresnos in Brie, on account

of his steady opposition to the projects of the famous John

Law, which had been adopted by the regent and his ministers.

In June 1720 he was recalled to satisfy public opinion; and

he contributed not a little by the firmness and sagacity of

his counsels to calm the public disturbance and repair the

mischief which had been done. Law himself had acted as the

messenger of his recall; and it is said that d'Aguesseau's

consent to accept the seals from his hand greatly diminished his

popularity. The parlement continuing its opposition to the

registering of the bull UNIGENITUS, d'Aguesseau, fearing

a schism and a religious war in France, assisted Guillaume

Dubois, the favourite of the regent, in his endeavour to force

the parlement to register the bull, acquiesced in the exile

of the magistrates and allowed the Great Council to assume the

power of registration, which legally belonged to the parlement

alone. The people unjustly attributed his conduct to a base

compliance with the favourite. He certainly opposed Dubois

in other matters; and when Dubois became chief minister

d'Aguesseau was deprived of his office (March 1, 1722).

He retired to his estate, where he passed five years of which

he always spoke with delight. The Scriptures, which he read

and compared in various languages, and the jurisprudence

of his own and other countries, formed the subjects of his

more serious studies; the rest of his time was devoted to

philosophy, literature and gardening. From these occupations

he was recalled to court by the advice of Cardinal Fleury in

1727, and on the 15th of August was named chancellor for the

third time, but the seals were not restored to him till ten

years later. During these years he endeavoured to mediate

in the disputes between the court and the parlement. When

he was at last reinstated in office, he completely withdrew

from all political affairs, and devoted himself entirely

to his duties as chancellor and to the achievement of those

reforms which had long occupied his thoughts. He aimed,

as others had tried before him, to draw up in a single code

all the laws of France, but was unable to accomplish his

task. Besides some important enactments regarding donations,

testaments and successions, he introduced various regulations

for improving the forms of procedure, for ascertaining

the limits of jurisdictions and for effecting a greater

uniformity in the execution of the laws throughout the several

provinces. These reforms constitute an epoch in the

history of French jurisprudence, and have placed the name

of d'Aguesseau in the same rank with those of L'Hopital and

Lamoignon. As a magistrate also he was so conscientious

that the duc de Saint-Simon in his Memoirs complained that

he spent too much time over the cases that came before him.

In 1750, when upwards of eighty-two years of age, d'Aguesseau

retired from the duties without giving up the rank of

chancellor. He died on the 9th of February of the following year.

His grandson, HENRI CARDIN JEAN BAPTISTE, MARQUIS D'AGUESSEAU

(1746-1826), was advocate-general in the parlement of Paris

and deputy in the Estates-General. Under the Consulate he

became president of the court of appeal and later minister at

Copenhaaen. He was elected to the French Academy in 1787.

Of d'Aguesseau's works the most complete edition is that

of the eminent lawyer Jean Marie Pardessus, published in 16

vols. (1818-1820); his letters were edited separately by Rives

(1823); a selection of his works, OEuvres Choisies, was

issued, with a biographical notice, by E. Falconnet in 2 vols.

(Paris, 1865). The far greater part of his works relate to

matters connected with his profession, hut they also contain

an elaborate treatise on money; several theological essays;

a life of his father, which is interesting from the account

which it gives of his own early education; and Metaphysical

Meditations, written to prove that, independently of

all revelation and all positive law, there is that in the

constitution of the human mind which renders man a law to himself.

See Boullee, Histoire de la vie et les ouvrages de

chancelier d'Aguesseau (Paris, 1835); Fr. Monnier, Le

Chancelier d'Aguesseau (Paris, 1860; 2nd ed., 1863); Charles

Butler, Mem. of Life of H. F. d'Aguesseau, &c. (1830).

AGUILAR, GRACE (1816-1847), English writer, the daughter of

a Jewish merchant in London, was born in June 1816. Her works

consist chiefly of religious fiction, such as The Vale of

Cedars (1850) and Home Influence (1847). She also wrote,

in defence of her faith and its professors, The Spirit of

Judaism (1842) and other works. Her services were acknowledged

gratefully by the ``women of Israel'' in a testimonial which

they presented shortly before her death, which took place

at Frankfort-on-the-Main on the 16th of September 1847.

AGUILAR, or AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern

Spain, in the province of Cordova; near the small river

Cabra, and on the Cordova-Malaga railway. Pop. (1900)

13,236. Aguilar ``of the Frontier'' was so named in the

middle ages from its position on the border of the Moorish

territories, which were defended by the castle of Anzur, now

a ruin; but the spacious squares and modern houses of the

existing town retain few vestiges of Moorish dominion. The

olives and white wine of Aguilar are celebrated in Spain,

although the wine, which somewhat resembles sherry, is known

as Montilla, from the adjacent town of that name. Salt

springs exist in the neighbourhood, and to the south there

are two small lakes, Zonar and Rincon, which abound in fish.

AGUILAS, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province of

Murcia, on the Mediterranean Sea, at the terminus of a railway from

Huercal-Overa. Pop. (1900) 15,868. Aguilas is built on the

landward side of a small peninsula, between two bays--the Puerto

Ponente, a good harbour, on the south-west, and the Puerto

Levanto, which is somewhat dangerous to shipping in rough

weather, on the north-east. It is the chief outlet for the

Spanish trade in esparto grass, and for the iron ore and other

mineral products of the neighbourhood. It has also some trade

in fruit and grain. The imports consist chiefly of coal. In

1904, 296 vessels, of 238,274 tons, cleared at this port.

AGUILERA, VENTURA RUIZ (1820-1881), Spanish poet, was born in

1820 at Salamanca, where he graduated in medicine. He removed

to Madrid in 1844, engaged in journalism and won considerable

popularity with a collection of poems entitled Ecos Nacionales

(1849). His Elegias y armonias (1863) was no less

successful, but his Satiras (1874) and Estaciones del ano

(1879) showed that his powers were declining. He wrote under

the obvious influence of Lamartine, preaching the gospel of

liberalism and Christianity in verses which, though deficient in

force, leave the impression of a sincere devotion and a charming

personality. He became director of the national archaeological

museum at Madrid, where he died on the 1st of July 1881.

AGUILLON (AGUILONIUS), FRANCOIS D, (1566-1617), Flemish

mathematician. Having entered the Society of Jesus in

1586, he was successively professor of philosophy at Douai

and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp. He wrote a

treatise on optics in six books (Antwerp, 1613), notable

for containing the principles of stereographic projection.

AHAB (in Heb. ``father's brother''), king of Israel, the son

and successor of Omri, ascended the throne about 875 B.C.

(1 Kings xvi. 29-34). He married Jezebel, the daughter of

the king of Sidon, and the alliance was doubtless the means

of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury

in their train. We read of his building an ivory palace and

founding new cities, the effect perhaps of a share in the

flourishing commerce of Phoenicia.1 The material prosperity

of his reign, which is comparable with that of Solomon a

century before, was overshadowed by the religious changes

which his marriage involved. Although he was a worshipper of

Yahweh, as the names of his children prove (cp. also xxii. 5

seq.), his wife was firmly attached to the worship of the

Tyrian Baal, Melkart, and led by her he gave a great impulse

to this cult by building a temple in honour of Baal in

Samaria. This roused the indignation of those prophets

whose aim it was to purify the worship of Yahweh (see

ELIJAH.) During Ahab's reign Moab, which had been conquered

by his father, remained tributary; Judah, with whose king,

Jehoshaphat, he was allied by marriage, was probably his

vassal; only with Damascus is he said to have had strained

relations. The one event mentioned by external sources is the

battle at Karkar (perhaps Apamea), where Shalmaneser II. of

Assyria fought a great confederation of princes from Cilicia,

N. Syria, Israel, Ammon and the tribes of the Syrian desert

(854 B.C..) Here Ahabbu Sir'lai (Ahab the Israelite) with

Baasha, son of Ruhub (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are

allied with Bir-'idri (Ben-hadad), Ahab's contribution being

reckoned at 2000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are

comparatively large and possibly include forces from Tyre,

Judah, Edom and Moab. The Assyrian king claimed a victory,

but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849

and 846 against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to

show that he met with no lasting success. According to the

Old Testament narratives, however, Ahab with 7000 troops had

previously overthrown Ben-hadad and his thirty-two kings, who

had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year

obtained a remarkable victory over him at Aphek, probably in

the plain of Sharon (1 Kings xx.) . A treaty was made whereby

Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from

Ahab's father (i.e. Omri, but see xv. 20, 2 Kings xiii.

