of the 19th century that decided steps were taken to remedy these

defects. The African rivers, with the exception of the middle

Congo and its affluents, and the middle course of the three

other chief rivers, are generally unfavourable to navigation,

and throughout the tropical region almost the sole routes have

been native footpaths, admitting the passage of a single file

of porters, on whose heads all goods have been carried from

place to place. Certain of these native trade routes are,

however, much frequented, and lead for hundreds of miles from

the coast to the interior. In the desert regions of the north

transport is by caravans of camels, and in the south ox-wagons,

before the advent of railways, supplied the general means of

locomotion. The native trade routes led generally from the

centres of greatest population or production to the seaports

by the nearest route, but to this rule there was a striking

exception. The dense forests of Upper Guinea and the upper

Congo proved a barrier which kept the peoples of the Sudan

from direct access to the sea, and from Timbuktu to Darfur

the great trade routes were either west to east or south

to north across the Sahara. The principal caravan routes

across the desert lead from different points in Morocco and

Algeria to Timbuktu; from Tripoli to Timbuktu, Kano and other

great marts of the western and central Sudan; from Bengazi

to Wadai; and from Assiut on the Nile through the Great Oasis

and the Libyan desert to Darfur. South of the equator the

principal long-established routes are those from Loanda to the

Lunda and Baluba countries; from Benguella via Bihe to Urua

and the upper Zambezi; from Mossamedes across the Kunene to

the upper Zambezi; and from Bagamoyo, opposite Zanzibar, to

Tanganyika. Many of the native routes have been superseded

by the improved communications introduced by Europeans in the

utilization of waterways and the construction of roads and

railways. Steamers have been conveyed overland in sections and

launched on the interior waterways above the obstructions to

navigation. On the upper Nile and Albert Nyanza their

introduction was due to Sir S. Baker and General C. G. Gordon

(1871-1876); on the middle Congo and its affluents to Sir H.

M. Stanley and the officials of the Congo Free State, as well

as to the Baptist missionaries on the river; and on Lake Nyasa

to the supporters of the Scottish mission. A small vessel

was launched on Victoria Nyanza 1896 by a British mercantile

firm, and a British government steamer made its first trip

in November 1900. On the other great lakes and on most of

the navigable rivers steamers were plying regularly before

the close of the 19th century. However, the shallowness of

the water in the Niger and Zambezi renders their navigation

possible only to light-draught steamers. Roads suitable for

wheeled traffic are few. The first attempt at road-making

in Central Africa on a large scale was that of Sir T. Fowell

Buxton and Mr (afterwards Sir W.) Mackinnon, who completed

the first section of a track leading into the interior from

Dar-es-Salaam (1879). A still more important undertaking

was the ``Stevenson road,'' begun in 1881 from the head of

Lake Nyasa to the south end of Tanganyika, and constructed

mainly at the expense of Mr James Stevenson, a director of the

African Lakes Company--a company which helped materially in

the opening up of Nyasaland. The Stevenson road forms a link

in the ``Lakes route'' into the heart of the continent. In

British East Africa a road connecting Mombasa with Victoria

Nyanza was completed in 1897, but has since been in great

measure superseded by the railway. Good roads have also been

made in German East Africa and Cameroon and in Madagascar.