25), and trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were

granted. A late popular story (xx. 35-42, akin in tone to xii.

33-xiii. 34) condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the

destruction of the king and his land. Three years later, war

broke out on the east of Jordan, and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of

Judah went to recover Ramoth-Gilead and was mortally wounded

(xxii.). He was succeeded by his sons (Ahaziah and Jehoram).

It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order

of these events (LXX. places 1 Kings xxi. immediately after

xix.). How the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to

fight a common enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and

Biblical records, are questions which have perplexed all recent

writers. The reality of the difficulties will be apparent from

the fact that it has been suggested that the Assyrian scribe

wrote ``Ahab'' for his son ``Jehoram'' (Kamphausen, Chronol. d.

hebr. Kon., Kittel), and that the very identification of

the name with Ahab of Israel has been questioned (Horner,

Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., 1898, p. 244).2 Whilst the above

passages in 1 Kings view Ahab not unfavourably, there are

others which give a less friendly picture. The tragic murder

of Naboth (see JEZEBEL), an act of royal encroachment,

stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused

the opposition of certain of the prophets. The latter found

their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic

teaching of more than one age. (See KINGS.) His denunciation

of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the

worship of Yahweh and Yahweh alone, form the keynote to a

period which culminated in the accession of Jehu, an event in

which Elijah's chosen disciple Elisha was the leading figure.

The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab

in Mic. vi. 16 may point to legislative measures of these

kings, and the reference to the incidents at the building

of Jericho (1 Kings xvi. 34) may be taken to show that

foundation sacrifices, familiar in nearly all parts of the

world, were not unknown in Israel at this period.3 This

has in fact been confirmed by excavation in Palestine.

Another Ahab is known only as an impious prophet in the

time of the Babylonian exile (Jer. xxix. 21). (S. A. C.)

1 Ahab's ivory palace found its imitators (1 Kings xxii. 39;

Am. iii. 15). The ivory was probably brought by the Phoenicians

from Cyprus or from one of the works on the coast of Asia Minor.

2 See the discussions by Cheyne, Ency. Bib.

col. 91 seq., and by Whitehouse, Dict Bib. i. 53.

3 See Trumbull, Threshold Covenant, pp. 46 sqq.;

Haddon, Study of Man, pp. 347 sqq.; P. Sartori,

Zeitschr. fur Ethnologie, 1898, pp. 1 seq.

'AHAI, of Sabha, an 8th-century Talmudist of high renown.

He was author of Quaestiones (Sheiltoth), a collection

of homilies (at once learned and popular) on Jewish law and

ethics. This is recorded to have been the first work written

by a Jewish scholar after the completion of the Talmud.

AHASUERUS (the Latinized form of the Hebrew shin vav resh

tsareh vav shvah shin patach heth patach aleph; in LXX.

`Assoueros, once in Tobit `Asueros)), a royal Persian or

Median name occurring in three of the books of the Old Testament

and in one of the books of the Apocrypha. In every case the

identification of the person named is a matter of controversy.

In Dan. ix. 1 Ahasuerus is the father of Darius the Mede,

who ``was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans'' after

the conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. Who this

Darius was is one of the most difficult questions in ancient

history. Nabonidos (Nabunaid, Nabu-nahid) was immediately

succeeded by Cyrus, who ruled the whole Persian empire.

Darius may possibly have acted under Cyrus as governor of

Babylon, but this view is not favoured by Dan. vi. 1, vi.

25, for Darius (v. 31) is said to have been sixty-two

years old at the time (638 B.C.) . This would make him

contemporary with Nebuchadrezzar, which agrees with Tob. xiv.

15, where we read ``of the destruction of Nineveh, which

Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus took captive.'' As a matter of

fact, however, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar were the conquerors

of Nineveh, and the latter was the father of Nebuchadrezzar.

Cyrus did, on ascending the throne of Babylon, appoint a

governor of the province, but his name was Gobryas, the son of

Mardonius. The truth is, no doubt, as Prof. Sayce points

out, that the book of Daniel was not meant to be strictly

historical. As Prof. Driver says, ``tradition, it can

hardly be doubted, has here confused persons and events in

reality distinct'' (Literature of the Old Test. (6) p. 500).

In Ezra iv. 6 Ahasuerus is mentioned as a king of Persia, to

whom the enemies of the Jews sent representations opposing

the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem. Here the sequence

of the reigns in the Biblical writer and in the profane

historians-- in the one, Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius;

in the other, Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius--led in the past

(Ewald, &c.) to the identification of Ahasuerus with Cambyses

(529--522 B.C.), son of Cyrus. The name Khshayarsha,

however, has been found in Persian inscriptions, and has been

thought to be equivalent to the Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) of the

Greeks. On Babylonian tablets both the forms Khishiarshu

and Akkashiarshi occur amongst others. Modern scholars,

therefore, identify the Ahasuerus of Ezra with Xerxes.

In the book of Esther the king of Persia is called Ahasuerus

(rendered in LXX. ``Artaxerxes'' throughout). The identification

of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, the son and successor

of Xerxes, though countenanced by Josephus, deserves little

consideration. Most students are agreed that he must be a

monarch of the Achaemenian dynasty, earlier than Artaxerxes

I.; and opinion is divided between Darius Hystaspes and

Xerxes. In support of the former view it is alleged, among

other things, that Darius was the first Persian king of whom

it could be said, as in Esther i. 1, that he ``reigned from

India even unto Ethiopia, over an hundred and seven and twenty

provinces''; and that it was also the distinction of Darius

that (Esther x. 1) he laid ``a tribute upon the land and upon

the isles of the sea'' (cf. Herod. iii. 89). In support of

the identification with Xerxes it is alleged (1) that the

Hebrew Ahashverosh is the natural equivalent of the old

Persian Khshayarsha, the true name of Xerxes; (2) that

there is a striking similarity of character between the Xerxes

of Herodotus and the Ahasuerus of Esther; (3) that certain

coincidences in dates and events corroborate this identity,

as, e.g., the feast in the king's third year (cf. Esther

i. 3 with Herod. vii. 8), the return of Xerxes to Susa in

the seventh year of his reign and the marriage of Ahasuerus

at Shushan in the same year of his. To this it may be added

that the interval of four years between the divorce of Vashti

and the marriage of Esther is well accounted for by the

intervention of an important series of events fully occupying

the monarch's thoughts, such as the invasion of Greece.

See articles ``Ahasuerus'' in the Encyclopaedia Biblica,

Hastings' Dictionary, the Jewish Encyclopaedis; S.

R. Driver, Introd. to the Lit. of the Old Test.;

Friedrich Delitzsch in the Calwer Bibellexikon (1893).

AHAZ (Heb. for ``[Yahweh] holds''), son of Jotham, grandson

of Uzziah or Azariah and king of Judah. After the death of

Menahem, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin (rather Rasun), king of

Syria, allied against Assyria, invaded Judah, and laid siege to

Jerusalem in the hope of setting up one of their puppets upon the

throne. At the same time the Edomites recovered Elath on the

Gulf of Akabah (so read in 2 Kings xvi. 6; cp. also 2 Chron.

xxviii. 16 sqq.) and Judah was isolated. Notwithstanding

the counsel of Isaiah (Is. vii. 1-17), Ahaz lost heart and

used the temple funds to call in the aid of Tiglath-pileser

IV., who after attacking the Philistines destroyed the power

of Syria, taking care to exact heavy tribute from Judah,

which led to further despoliation of the temple. It was as

a vassal that Ahaz presented himself to the Assyrian king at

Damascus, and he brought back religious innovations (2 Kings

xvi. 10 sqq.; for the priest Urijah see Is. viii. 2) and new

ideas to which he proceeded to give effect. His buildings

are referred to in 2 Kings xx. 11, xxiii. 12; cf. perhaps

Jer. xxii. 15: ``art thou a true king because thou viest with

Ahaz'' (see the LXX.). Ahaz was succeeded by his son Hezekiah.