Railways, the chief means of affording easy access to the

interior of the continent, were for many years after their

first introduction to Africa almost entirely confined to

the extreme north and south (Egypt, Algeria, Cape Colony and

Natal). Apart from short lines in Senegal, Angola and at

Lourenco Marques, the rest of the continent was in 1890

without a railway system. In Egypt the Alexandria and

Cairo railway dates from 1855, while in 1877 the lines open

reached about 1100 miles, and in 1890, in addition to the

lines traversing the delta, the Nile had been ascended to

Assiut. In Algeria the construction of an inter-provincial

railway was decreed in 1857, but was still incomplete twenty

years later, when the total length of the lines open hardly

exceeded 300 miles. Before 1890 an extension to Tunis had

been opened, while the plateau had been crossed by the lines

to Ain Sefra in the west and Biskra in the east. In Senegal

the railway from Dakar to St Louis had been commenced and

completed during the 'eighties, while the first section of the

Senegal-Niger railway, that from Kayes to Bafulabe, was also

constructed during the same decade. In Cape Colony, where

in about 1880 the railways were limited to the neighbourhood

of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London, the next

decade saw the completion of the trunk-line from Cape Town

to Kimberley, with a junction at De Aar with that from Port

Elizabeth. The northern frontier had, however, nowhere been

crossed. In Natal, also, the main line had not advanced beyond

Ladysmith. The settlement, c. 1890, of the main lines of

the partition of the continent was followed by many projects

for the opening up of the possessions and spheres of influence

of the various powers by the building of railways; several of

these schemes being carried through in a comparatively short

time. The building of railways was undertaken by the governments

concerned, nearly all the African lines being state-owned. In

the Congo Free State a railway, which took some ten years to

build, connecting the navigable waters of the lower and middle

Congo, was completed in 1898, while in 1906 the middle and

upper courses of the river were linked by the opening of a

line past Stanley Falls. Thus the vast basin of the Congo

was rendered easily accessible to commercial enterprise. In

North Africa the Algerian and Tunisian railways were largely

extended, and proposals were made for a great trunk-line

from Tangier to Alexandria. The railway from Ain Sefra was

continued southward towards Tuat, the project of a trans-Saharan

line having occupied the attention of French engineers since

1880. In French West Africa railway communication between

the upper Senegal and the upper Niger was completed in 1904;

from the Guinea coast at Konakry another line runs north-east

to the upper Niger, while from Dahomey a third line goes to

the Niger at Garu. In the British colonies on the same coast

the building of railways was begun in 1896. A line to Kumasi

was completed in 1903, and the line from Lagos to the lower

Niger had reached Illorin in 1908. Thence the railway was

continued to the Niger at Jebba. From Baro, a port on the

lower Niger which can be reached by steamers all the year

round, another railway, begun in 1907, goes via Bida, Zungeru

and Zaria to Kano, a total distance of 400 miles. A line from

Jebba to Zungeru affords connexion with the Lagos railway.

But the greatest development of the railway systems was in

the south and east of the continent. In British East Africa

a survey for a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza was

made in 1892. The first rails were laid in 1896 and the line

reached the lake in December 1901. Meanwhile, there had been

a great extension of railways in South Africa. Lines from

Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Delagoa

Bay all converged on the newly risen city of Johannesburg,

the centre of the Rand gold mines. A more ambitious project

was that identified with the name of Cecil Rhodes, namely,

the extension northward of the railway from Kimberley with

the object of effecting a continuous railway connexion from

Cape Town to Cairo. The line from Kimberley reached Bulawayo

in 1897. (Bulawayo is also reached from Beira on the east

coast by another line, completed in 1902, which goes through

Portuguese territory and Mashonaland.) The extension of the

line northward from Bulawayo was begun in 1899, the Zambezi

being bridged, immediately below the Victoria Falls, in

1905. From this point the railway goes north to the Katanga

district of the Congo State. In the north of the continent

a step towards the completion of the Cape to Cairo route was

taken in the opening in 1899 of the railway from Wadi Haifa to

Khartum. A line of greater economic importance than the last

named is the railway (completed in 1905) from Port Sudan on the

Red Sea to the Nile a little south of Berber, thus placing the

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan within easy reach of the markets of the

world. A west to east connexion across the continent by rail

and steamer, from the mouth of the Congo to Port Sudan, was

arranged in 1906 when an agreement was entered into by the Congo

and Sudan governments for the building of a railway from Lado,

on the Nile, to the Congo frontier, there to meet a railway

starting from the river Congo near Stanley Falls. A railway of

considerable importance is that from Jibuti in the Gulf of Aden

to Harrar, giving access to the markets of southern Abyssinia.