On the ritual changes which he introduced see W. R. Smith,

Relig. of Semites (2), pp. 485 sqq.; and on his reign, idem,

Prophets of Israel (2), pp. 415 sqq. On 2 Kings xvi. 3 (cf.

2 Chron. xxviii. 3) see Moloch. See further Isaiah and Jews.

AHAZIAH (``he whom Yahweh sustains''), the name of two

kings in the Bible, one of Israel, the other of Judah. (1)

Ahaziah, 8th king of Israel, was the son and successor of

Ahab, and reigned for less than two years. On his accession

the Moabites refused any longer to pay tribute. Ahaziah lost

his life through a fall from the lattice of an upper room in

his palace, and it is stated that in his illness he sent to

consult the oracle of Baal-zebub at Ekron; his messengers,

however, were met by Elijah, who bade them return and tell the

king he must die (e Kings i. 2-17; cf. Luke ix. 54-56). (2)

Ahaziah, 6th king of Judah, was the son cf Jehoram and Ahab's

daughter Athaliah, and reigned one year. He is described as

a wicked and idolatrous king, and was slain by Jehu, son of

Nimshi. He is variously called Jehoahaz and Azariah.

AHENOBARBUS (``brazen-bearded''), the name cf a plebeian

Roman family of the gens Domitia. The name was derived

from the red beard and hair by which many of the family were

distinguished. Amongst its members the following may be mentioned:--

GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, tribune of the people 104 B.C.,

brought forward a law (lex Domitia de Sacerdotiis) by which

the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by

the people in the comitia tributa (seventeen of the tribes

voting) instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by

Sulla, revived by Julius Caesar and (perhaps) again repealed

by Marcus Antonius, the triumvir (Cicero, De Lege Agraria,

ii. 7; Suetonius, Nero, 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex

maximus in 103, consul in 96 and censor in 92 with Lucius

Licinius Crassus the orator, with whom he was frequently at

variance. They took joint action, however, in suppressing

the recently established Latin rhetorical schools, which they

regarded as injurious to public morality (Aulus Gellius xv. 11).

LUCIUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, husband of

Porcia the sister of Cato Uticensis, friend of Cicero and

enemy of Caesar, and a strong supporter of the aristocratical

party. At first strongly opposed to Pompey, he afterwards sided

with him against Caesar. He was consul in 54 B.C., and in 49

he was appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of

Gaul. After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the

Pompeian troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender.

Although treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred

up Massilia (Marseilles) to an unsuccessful resistance against

him. After its surrender, he joined Pompey in Greece and was

slain in the flight after the battle of Pharsalus, in which he

commanded the right wing against Antony (Caesar, Bellum Civile,

i., ii., iii.; Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, B.C. ii. 82).

GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, accompanied his

father at Corfinium and Pharsalus, and, having been pardoned by

Caesar, returned to Rome in 46. After Caesar's assassination

he attached himself to Brutus and Cassius, and in 43 was

condemned by the lex Pedia as having been implicated in the

plot. He obtained considerable naval successes in the

Ionian Sea against the triumvirate, but finally, through the

mediation of Asinius Pollio, became reconciled to Antony,

who made him governor of Bithynia. He took part in Antony's

Parthian campaigns, and was consul in 32. When war broke out

between Antony and Octavian, he at first supported Antony,

but, disgusted with his intrigue with Cleopatra, went over

to Octavian shortly before the battle of Actium (31). He

died soon afterwards (Dio Cassius xlviii.-l; Appian, Bell.

Civ. iv., v.). His son was married to Antonia, daughter

of Antony, and became the grandfather of the emperor Nero.

See Drumann, Geschichte Rom., 2nd ed. by Groebe,vol. iii. pp.14 ff.

AHITHOPHEL (Heb. for ``brother of foolishness,'' i.e.

foolish!), a man of Judah whose son was a member of David's

bodyguard. He was possibly the grandfather of Bathsheiba (see

2 Sam. xi. 3, xxiii. 34), a view which has been thought to

have some bearing on his policy. He was one of David's most

trusted advisers, and his counsel was ``as though one inquired

of the word of God.'' He took a leading part in Absalom's

revolt, and his defection was a severe blow to the king, who

prayed that God would bring his counsel to ``foolishness.''

The subsequent events are rather obscure. At Ahithophel's

advice Absalom first took the precaution of asserting his

claim to the throne by seizing his father's concubines (cf.

ABNER.) The immediate pursuit of David was then suggested;

the advice was accepted, and the sequence of events shows

that the king, being warned of this, fled across the Jordan

(2 Sam. xvi. 20-23, xvii. 1-4, 22). Inconsistent with

this is the account of the intervention of Hushai, whose

counsel of delay (in order to gather all Israel ``from Dan

to Beersheba''), in spite of popular approbation, was not

adopted, and with this episode is connected the tradition

that the sagacious counsellor returned to his home and,

having disposed of his estate, hanged himself. Instances of

suicide are rare in the Old Testament (cf. SAUL), and it

is noteworthy that in this case, at least, a burial was not

refused. (See further ABSALOM; DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.)

AHMAD IBN HANBAL (780-855), the founder, involuntarily and

after his death, of the Hanbalite school of canon law, was

born at Bagdad in A.H. 164 (A.D. 780) of parents from Merv

but of Arab stock. He studied the Koran and its traditions

(hadith, sunna) there and on a student journey through

Mesopotamia, Arabia and Syria. After his return to Bagdad he

studied under ash-Shafi'i between 195 and 198, and became,

for his life, a devoted Shafi-'ite. But his position in both

theology and law was more narrowly traditional than that of

ash-Shafi'i; he rejected all reasoning, whether orthodox

or heretical in its conclusions, and stood for acceptance on

tradition (naql) only from the Fathers. (See further on this,

MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION and MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) In consequence,

when al-Ma'mun and, after him, al-Mo'tasim and al-Wathio

tried to force upon the people the rationalistic Mo'tazihte

doctrine that the Koran was created, Ibn Hanbal, the most

prominent and popular theologian who stood for the old view,

suffered with others grievous imprisonment and scourging.

In 234, under al-Motawakkil, the Koran was finally decreed

uncreated, and Ibn Hanbal, who had come through this trial

better than any of the other theologians, enjoyed an immense

popularity with the mass of the people as a saint, confessor and

ascetic. He died at Bagdad in 241 (A.D. 855) and was buried

there. There was much popular excitement at his funeral, and his

tomb was known and visited until at least the 14th century A.D.

On his great work, the Musnad, a collection of some thirty

thousand selected traditions, see Goldzther in ZDMG, l. 463

ff. For his life and works generally see W. M. Patten, Ahmed

ibn Hanbal and the Mihna; C. Browkelmann, Geschichte der

Arab. Lit. i. 181 ff.; F Wustenfeld, Schfai'iten, 55 ff.;

M`G. de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khallikan, i. 44 ff.; Macdonald,

Development of Muslim Theology, 110, 157, index. (D. B. MA.)

AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773), founder of the Durani dynasty in

Afghanistan, was the son of Sammaun-Khan, hereditary chief of

the Abdali tribe. While still a boy Ahmad fell into the hands

of the hostile tribe of Ghilzais, by whom he was kept prisoner at

Kandahar. In March 1738 he was rescued by Nadir Shah, who

soon afterwards gave him the command of a body of cavalry

composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of Nadir in

1747, Ahmad, having failed in an attempt to seize the Persian

treasures, retreated to Afghanistan, where he easily persuaded

the native tribes to assert their independence and accept him

as their sovereign. He was crowned at Kandahar in October 1747,

and about the same time he changed the name of his tribe to

Durani. Two things may be said to have contributed greatly

to the consolidation of his power. He interfered as little

as possible with the independence of the different tribes,

demanding from each only its due proportion of tribute and

military service; and he kept his army constantly engaged

in brilliant schemes of foreign conquest. Being possessed

of the Koh-i-noor diamond, and being fortunate enough to

intercept a consignment of treasure on its way to the shah

of Persia, he had all the advantages which great wealth can

give. He first crossed the Indus in 1748, when he took

Lahore; and in 1751, after a feeble resistance on the part

of the Mahommedan viceroy, he became master of the entire

Punjab. In 1750 he took Nishapur, and in 1752 subdued

Kashmir. His great expedition to Delhi was undertaken in

1756 in order to avenge himself on the Great Mogul for the

recapture of Lahore. Ahmad entered Delhi with his army in

triumph, and for more than a month the city was given over to

pillage. The shah himself added to his wives a princess of

the imperial family, and bestowed another upon his son Timur

Shah, whom he made governor of the Punjab and Sirhind. As his

viceroy in Delhi he left a Rohilla chief in whom he had all

confidence, but scarcely had he crossed the Indus when the

Mahommedan wazir drove the chief from the city, killed the

Great Mogul and set another prince of the family, a tool of his

own, upon the throne. The Mahratta chiefs availed themselves

of these circumstances to endeavour to possess themselves of the

whole country, and Ahmad was compelled more than once to cross

the Indus in order to protect his territory from them and the

Sikhs, who were constantly attacking his garrisons. In 1758

the Mahrattas obtained possession of the Punjab, but on the

6th of January 1761 they were totally routed by Ahmad in the

great battle of Panipat. In a later expedition he inflicted

a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten westward

immediately afterwards in order to quell an insurrection in

Afghanistan. Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and Ahmad

was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining the command

of the Punjab. After lengthened suffering from a terrible

disease, said to have been cancer in the face, he died in

1773, leaving to his son Timur the kingdom he had founded.

AHMED I. (1589-1617), sultan of Turkey, was the son of

Mahommed III., whom he succeeded in 1603, being the first

Ottoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his

majority. He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he

showed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa, who

eventually succeeded him. In the earlier part of his reign

he gave proofs of decision and vigour, which were belied by

his subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession

both in Hungary and in Persia terminated unfavourably for

Turkey, and her prestige received its first check in the

peace of Sitvatorok, signed in 1606, whereby the annual

tribute paid by Austria was abolished. Ahmed gave himself

up to pleasure during the remainder of his reign, which

ended in 1617, and demoralization and corruption became

as general throughout the public service as indiscipline

in the ranks of the army. The use of tobacco is said to

have been introduced into Turkey during Ahmed I.'s reign.

AHMED II. (1643-1695), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan

Ibrahim, succeeded his brother Suleiman II. in 1691.

His chief merit was to confirm Mustafa Kuprili as grand

vizier. But a few weeks after his accession Turkey sustained

a crushing defeat at Slankamen from the Austrians under

Prince Louis of Baden and was driven from Hungary; during

the four years of his reign disaster followed on disaster,

and in 1695 Ahmed died, worn out by disease and sorrow.

AHMED III. (1637-1736), sultan of Turkey, son of Mahommed

IV., succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of

his brother Mustafa II. He cultivated good relations with

England, in view doubtless of Russia's menacing attitude.

He afforded a refuge in Turkey to Charles XII. of Sweden,

after his defeat at Poltava (1709). Forced against his

will into war with Russia, he came nearer than any Turkish

sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern

rival, whom his Grand Vizier Baltaji Mahommed Pasha succeeded

in completely surrounding near the Pruth (1711). In the

treaty which Russia was compelled to sign Turkey obtained

the restitution of Azov, the destruction of the forts built

by Russia and the undertaking that the tsar should abstain

from future interference in the affairs of the Poles or the

Cossacks. Discontent at the leniency of these terms was

so strong at Constantinople that it nearly brought on a

renewal of the war. In 1715 the Morea was taken from the

Venetians. This led to hostilities with Austria, in which

Turkey was unsuccessful, and Belgrade fell into the hands

of Austria (1717). Through the mediation of England and

Holland the peace of Passarowitz was concluded (1718), by

which Turkey retained her conquests from the Venetians, but

lost Hungary. A war with Persia terminated in disaster,

leading to a revolt of the janissaries, who deposed Ahmed

in September 1730. He died in captivity some years later.

AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD, a city and district of British

India in the northern division of Bombay. The city was once

the handsomest and most flourishing in western India, and it

still ranks next to Agra and Delhi for the beauty and extent

of its architectural remains. It was founded by Ahmad Shah

in A.D. 1411 on the site of several Hindu towns, which had

preceded it, and was embellished by him with fine buildings of

marble, brought from a distance. The Portuguese traveller

Barbosa, who visited Gujarat in A.D. 1511 and 1514, described

Ahmedabad as ``very rich and well embellished with good streets

and squares supplied with houses of stone and cement.'' In Sir

Thomas Roe's time, A.D. 1615, ``it was a goodly city as large

as London.'' During the course of its history it has passed

through two periods of greatness, two of decay and one of

revival. From 1411 to 1511 it grew in size and wealth; from 1512

to 1572 it declined with the decay of the dynasty of Gujarat;

from 1572 to 1709 it renewed its greatness under the Mogul

emperors; from 1709 to 1809 it dwindled with their decline; and

from 1818 onwards it has again increased under British rule.

The consequence of all these changes of dynasty was that

Ahmedabad became the meeting-place of Hindu, Mahommedan and Jain

architecture. Ahmad Shah pulled down Hindu temples in order

to build his mosques with the material. The Jama Masjid

itself, which he built in A.D. 1424, with its three hundred

pillars fantastically carved, is a Hindu temple converted

into a mosque (see INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, Plate III., fig.

15). One of the finest buildings is the modern Jain temple of

Hathi Singh outside the Delhi gate, which was built only in

1848, and is a standing monument to the endurance of Jain

architectural art The external porch, between two circular

towers, is of great magnificence, most elaborately ornamented,

and leads to an outer court, with sixteen cells on either

side. In the centre of this court is a domed porch of the

usual form with twenty pillars. The court leads to an inner

porch of twenty-two pillars, two stories in height. This

inner porch conducts to a triple sanctuary. James Fergusson

wrote of this temple that ``each part increases in dignity

to the sanctuary; and whether looked at from its courts or

from outside, it possesses variety without confusion, and an

appropriateness of every part to the purpose for which it was

intended.'' But perhaps the most unique sight in Ahmedabad

is the two windows in Sidi Said's mosque of filigree marble

work. The design is an imitation of twining and interlaced

branches, a marvel of delicacy and grace, and finer

than anything of the kind to be found in Agra or Delhi.

The modern city of Ahmedabad is situated on the left bank

of the river Sabarmati, and is still surrounded by walls

enclosing an area of about 2 sq. m. Its population in 1901 was

185,889. It has a station on the Bombay and Baroda railway,

309 m. from Bombay, whence branch lines diverge into Kathiawar

and Mahi Kantha, and is a great centre for both trade and

manufacture. Its native bankers, shopkeepers and workers are all

strongly organized in gilds. It has cotton mills for spinning

and weaving, besides many handlooms, and factories for ginning

and pressing cotton. Other industries include the manufacture

of gold and silver thread, silk brocades, pottery, paper and

shoes. The prosperity of Ahmedabad, says a native proverb,

hangs on three threads--silk, gold and cotton; and though

its manufactures are on a smaller scale than formerly, they

are still moderately flourishing. The military cantonment,

3 m. north of the native town, is the headquarters of the

northern division of the Bombay command, with an arsenal.

The DISTRICT OF AHMEDABAD lies at the head of the Gulf of

Cambay, between Baroda and Kathiawar. Area 3816 sq. m. The

river Sabarmati and its tributaries, flowing from north-east

to south-west into the Gulf of Cambay, are the principal

streams that water the district. The north-eastern portion is

slightly elevated, and dotted with low hills, which gradually

sink into a vast plain, subject to inundation on its western

extremity. With the exception of this latter portion, the

soil is very fertile, and some parts of the district are

beautifully wooded. The population in 1901 was 795,967,

showing a decrease of 14% in the decade, due to the effects of

famine. The principal crops are millets, cotton, wheat and

pulse. The district is traversed by the Bombay and Baroda

railway, and has two seaports, Dholera and Gogo, the former of

which has given its name to a mark of raw cotton in the Liverpool

market. It suffered severely in the famine of 1899-1900.

AHMEDNAGAR, or AHMADNAGAR, a city and district of British

India in the Central division of Bombay on the left bank of

the river Sina. The town is of considerable antiquity, having

been founded in 1494 by Ahmad Nizam Shah, on the site of a

more ancient city, Bhingar. This Ahmad established a new

monarchy, which lasted till its overthrow by Shah Jahan in

1636. In 1759 the Peshwa obtained possession of the

place by bribing the Mahommedan commander, and in 1797 it

was ceded by the Peshwa to the Mahratta chief Daulat Rao

Sindhia. During the war with the Mahrattas in 1803 Ahmednagar

was invested by a British force under General Wellesley and

captured. It was afterwards restored to the Mahrattas,

but again came into the possession of the British in 1817,

according to the terms of the treaty of Poona. The town has

rapidly advanced in prosperity under British rule. Several

mosques and tombs have been converted to the use of British

administration. The old industries of carpet-weaving and

paper-making have died out; but there is a large trade in

cotton and silk goods, and in copper and brass pots, and there

are factories for ginning and pressing cotton. Ahmednagar

is a station on the loop line of the Great Indian Peninsula

railway, 218 m. from Bombay, and a military cantonment,

being the headquarters of a brigade in the 6th division of

the western army corps. The population in 1901 was 43,032.

The DISTRICT OF AHMEDNACAR is a comparatively barren tract

with a small rainfall. The area is 6586 sq. m. The population

in 1901 was 837,695, showing a decrease of 6% in the decade,

due to the results of famine. The bulk of the population

consists of Mahrattas and Kunbis, the latter being the

agriculturists. On the north the district is watered by the

Godavari and its tributaries the Prawara and the Mula; on the

north-east by the Dor, another tributary of the Godavari; on

the east by the Sephani, which flows through the valley below

the Balaghat range; and in the extreme south by the Bhima and

its tributary the Gor. The Sina river, another tributary of the

Bhima, flows through the Nagar and Karjat talukas. The principal

crops are millet, pulse, oil-seeds and wheat. The district

suffered from drought in 1896-1897, and again in 1899-1900.

AHMED TEWFIK, PASHA (1845- ), Turkish diplomatist,

was the son of Ismail Hakki Pasha. He was at first in the

army, but left the service in 1862; four years later he

entered the diplomatic service, being employed at various

European capitals. He became minister at Athens in

1883 and ambassador in Berlin in 1884. He was appointed

minister for foreign affairs (Kharijie Naziri) in 1896.

AHMED VEFIK, PASHA (1819-1891), Turkish statesman and

man of letters, was born in Stambul in 1819. He was the

son of Rouheddin Effendi, at one time charge d'affaires in

Paris, an accomplished French scholar, who was, therefore,

attached, in the capacity of secretary-interpreter, to Reshid

Pasha's diplomatic mission to Paris in 1834. Reshid took Ahmed

with him and placed him at school, where he remained about

five years and completed his studies. He then returned to

Constantinople, and was appointed to a post in the bureau

de traduction of the ministry for foreign affairs. While

thus employed he devoted his leisure to the translation

of Moliere's plays into Turkish and to the compilation of

educational books--dictionaries, historical and geographical

manuals, &c.--for use in Turkish schools, with the object of

promoting cultivation of the French language among the rising

generation. In 1847 he brought out the first edition of

the Salnameh, the official annual of the Ottoman empire.

Two years later he was appointed imperial commissioner in

the Danubian principalities, and held that office till early

in 1851 when he was sent to Persia as ambassador--a post

which suited his temperament, and in which he rendered good

service to his goverment for more than four years. Recalled

in 1855, he was sent on a mission to inspect the eastern

frontiers, and on his return was appointed member of the

Grand Council of Justice, and was entrusted with the revision

of the penal code and the code of procedure. This work

occupied him until the beginning of 1860, when he was sent

as ambassador to Paris, for the special purpose of averting

the much-dreaded intervention of France in the affairs of

Syria. But Ahmed Vefik's abrupt frankness, irascibility

and abhorrence of compromise unfitted him for European

diplomacy. He offended the French government; his mission

failed, and he was recalled in January, 1861. None the less

his integrity of purpose was fully understood and appreciated

in Paris. On his return he was appointed minister of the

evkaj, but he only retained his seat in the cabinet for

a few months. He was then for a brief period president

of the Board of Audit, and subsequently inspector of the

Anatolian provinces, where he was engaged for more than three

years. His next appointment was that of director-general of

customs, whence he was removed to the office of musteshar

of the grand vizierate, and in the following year entered the

cabinet of Midhat Pasha as minister of public instruction,

but very soon retired to his seat in the Council of State

and remained out of office until 1875, when he represented

Turkey at the International Telegraphic Conference in St

Petersburg. He was president of the short-lived Turkish

parliament during its first session--March 19 to June 28,

1877--and at its close was appointed vali of Adrianople, where

he rendered invaluable aid to the Red Cross Society. On his

recall, at the beginning of 1878, he accepted the ministry of

public instruction in the cabinet of Ahmed Hamdi Pasha, and

on the abolition of the grand vizierate (February 5, 1878) he

became prime minister and held office till about the middle

of April, when he resigned. Early in the following year he

was appointed vali of Brusa, where he remained nearly four

years, and rendered admirable services to the province. The

drainage of the pestilent marshes, the water-supply from the

mountains, the numerous roads, the suppression of brigandage,

the multiplication of schools, the vast development of the silk

industry through the substitution of mulberry plantations for

rice-fields, the opening out of the mineral springs of Chitli,

the introduction of rose-trees and the production of attar

of roses--all these were Ahmed Vefik's work; and he became

so popular that when in 1882 he was recalled, it was thought

advisable that he should be taken away secretly by night from

the konak in Brusa and brought to his private residence

on the Bosporus. A few days after his return he was again

appointed prime minister (December 1, 1882), but Ahmed Vefik

demanded, as the condition of his acceptance of office, that

he should choose the other members of the cabinet, and that

a number of persons in the sultan's entourage should be

dismissed. Upon this, the sultan, on the 3rd of December,

revoked the irade of the 1st of December, and appointed

Said Pasha prime minister. For the rest of his life Ahmed

Vefik, by the sultan's orders, was practically a prisoner in

his own house; and eventually he died, on the 1st of April

1891, of a renal complaint from which he had long been a

sufferer. Ahmed Vefik was a great linguist. He spoke and

wrote French perfectly, and thoroughly understood English,

German, Italian, Greek, Arabic and Persian. From all these

languages he translated many books into Turkish, but wrote

no original work. His splendid library of 15,000 volumes

contained priceless manuscripts in many languages. In his

lifetime he appreciably aided the progress of education;

but, as he had no following, the effects of his labour and

influence in a great measure faded away after his death.