Besides the railways mentioned there are several others of

less importance. Lines run from Loanda and other ports of

Angola towards the Congo State frontier, and from Tanga and

Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of German East Africa towards the

great lakes. In British Central Africa a railway connects

Lake Nyasa with the navigable waters of the Shire, and

various lines have been built by the French in Madagascar.

All the main railways in South Africa, the lines in British

West Africa, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and in Egypt

south of Luxor are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The main lines

in Lower Egypt and in Algeria and Tunisia are of 4 ft.

8 1/2 in. gauge. Elsewhere as in French West and British

East Africa the lines are of metre (3.28 ft.) gauge.

The telegraphic system of Africa is on the whole older than

that of the railways, the newer European possessions having

in most cases been provided with telegraph lines before

railway projects had been set on foot. In Algeria, Egypt

and Cape Colony the systems date back to the middle of the

19th century, before the end of which the lines had in each

country reached some thousands of miles. In tropical Africa

the systems of French West Africa, where the line from Dakar

to St Louis was begun in 1862, were the first to be fully

developed, lines having been carried from different points

on the coast of Senegal and Guinea towards the Niger, the

main line being prolonged north-west to Timbuktu, and west

and south to the coast of Dahomey. The route for a telegraph

line to connect Timbuktu with Algeria was surveyed in

1905. The Congo region is furnished with several telegraphic

systems, the longest going from the mouth of the river to Lake

Tanganyika. From Ujiji on the east coast of that lake there

is telegraphic communication via Tabora with Dar-es-Salaam and

via Nyasa and Rhodesia with Cape Town. The last-named line is

the longest link in the trans-continental line first suggested

in 1876 by Sir (then Mr) Edwin Arnold and afterwards taken

up by Cecil Rhodes. The northern link from Egypt to Khartum

has been continued southward to Uganda, while another line

connects Uganda with Mombasa. At the principal seaports the

inland systems are connected with submarine cables which place

Africa in telegraphic communication with the rest of the world.

Numerous steamship lines run from Great Britain, Germany,

France and other countries to the African seaports,

the journey from any place in western Europe to any

port on the African coast occupying, by the shortest

route, not more than three weeks. (E. HE., F. R. C.)

1 Further conferences respecting the liquor traffic

in Africa were held in Brussels in 1899 and 1906. In

both instances conventions were signed by the powers,

raising the minimum duty on imported spirituous liquors.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Authoritative works dealing with Africa

as a whole in any of its aspects are comparatively

rare. Besides such volumes the following list includes

therefore books containing valuable information

concerning large or typical sections of the continent:--

sec. I. General Descriptions.--(a) Ancient and Medieval.

Herodotus, ed. G. Rawlinson, 4 vols.1 (1880); Ptolemy's

Geographia, ed. C. Muller, vol. i. (Paris, 1883-1901); Ibn

Haukal, ``Description de l'Afrique (transl. McG. de Slane),

Nouv. Journal asiatique, 1842; Edrisi, ``Geographie''

(transl. Jaubert), Rec. de voyages . . . Soc. de

Geogr. vol. v. (Paris, 1836); Abulfeda, Geographie

(transl. Reinaud and Guyard, Paris, 1848-1883); M. A. P.

d'Avezac, Description de l'Afrique ancienne (Paris, 1845);

L. de Marmol, Description general de Africa (Granada,

1573); L. Sanuto, Geografia dell' Africa (Venice, 1588); F.

Pigafetta, A Report of the Kingdom of Congo, &c. (1597);

Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa

(transl. J. Pory, ed. R. Brown), 3 vols. (1896); O. Dapper,

Naukeurige beschrijvinge der afrikaensche gewesten, &c.

(Amsterdam, 1668) (also English version by Ogilvy, 1670, and

French version, Amsterdam, 1686); B. Tellez, ``Travels of

the Jesuits in Ethiopia,'' A New Collection of Voyages,

vol. vii. (1710); G. A. Cavazzi da Montecuccolo, Istorica

Descrittione de tre Regni Congo, Matamba, et Angola (Milan,

1690) (account of the labours of the Capuchin missionaries

and their observations on the country and people); J. Barbot,

``Description of the Coasts of North and South Guinea and of

Ethiopia Inferior,', Churchill's Voyages, vol. v. (1707); W.

Bosman, A New . . . Description of the Coasts of North and

South Guinea, &c., 2nd ed. (1721); J. B. Labat, Nouvelle

relation de l'Afrique occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1728);

Idem, Relation historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale, 5

vols. (Paris, 1732). (b) Modern. B. d'Anville, Memoire

conc. les rivieres de l'interieur de l'Afrique (Paris,

n.d.); M. Vollkommer, Die Quellen B. d'Anville's fur seine

kritische Karte von Afrika Munich, 1904); C. Ritter, Die

Erdkunde, i. Theil, 1. Buch, ``Afrika'' (Berlin, 1822);

l. M`Queen, Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and

Central Africa (Edinburgh, 1821 ); Idem, Geographical Survey

of Africa ( 1840); W. D. Cooley, Inner Africa laid open

(1852); E. Reclus, Nouvelle geographie universelle, vols.

x.-xiii. (1885-1888); A. H. Keane, Africa (in Stanford's

Compendium), 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1904-1907); F. Hahn and W.

Sievers, Afrika, 2. Aufl. (Leipzig, 1901); M. Fallex and A.

Mairey, L'Afrique au debut du XXe siecle (Paris, 1906);

Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies,

vols. iii. and iv. (Oxford, 1894, 1904); F. D. and A. J.

Herbertson, Descriptive Geographies from Original Sources:

Africa (1902); British Africa (The British Empire Series,

vol. ii., 1899); Journal of the African Society; Comite

de l'Afrique francaise, Bulletin, Paris; Mutteilungen der

afrikan. Gesellschaft in Deutschland (Berlin, 1879-1889);

Mitteilungen . . . aus den deutschen Schutzegebieten

(Berlin); H. Schirmer, Le Sahara (Paris, 1893); Mary H.

Kingsley, West African Studies, 2nd ed. (1901); J. Bryce,

Impressions of South Africa (1897); Sir Harry Johnston, The

Uganda Protectorate, 2 vols. (1902) (vol ii. is devoted to

anthropology); E. D. Morel, Affairs of West Africa (1902).

sec. II. Geography (Physical), Geology, Climate, Flora and

Fauna. -- (For Descriptive Geogr. see sec. I.)--G. Gurich,

``Uberblick uber den geolog. Bau des afr. Kontinents,''

Peterm. Mitt., 1887; A. Knox, Notes on the Geology of the

Continent of Africa (1906) (includes a bibliography); L. von

Hohnel, A. Rosiwal, F. Toula and E. Suess, B eitrage zur

geologischen Kenntniss des omstlichcn Afrika (Vienna, 1891);

E. Stromer, Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebieten

in Afrika (Munich, 1896); J. Chavanne, Afrika im Lichte

uniserer Tage: Bodengestalt, &c. (Vienna, 1881); F.

Heidrich, ``Die mittlere Hohe Afrikas,'' Peterm. Mitt.,

1888; J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift-Valley (1896); H. G.

Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin

(Cairo, 1906); S. Passarage, Die Kalahari: Versuch einer

physischgeogr. Darstellung . . . des sudafr. Beckens (Berlin,

1904); Idem, ``Inselberglandschaften im tropischen Afrika,''

Naturw. Wochenschrift, 1904. 654-665; J. E. S. Moore, The

Tanganyika, Problem (1903); W. H. Hudleston, ``On the Origin

of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika,'' Journ. of

Trans. Victoria Inst., 1904, 300-351 (discusses the whole

question of the geological history of equatorial Africa); E.

Stromer, ``Ist der Tanganyika ein Rellikten-See?'' Peterm.

Mitt., 1901, 275-278; E. Kohlschutter, ``Die . . . Arbeiten

der Pendelexpedition . . . in Deutsch-Ost-Afrika,'' Verh.