In all his social and family relations Ahmed Vefik was most

exemplary. His charity knew no bounds. He was devoted to his

aged mother and to his one wife and children. To his friends

and acquaintances he was hospitable, courteous and obliging;

his conversation was intellectual and refined, and in every

act of his private life he manifested the spirit of a true

gentleman. At home his habits, attire and mode of life

were quite Turkish, but he was perfectly at his ease in

European society; he had strong English proclivities, and

numbered many English men and women amongst his intimate

friends. In public life his gifts were almost sterilized

by peculiarities of temperament and incompatibility with

official surroundings; and his mission as ambassador to

Persia and his administration of Brusa were his only thorough

successes. But his intellectual powers, literary erudition

and noble character made him for the last forty years of

his life a conspicuous figure in eastern Europe. (E. W.*)

AHOM, or AHAM, a tribe of Shan descent inhabiting the

Assam Valley, and, prior to the invasion of the Burmese at the

commencement of the 19th century, the dominant race in that

country. The Ahoms, together with the Shans of Burma and

Eastern China and the Siamese, were members of the Tai

race. The name is believed to be a corruption of the word

``A-sam,'' the latter part of which is identical with

``Shan'' (properly ``Sham'') and with ``Siam.'' Under their

king Su-ka-pha they invaded Assam (q.v.) from the East in

the year A.D. 1228, giving their name to the country. For

a century and a half from 1228 the successors of Su-ka-pha

appear to have ruled undisturbed over a small territory in

Lakkimpur and Sibsagar districts. The extension of their

power westward down the valley of the Brahmaputra was very

gradual, and its success was by no means uniform. In the

time of Aurangzeb the Ahom kings held sway over the entire

Brahmaputra valley from Sadiya to near Goalpara, and from the

skirts of the southern hills to the Bhutia frontier on the

north. The dynasty attained the height of its power under Rudra

Singh, who is said to have ascended the throne in 1695. In

the following century the power of the Ahoms began to decay,

alike from internal dissensions and the pressure of outside

invaders. The Burmese were called in to the assistance of one

of the contending factions in 1810. Having once obtained a

foothold in the country, they established their power over the

entire valley and ruled with merciless barbarity, until they

were expelled by the British in 1824-1825. In the census of

1901 the total Ahom population in Assam was returned at 178,049.

The Ahoms retained the form of government in Assam peculiar

to the Shan tribes, which may he briefly described as an

organized system of personal service in lieu of taxation.

Their religion was pagan, being quite distinct from Buddhism;

but in Assam they gradually became Hinduized, and their

kings finally adopted Hindu names and titles. They believed

that there were in the beginning no heavenly bodies, air or

earth, only water everywhere, over which at first hovered a

formless Supreme Being called Pha. He took corporeal shape

as a huge crab that lay floating, face upwards, upon the

waters. In turn other animals took shape, the last being

two golden spiders from whose excrement the earth gradually

rose above the surrounding ocean. Pha then formed a female

counterpart of himself, who laid four eggs, from which were

hatched four sons. One of these was appointed to rule the

earth, but died and became a spirit. His son also died

and became the national household deity of the Ahoms. The

origin of mankind is connected with a flood legend. The

only survivors of the flood, and of the conflagration that

followed it, were an old man and a pumpkin-seed. From the

latter there grew a gigantic gourd. This was split open by

a thunderbolt, the old man sacrificing himself to save the

lives of those who were inside, and from it there issued the

progenitors of the present races of men, beasts, birds, fishes

and plants. The kings claimed independent divine origin.

The religion and language have both died out, being only

preserved by a few priests of the old cult; but even among them

the tradition of the pronunciation of the language has been

lost. The Ahoms had a considerable literature, much of

which is still in existence. Their historic sense was very

fully developed, and many priests and nobles maintained

bu-ran-jis (i.e. ``stores of instruction for the

ignorant''), or chronicles, which were carefully written up

from time to time. A few of these have been translated, but

as yet no European scholar possesses knowledge sufficient to

enable him to study these valuable documents at first hand.

The Ahom language is the oldest member of the Tai branch of

the Siamese-Chinese linguistic family of which we have any

record. It bears much the same relationship to Siamese

and Shan that Latin does to Italian. It is more nearly

related to modern Siamese than to modern ahan, but possesses

many groups of consonants which have become simplified in

both. It is a language of the isolating class, in which every

word is a monosyllable, and may be employed either as a noun

or as a verb according to its context and its position in a

sentence. In the order of words, the genitive follows the

norm it governs, and, as usual in such cases, the relations

of time and place are indicated by prefixes, not by suffixes.

The meanings of the monosyllables were differentiated, as

in the other Tai languages and in Chinese, by a system of

tones, but these were rarely indicated in writing, and the

tradition regarding them is lost. The language had an alphabet

of its own, which was clearly related to that of Burmese.

See E. A. Gait, A History of Assam (Calcutta, 1906).

For the language see The Linguistis Survey of India, vol.

ii. (Calcutta, 1906) (contains grammar and vocabulary);

G. A. Grierson, ``Notes on Ahom,'' in the Zeitschrift

der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellshaft, vol. lvi.,

1902, pp. 1 ff. (contains grammar and vocabulary, with

specimens), and ``An Ahom Cosmogony, with a translation and

a vocabulary of the Ahom language,'' in the Journal of the

Royal Asiatic Society for 1904, pp. 181 ff. (G. A. GR.)

AHR, a river of Germany. It is a left-bank tributary of the

Rhine, into which it falls at Sinzig, rising in the Eifel

mountains, and having a total length of 55 m. It flows at first

through rather monotonous country, but the latter portion of its

course, from the village of Altenahr, over which tower rhe ruins

of the castle of Ahr, or Are (10th century), is full of romantic

beauty. It is well stocked with trout, and the steep declivities

of the lower valley furnish red wines of excellent quality.

AHRENS, FRANZ HEINRICH LUDOLF (1809-1881), German

philologist, was born at Helmstedt on the 6th of June

1809. After studying at Gottingen (1826-1829) under K. O.

Muller and Ludolf Dissen, and holding several educational

appointments, in 1849 he succeeded G. F. Grotefend as director

of the Lyceum at Hanover, a post which he filled with great

success for thirty years. He died on the 25th of September

1881. His most important work is De Graecae Linguae

Dialectis (1839-1843, new ed. by Meister, 1882-1889),

which, although unfortunately incomplete, dealing only with

Aeolic and Doric, and in some respects superseded by modern

research, will always remain a standard treatise on the

subject. He also published Bucolicorum Graecorum Reliquiae

(1855-1859); studies on the dialects of Homer and the Greek

lyrists; on Aeschylus; and some excellent school-books. A

volume of his minor works (ed. Haberlin) was published in

1891, which also contains a complete list of his writings.

AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Areimanios in Aristotle, or in Agathias; in

the Avesta, Angro Mainyush--``the Destructive Spirit''),

the name of the principle of evil in the dualistic doctrine of

Zoroaster. The name does not occur in the Old Persian

inscriptions. In the Avesta he is called the twin-brother

of the Holy Spirits, and contrasted either with the Holy Spirit

of Ormazd or with Ormazd himself. He is the all destroying

Satan, the source of all evil in the world and, like Ormazd,

exists since the beginning of the world. Eventually, in the

great world catastrophe, he will be defeated by Ormazd and

disappear. The later sect of the Zervanites held that

both were visible manifestations of the primeval principle

Zruvan akarana (Infinite Time). (See ZOROASTER.)

AHRWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,

on the river Ahr and the Remagen-Adenau line of railway. Pop.

5000. It is a town of medieval aspect and is surrounded

by ancient walls, with battlements and four gates in good

repair. There is a Gothic church (dating from 1245). A

convent school of the Ursuline nuns is a prominent feature On

a hill to the south. The trade is almost exclusively confined

to the manufacture and export of the wines of the district.

AHT, a confederacy of twenty-two tribes of North American

Indians of the Wakashan stock. They are settled on the west

Coast of Vancouver, British Columbia. The chief tribes included

are the Nitinaht, Tlaasaht or Makah, Tlaokiwaht or Clahoquaht,

Ahansaht and Ehatishaht. The confederacy numbers some 3500.

AHTENA (``ice people''), the name of an Athapascan tribe of

North American Indians, in the basin of Copper River, Alaska.

See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).

AHVAZ, a town of Persia, in the province of Arabistan, on

the left bank of the river Karun, 48 m. S. of Shushter, in

31 deg. 18' N., 49 deg. E. It has been identified with the Aginis of

Nearchus, 500 stadia from Susa, and occupies the site of what

was once an extensive and important city. Of this ancient

city vast remains are left, extending several miles along the

bank of the river. Among the most remarkable are the ruins of

a bridge and a citadel, or palace, besides vestiges of canals

and watermills, which tell of former commercial activity.