Deuts. Geographentages Breslau, 1901, 133-153; J. Cornet,

``La geologie du bassin du Congo,'' Bull. Soc. Beige

geol., 1898; E. G. Ravenstein, ``The Climatology of Africa''

(ten reports), Reports Brit. Association, 1892-1901; Idem,

``Climatological Observations . . . I. Tropical Africa''

(1904); H. G. Lyons, ``On the Relations between Variations of

Atmospheric Pressure . . . and the Nile Flood,'' Proc. Roy.

Soc., Ser. A, vol. lxxvi., 1905; P. Reichard, ``Zur Frage

der Austrocknung Afrikas,'' Geogr. Zeitschrift, 1895; J.

Hoffmann, ``Die tiefsten Temperaturen auf den Hochlandern,''

&c., Peterm. Mitt., 1905; G. Fraunberger, ``Studien uber die

jahrlichen Niederschlagsmengen des afrik. Kontinents,''

Peterm. Mitt., 1906; D. Oliver and Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer,

Flora of) Tropical Africa, 10 vols. (1888-1906); K.

Oschatz, Anordnung der Vegetation in Afrika (Erlangen,

1900); A. Engler, Hochgebirgs-flora des tropischen Afrika

(Berlin, 1892); Idem, Die Pflanzenwelt Ostaftikras und der

Nachbargebiete, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1895); Idem, Beitrage zur

Flora von Afrika (Engler's Botan. Jahrbucher, 14 vols.

&c.); W. P. Hiern, Catalogue of the African Plants Collected by

Dr Friedrich Welwitsch in 1853-1861, 2 vols. (1896-1901); R.

Schlechter, Westafrikanische Kautschuk-Expedition (Berlin,

1903); H. Baum, Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition (Berlin, 1903)

(largely concerned with botany); W. L. Sclater, ``Geography of

Mammals, No. iv. The Ethiopian Region,'' Geog. Journal,

March 1896; H. A. Bryden and others, Great and Small Game

of Africa (1899); F. C. Selous, African Nature Notes and

Reminiscences (1908); E. N. Buxton, Two African Trips:

with Notes and Suggestions on Big-Game Preservation in

Africa (1902) (contains photographs of living animals); G.

Schillings, With Flash-light and Rifle in Equatorial East

Africa (1906); Idem, In Wildest Africa (1907) (striking

collection of photographs of living wild animals); Exploration

scientifique de l'Algerie: Histoire naturelle, 14 vols.

and 4 atlases, Paris (1846-1850); Annales du Musee du

Congo: Botanique, Zoologie (Brussels, 1898, &c.). The

latest results of geographical research and a bibliography

of current literature are given in the Geographical

Journal, published monthly by the Royal Geographical Society.

sec. III. Ethnology.--H. Hartmann, Die Volker Afrikas

(Leipzig, 1879); B. Ankermann, ``Kulturkreise in Afrika,'' Zeit.

f. Eth. vol. xxxvii. p. 34; Idem, ``Uber den gegenwartigen

Stand der Ethnographie der Sudhalfte Afrikas,'' Arch.

f. Anth. n.f. iv. p. 24;G.Sergi, Antropologia della

stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897); J. Deniker, ``Distribution

geogr. et caracteres physiques des Pygmees africains,''

La Geographie, Paris, vol. viii. pp. 213-220; G. W.

Stow and G. M. Theal, The Native Races of South Africa

(1905); K. Barthel, Volkerbewegungen auf der Sudhalfte des

afrik. Kontinents (Leipzig, 1893); A. B. Ellis, The

Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (1887); Idem, The

Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1890); Idem, The

Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1894); H. Ling

Roth, Great Benin, its Customs, &c. (Halifax, 1903); H.

Frobenius, Die Heiden-Neger des agyptischen Sudan

(Berlin, 1893); Herbert Spencer and D. Duncan, Descriptive

Sociology, vol. iv. African Races (1875); A. de Preville,

Les Societes africaines (Paris, 1894); D. Macdonald,

Africana or, the Heart of Heathen Africa, 2 vols. (1882);

L. Frobenius, Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen

(Der Ursprung der Kultur, Band i.) (Berlin, 1898); Idem,

``Die Masken und Geheimbunde Afrikas,'' Abhandl. Kaiserl.

Leopoldin.-Carolin. Deuts. Akad. Naturforscher, 1899,

1-278; G. Schweinfurth, Artes africanae Illustrations and

Descriptions of . . . industrial Arts, &c. (in German and

English) (Leipzig, 1875); F. Ratzel, Die afsikanischen Bogen

. . . eine anthrop. geographische Studie (Leipzig, 1891); K.

Weule, . Der afrikanische Pfeil (Leipzig, 1899); H. Frobenius,

Afrikanische Bautypen (Dauchau bei Munchen, 1894); H.

Schurtz, Die afrikan. Gewerbe (Leipzig, 1900); E. W.

Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race (1887);

James Stewart, Dawn in the Dark Continent, or Africa and

its Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1903); W. H. J. Bleek,

Comparative Grammar of South African Languages, 2 parts

(1862-1869); Idem, Vocabularies of the Districts of Lourenzo

Marques, &c., &c. (1900); R. N. Cust, Sketch of the

Modern Languages of Africa, 2 vols. (1993): F. W. Kolbe, A

Language Study based on Bantu (1888); J. T. Last, Polyglotta

Africana orientalis (1885); J. Torrend, Comparative Grammar

of the South African Bantu Languages (1891); S. W. Koelle,

Polyglotta Africana (1854); C. Velten, Schilderungen

der Suaheli von Expeditionen v. Wissmanns, &c., &c. (1900)

(narratives taken down from the mouths of natives); A. Vierkandt,

Volksgedichte im westlichen Central-Afrika (Leipzig, 1895).

For latest information the following periodicals should be

consulted:-- Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great

Britain and Ireland; Man (same publishers); Zeitschrift

f. Ethnologie; Archiv f. Anthropologie; L'Anthropologie.

sec. IV. Archaeology and Art.-- Publications of the Egyptian

Exploration Fund; A. Mariette-Bey, The Monuments of Upper

Egypt (1890); H. Brugsch, Die Agyptologie (Leipzig, 1891);

G. Maspero, L' Archeologie egyptienne (Paris, 1890?);

R. Lepsius, Denkmaler aus Agypten und Athiopien . .

., 6 vols. (Berlin, 1849-1859); G. A. Hoskins, Travels in

Ethiopia . . . illustrating the Antiquities of the Ancient

Kingdom of Meroe (1835); Records of the Past: being English

Translations of . . . Egyptian Monuments, vols. 2, 4, 6, 8,

10, 12 (1873-1881); Ditto, new series, 6 vols. (1890-1892);

D. Randall-MacIver and A. Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901)

(archaeology and ethnology of North Africa); G. Boissier,

L'Afrique romaine Promenades archeologiques en Algerie

et en Tunisie, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1901); H. Randall-MacIver,

Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906); Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de

l'art egyptien d'apres les monuments, &c. with atlas (Paris,

1879; G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient

Egypt, 2 vols. (1993); H. Wallis, Egyptian Ceramic Art

(1900); C. H. Read and O. M. Dalton, Antiquities from the

City of Benin and from other parts of West Africa (1899).

sec. V. Travel and Exploration.--Dean W. Vincent, The Commerce

and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. 2, The Periplus ofthe

Erythraean Sea (1807); G. E. de Azurara, Chronicle of the

Discovery and Conquest of Guinea (Eng. trans., 2 vols.,

1896, 1899); R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator

(1868); E. G. Ravenstein, ``The Voyages of Diogo Cao and

Barth. Diaz,'' Geogr. Journ., Dec. 1900; O. Hartig,

``Altere Entdeckungsgeschichte und Kartographie Afrikas,''

Mitt. Geogr. Gesells. Wien, 1905; J. Leyden and H.

Murray, Historical Account of Discoveries, &c., 2 vols.,

2nd ed. (1818); T. E. Bowditch, Account of the Discoveries

of the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola and Mozambique

(1824); P. Paulitschke, Die geogr. Forschung des afrikan.