There are also the ruins of a band, or stone dam of great

strength, which was thrown across the river for the purposes of

irrigation. The band was 1150 yds. in length and had a diameter

of 24 ft. at its base. Remains of massive structure are still

visible, and many single blocks in it measure from 8 to 10 ft. in

thickness. Ahvaz reached the height of its prosperity in the

12th and 13th centuries and is now a collection of wretched

hovels, with a small rectangular fort in a state of ruin,

and an Arab population of about 400. Since the opening of the

Karun to foreign commerce in October 1888, another settlement

called Benderi Nassiri, in compliment to the Shah Nassir

ed din (d. 1896), has been established on a slight elevation

overlooking the river at the point below the rapids where

steamers come to anchor, about one mile below Ahvaz. It has

post and telegraph offices; and agencies of some mercantile

firms, a British vice-consul (since 1904) and a Russian

consular agent (since 1902) are established there. The new

caravan road to Isfahan, opened for traffic in 1900, promised,

if successful, to give Ahvaz greater commercial importance.

AI [Sept. 'Aggai, 'Aggai Gai, Vulg. Hai], a small royal

city of the Canaanites, E. of Bethel. The meaning of the name

may be ``the stone heap''; but it is not necessarily a Hebrew

word. Abraham pitched his tent between Ai and Bethel (Gen.

xii. 8, xiii. 3); but it is chiefly noted for its capture

and destruction by Joshua (vii. 2-4. viii. 1-20). who made

it ``a heap for ever, even a desolation.'' It is mentioned

by Isaiah (x. 28), and also after the captivity (Ezra ii.

28; Neh. vii. 32), but then probably was not more than a

village. In the later Hebrew writings the name sometimes

has a feminine form, Aiath (Is. x. 28), Aija (Neh. xi. 31).

The definite article is usually prefixed to the name in

Hebrew. The site was known, and some scanty ruins still

existed, in the time of Eusebius and Jerome (Onomast., s.v.

'Aggai.) Dr E. Robinson was unable to discover any certain

traces of either name or ruins. He remarks, however (Bib.

Researches, ed. 1856, i. p. 443), that it must have been close

to Bethel on account of Biblical narrative (Josh. viii. 17)

. A little to the south of a village called Deir Diwan, and

one hour's journey south-east from Bethel, is the site of an

ancient place called Khirbet Haiyan indicated by reservoirs

hewn in the rock, excavated tombs and foundations of hewn

stone. This may possibly be the site of Ai; it agrees with

all the intimations as to its position. It has also been

identified with a mound now called Et-Tell (``the heap''),

but though the name of a neighbouring village, Turmus Aya, is

suggestive, it is in the wrong direction from Bethel. In this

view recent authorities, such as G. A. Smith, generally coincide.

See Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1869, p. 123;

1874, p. 62; 1878, pp. 10, 132, 194, 1881, p. 254. (R. A. S. M.)

AIBONITO, an inland town of the electoral district of

Guayama, Porto Rico, on the highway between San Juan and

Ponce, 25 m. E.N.E. of the latter. It is the capital of

a municipal district of the same name. Pop. (1899) of the

town, 2085; of the district, 8596. The town is about 2200

ft. above sea level, and owing to its cool climate and

freedom from malaria it has been chosen as an acclimatizing

station and sanatorium for foreigners. It is surrounded

by coffee plantations, and tobacco of excellent quality

is raised in the vicinity. The town was considerably

damaged by the great hurricane of the 8th of August 1899.

AICARD, JEAN FRANCOIS VICTOR (1848- ), French poet and

dramatist, was born at Toulon on the 4th of February 1848. His

father, Jean Aicard, was a journalist of some distinction, and

the son early began his career in 1867 with Les Rebellions

et les apaistments (1871); Poemes de Provence (1874), and

La Chanson de l'Enfant (1876), both of which were crowned

by the Academy; Miette et Nore (1880), a Provencal idyll;

Le Livre d'heures de l'amour (1887); Jesus (1896),

&c. Of his plays the most successful was Le Pere Lebonnard

(1890), which was originally produced at the Theatre Libre.

Among his other works are the novels, Le Roi de Camargue

(1890), L'Ame d'un enfant (1898) and Talas (1901),

Benjamine (1906) and La Venus de Milo (1874), an account

of the discovery of the statue from unpublished documents.

AICHINGER, GREGOR (c. 1565-1628), one of the greatest German

composers of the Golden Age. He was organist to the Fugger family

of Augsburg in 1584. In 1599 he went for a two years' visit to

Rome. This was for musical and not for ecclesiastical reasons,

though he had taken orders before his appointment under Fugger.

Proske, in the preface to vol. ii. of his Musica Divina,

calls him a priest of Regensburg, and is inclined to give him

the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style.

Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful

and somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology.

AICKIN, FRANCIS (d. 1805), Irish actor, first appeared in

London in 1765 as Dick Amlet in Vanbrugh's The Confederacy

at Drury Lane. He acted there, and at Covent Garden, until

1792. His repertory consisted of over eighty characters,

and among his best parts were the Ghost in Hamlet and

Jaques in As You Like It. His success in impassioned

declamatory roles obtained for him the nickname of ``Tyrant.''

His younger brother James AICHIN (d. 1803) was playing leading

parts in both comedy and tragedy at the Edinburgh theatre,

when he gave offence to his public by his protest against the

discharge of a fellow-actor. He therefore went to London,

and from 1767 to 1800 was a member of the Drury Lane Company

and for some years a deputy manager. He quarrelled with John

Philip Kemble, with whom, in 1792, he fought a bloodless duel.

AIDAN (d. 606), king of the Scottish kingdom of Dalriada,

was the son of Gabran, king of Dalriada, and became king after

the death of his kinsman King Conall, when he was crowned at

Iona by St Columba. He refused to allow his kingdom to remain

in dependence on the Irish Dairiada, but coming into collision

with his southern neighbours he led a large force against

AEthelfrith, king of the Northumbrians, and was defeated

at a place called Daegsanstane, probablv in Liddesdale.

See Bede, Historiae Ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum,

edited by O'. Plummer (Oxford, 1896); Adamnan, Vita

S. Columbae, edited by J. T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894).

AIDAN, or AEDAN, first bishop of Lindisfarne, a monk

of Hii (Iona), was sent by the abbot Senegi to Northumbria,

at the request of King Oswald, A.D. 634-635. He restored

Christianity, and in accordance with the traditions of Irish

episcopacy chose the island of Lindisfarne, close to the royal

city of Bamborough, as his see. Although he retained the Irish

Easter, his character and energy in missionary work won him

the respect of Honorius and Felix. He survived Oswald, and

died shortly after the murder of his friend Oswine of Deira,

on the 31st of August 651, in the 17th year of his episcopate.

See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. Plummer), iii. 3, 5, 17, 25.

AIDE-DE-CAMP (Fr. for camp-assistant or, perhaps,

field-assistant), an officer of the personal staff of a general,

who acts as his confidential secretary in routine matters. In

Great Britain the office of aide-de-camp to the king is given

as a reward or an honorary distinction. In many foreign armies

the word adjutant is used for an aide-de-camp, and adjutant

general for a royal aide-de-camp. The common abbreviation

for aide-de-camp in the British service is ``A.D.C.,'' and

in the United States ``aid.'' Civil governors, such as the

lord lieutenant of Ireland, have also, as a rule, officers on

their staffs with the title and functions of aides-de-camp.