Continents (Vienna, 1880); A. Supan, ``Ein Jahrhundert der

Afrika-Forschung,'' Peterm. Mitt., 1888; R. Brown, The

Story of Africa and its Explorers, 4 vols. (1892-1895);

Sir Harry Johnston, The Nile Quest (1903); James Bruce,

Travels to discover the Source of the Nile in 1768-1773, 5

vols., Edinburgh (1790); Proceedings of the Association

for . . . Discovery of!the Interior Parts of Africa,

1790-1810; Mungo Park, Travels into the Interior Districts

of Africa (1799); Idem, Journal of a Mission, &c. (1815);

Capt. J. K. Tuckey, Narrative of an Expedition to explore

the River Zaire or Congo in 1816 (1818): D. Denham and H.

Clapperton, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in N. and

Cent. Africa (1826); R. Caillie, Journal d'un voyage

a Temboctu et a Jenne, 3 vols., Paris (1830); D. Livingstone,

Missionary Travels . . . in South Africa (1857); The Last

Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, ed. H.

Waller (1874); H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North

and Central Africa, 5 vols. (1857); J. L. Krapf, Travels,

Researches, &c., in Eastern Africa (1860); Sir R. F. Burton,

The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 2 vols. (1860); J. H.

Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile

(1863).: Sir S. W. Baker, The Albert Nyanza, 2 vols. (1866);

G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, 2 vols. (1873); V. L.

Cameron, Across Africa, 2 vols. (1877); T. Baines, The

Gold Regions of South-Eastern Africa (1877); Sir H. M.

Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, 2 vols. (1878);

Idem, In Darkest Africa, 2 vols. (1890); G. Nachtigal,

Sahara und Sudan, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1879-1889); P. S. de

Brazza, Les Voyages de . . . (1875-1882), Paris, 1884;

i. Thomson, Through Masai Land (1885); H. von Wissmann,

Unter Deutscher Flagge quer durch Afrika, &c. (Berlin,

1889); Idem, My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa

(1891); W. Junker, Travels in Africa 1875-1886, 3 vols.

(1890-1892); L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe de Guinee, &c.

(Paris, 1892); O. Baumann, Durch Masailand zur Nilquelle

(Berlin, 1894); R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904); C. A. von

Gotzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West (Berlin, 1896); L.

Vanutelli and C. Citerni, Seconda spedizione Bottego: L'Omo

(Milan, 1899); P. Foureau, D'Alger au Congo par le Tchad

(Paris, 1902); C. Lemaire, Mission scientifique du Ka-Tanga:

Journal de route, 1 vol., Resultats des observations,

16 parts (Brussels, 1902); A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa from

South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904); E.

Lenfant, La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905); Boyd

Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, 2 vols. (1907).

sec. VI. Historical and Political.--H.Schurtz, Africa

(World's History, vol. 3, part 3) (1903); Sir H. H. Johnston,

History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races

(Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional chapter ``Latest

Developments,'' 1905); A. H. L. Heeren, Reflections on the

Politics, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations of

Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawlinson, History of

Ancient Egypt (1881); A. Graham, Roman Africa (1902); J. de

Barros, Asia: Ira Decada, Lisbon (1552 and 1777-1778); J.

Strandes, Die Portugiesenzeit von . . . Ostafrika (Berlin,

1899); R. Schuck, Brandenburg- Preussens Kolonial-Politik

. . . 1641-1721, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1889): G. M`Call Theal,

History and Ethnography of Africa south of the Zambesi

. . . to 1795, 3 vols. (1907-1910), and History of South

Africa since September 1795 (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908); Idem,

Records of South-Eastern Africa, 9 vols., 1898-1903; Lady

Lugard, A Tropical Dependency: Outline of the History of

the Western Sudan, &c.; (1905); Sir F. Hertslet, The Map

of Africa by Treaty, 3 vols. (3rd ed., 1909); J . S. Keltie,

The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895); F. Van Ortroy,

Conventions internationales definissant les limites . . .