AIDIN. (1) A vilayet in the S.W. of Asia Minor including

the ancient Lydia, Ionia, Carla and western Lycia. It derives

its name from the Seljuk emir who took Tralles, and is the

richest and most productive province of Asiatic Turkey. The

seat of government is Smyrna. (2) The principal town of the

valley of the Menderes or Maeander, about 70 m. E.S.E. of

Smyrna. It is called also Guzel Hissar from the beauty of

its situation on the lower slopes of Mons Messogis and along

the course of the ancient Eudon. It is the capital of a

sanjak. It was taken by the Seljuks, Aidin and Mentesh,

late in the 13th century, and about 1390, when ruled by Isa

Bey, a descendant of the first-named, acknowledged Ottoman

suzerainty. In the Seljuk period it was a secondary city under

the provincial capital, Tireh (q.v.) In the 17th century it

came under the power of the Karasmans of Manisa and remained

so till about 1820. Aidin is on the Smyrna-Dineir railway, has

large tanneries and sweetmeat manufactories, and exports figs,

cotton and raisins. It was greatly damaged by an earthquake in

1899. On a neighbouring height are to be seen the ruins

of the ancient Tralles (q.v.), the site to which the

name Guzel Hissar was particularly given by the Seljuks.

Aidin is the seat of a British consular agent. As there are

considerable numbers of Greeks, Armenians and Jews among the

inhabitants, there are a Greek cathedral, several churches and

synagogues in addition to the fine Turkish mosques. (D. G. H.)

AIDONE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta.

From the town of Caltanisetta it is 22 m. E.S.E. direct (18

m. S.S.W. of the railway station of Raddusa, which is 41

m. W. of Catania). Pop. (1901) 8548. There are some

interesting churches of the 14th century (see E. Mauceri in

L'Arte, 1906, 17). On the Serra Orlando, a mountain not

far off, are the extensive remains of an unknown city, the

finest in eastern Sicily, but rapidly suffering destruction

from the spread of cultivation and unauthorized excavations.

See P. Orsi in Atti del Congresso di

Scienze Storiche, vol. v 178 Rome, 1904).

AIDS, a term of medieval finance, were part of the

service due to a lord from his men, and appear to have been

based upon the principle that they ought to assist him in

special emergency or need. The occasions for demanding

them and the amount to be demanded would thus be matters of

dispute, while the loose use of the term to denote many

different payments increases the difficulty of the subject.

Both in Normandy and in England, in the 12th century, the

two recognized occasions on which, by custom, the lord could

demand ``aid,'' were (1) the knighting of his eldest son, (2)

the marriage of his eldest daughter; but while in England the

third occasion was, according to Glanvill, as in Normandy, his

payment of ``relief'' on his succession, it was, according to

the Great Charter (1215), the lord's ransom from captivity.

By its provisions, the king covenanted to exact an ``aid''

from his barons on these three occasions alone--and then only

a ``reasonable'' one--except by ``the common counsel'' of his

realm. Enormous importance has been attached to this provision,

as establishing the principle of taxation by consent, but its

scope was limited to the barons (and the city of London), and

the word ``aids'' was omitted from subsequent issues of the

charter. The barons, on their part, covenanted to claim from

their feudal tenants only the above three customary aids. The

last levy by the crown was that of James I. on the knighting of

his eldest son (1609) and the marriage of his daughter (1613).

From at least the days of Henry I. the term ``aid'' was also

applied (1) to the special contributions of boroughs to the

king's revenue, (2) to a payment in lieu of the military

service due from the crown's knights. Both these occur

on the pipe roll of 1130, the latter as auxilium militum

(and possibly as auxilium comitatus.) The borough ``aids''

were alternatively known as ``gifts'' (dona), resembling

in this the ``benevolences'' of later days. When first met

with, under Henry I., they are fixed round sums, but under

Henry II. (as the Dialogue of the Exchequer explains) they

were either assessed on a population basis by crown officers

or were sums offered by the towns and accepted by them as

sufficient. In the latter case the townsfolk were collectively

responsible for the amount. The Great Charter, as stated

above, extended specially to London the limitation on baronial

``aids,'' but left untouched its liability to tallage, a lower

and more arbitrary form of taxation, which the towns shared

with the crown's demesne manors, and which London . resisted in

vain. The two exactions, although distinct, have to be studied

together, and when in 1296-1297 Edward I. was forced to his

great surrender, he was formerly supposed by historians to

have pledged himself, under De tallagio non concedendo,

to levy no tallage or aid except by common consent of his

people. It is now held, however, that he limited this

concession to ``aides, mises,'' and ``prises,'' retaining

the right to tallage. Eventually, by a statute of 1340, it

was provided that the nation should not be called upon ``to

make any common aid or sustain charge'' except by consent of

parliament. The aids spoken of at this period are of yet

another character, namely, the grant of a certain proportion

of all ``movables'' (i.e. personal property), a form of

taxation introduced about 1188 and now rapidly increasing in

importance. These subsidies were conveniently classed under

the vague term ``aids,'' as were also the grants made by

the clergy in convocation, the term covering both feudal and

non-feudal levies from the higher clergy and proportions not

only of ``movables'' but of ecclesiastical revenues as well.

The ``knight's aid'' of 1130 spoken of above is probably

identical with auxilium exercitus spoken of in the oldest

custumals of Normandy, where the phrase appears to represent

what was known in England as ``scutage.'' Even in England

the phrase ``quando Rex accipit auxilium de militibus''

occurs in 1166 and appears to be loosely used for scutage.

The same loose use enabled the early barons to demand

``aid'' from their tenants on various grounds, such as their

indebtedness to the Jews, as is well seen in the Norfolk

fragments of returns to the Inquest of Sheriffs (1170).

Sheriff's aid was a local payment of a fixed nature paid

in early days to the sheriff for his service. It was the

subject of a hot dispute between Henry II. and Becket in 1163.

AUTHORITIES.--Stubbs' Constitutional History and

Select Charters; M'Kechnie's Magna Carta; Pollock and

Maitland's History of English Law; Maitland's Domesday

Book and Beyond; Dialogus de Scaccario (Oxford, 1892);

Madox's History of the Exchequer; Round's Feudal

England and The Commune of London; The Pipe Rolls

(Record Commission and Pipe Roll Society). (J. H. R.)

AIGRETTE (from the Fr. for egret, or lesser white heron),

the tufted crest, or head-plumes of the egret, used for

adorning a woman's head-dress, the term being also given

to any similar ornament, in gems, &c. An aigrette is also

worn by certain ranks of officers in the French army. By

analogy the word is used in various sciences for feathery

excrescences of like appearance, as for the tufts on the heads

of insects, the feathery down of the dandelion, the luminous

rays at the end of electrified bodies, or the luminous rays

seen in solar eclipses, diverging from the moon's edge.

AIGUES-MORTES, a town of south-eastern France, in the

department of Gard 25 m. S.S.W. of Nimes, on a branch

line of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906)

3577. Aigues-Mortes occupies an isolated position in the

marshy plain at the western extremity of the Rhone delta,

2 1/2 m. from the Golfe du Lion. It owes its celebrity to the

medieval fortifications of remarkable completeness with which

it is surrounded. They form a parallelogram 596 yds. long

by 149 yds. broad, and consist of crenellated walls from 25

to 36 ft. in height, dominated at intervals by towers. Of

these, the Tour de Constance, built by Louis IX., is the

most interesting; it commands the northwestern angle of the

ramparts, and contains two circular, Vaulted chambers, used as

prisons for Protestants after the revocation of the edict of

Nantes. The remainder of the fortifications were built in

the reign of Philip III. Aigues-Mortes is the meeting-place

of several canals connecting it with Beaucaire, with Cette,

with the Lesser Rhone and with the Mediterranean, on which

it has a small port. Fishing and the manufacture of soda are

the chief industries with which the town is connected. It

has trade in coal, oranges and other fruits, and in wine. In

the surrounding country there are important vineyards, which

are preserved from disease by periodical submersion. There

is a statue in the town in memory of Louis IX. who embarked

from Aigues-Mortes in 1248 and 1270 for the seventh and eighth

crusades. To further the prosperity of the town a most liberal

charter was granted to it, and in addition the trade of the port

was artificially fostered by a decree requiring that every vessel

navigating within sight of its lights should put in there.

This ordinance remained in force till the reign of Louis XIV.