en Afrique (Brussels, 1898); General Act of the Conference

of Berlin, 1885: The Surveys and Explorations of British

Africa (Colonial Reports, No. 500) (1906), and annual reports

thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard, The Rise or our East African

Empire, 2 vols. (1893); E. Petit, Les colonies francaises,

2 vols. (Paris, 1902-1904); E. Rouard de Card, Les Traites

de protectorat conclus par la France en Afrique, 1870-1895

(Paris, 1897); A. J. de Araujo, Colonies portuguaises d'Afrique

Lisbon, 1900); B.Trognitz, ``Neue Arealbestimmung des Continents

Afrika,'' Petermanns Mitt., 1893, 220-221; A. Supan, ``Die

Bevolkerung der Erde,'' xii., Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh.

146 (Gotha, 1904) (deals with areas as well as population).

sec. VII. Commerce and Economics.--A. Silva White, The

Development of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892): K. Dove, ``Grundzuge

einer Wirtschaftsgeographie Afrikas,'' Geographische

Zeitschrift, 1905, i-18; E. Hahn, ``Die Stellung Afrikas in

der Geschichte des Welthandels,'' Verhandl. 11. Deutsch.

Geographentags zu Bremen (Berlin, 1896); L. de Launay,

Les Richesses minerales de l'Afrique (Paris, 1903); K.

Futterer, Afrika in seiner Bedeutung fur die Goldproduktion

(Berlin, 1894); P. Reichard, ``Das afrikan. Elfenbein und

sein Handel,'' Deutsche geogr. Blatter (Bremen, 1889); Sir

A. Moloney, Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887);

Dewevre, ``Les Caoutchoucs africains,'' Ann. Soc. Sci.

Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F. Buxton, The African Slave Trade

and its Remedy (1840); C. M. A. Lavigerie, L'Esclavage

africain (Paris, 1888); E. de Renty, Les chemins de fer

coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1903-1905); H. Meyer,

Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902); G.

Grenfell, ``The Upper Congo as a Waterway,'' Geogr. Journ.,

Nov. 1902; A. St. H. Gibbons, ``The Nile and Zambezi Systems

as Waterways,'' Journ. R. Colon. Inst., 1901; K. Lent,

``Verkehrsmittel in Ostafrika,'' Deutsches Kolonialblatt,

1894; ``Trade of the United Kingdom with the African Continent

in 1898-1902,'' Board of T. Journ., 1903; Diplomatic and

Consular Peports, Annual Series; Colonial Reports; T. H.

Parke, Guide to Health in Africa (1893); R. W. Felkin,

Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases in Africa (1895)

The following bibliographies may also be consulted: J. Gay,

Bibliographie des ouvrages relatifs a l'Afrique, &c. (San Remo,

1875); P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika-Literatur von 1500 bis 1750

(Vienne, 1882); Catalogue of the Colonial Office Library, vol.

3, Africa (specially for government publications). (E. HE.)

1 Where no place of publication is given, London is to be understood.

AFRICA, ROMAN. The Romans gave the name of Africa to

that part of the world which the Greeks called Libya

(Aibbe.) It comprised the whole of the portion of the

African continent known to the ancients, except Egypt and

Ethiopia. But besides this general sense, which occurs in

Pliny (iii. 3), Pomponius Mela (i. 8) and other authors, the

official and administrative language used the word Africa

in a narrower sense, which is noticed below. The term was

certainly borrowed by the Romans from the language of the

natives. In Latin literature it was employed for the

first time by the poet Ennius, who wrote in the interval

between the First and Second Punic Wars (Ann. vi.; Sat.

iii.). By him the term was confined to the territory of

Carthage and the regions composing the eastern group of the

Atlas. Among the numerous conjectures which have been made

as to the etymology of the term Africa ('Afrike) may be

quoted that which derives it from the Semitic radical resh

daleth pe (``separate''), Africa being considered, in this

connexion, as a Phoenician settlement ``separated'' from the

mother country, Asiatic Phoenicia. It has also been held that

the word Africa comes from friqi, farikia (the country of

fruit). The best hypothesis in the writer's opinion is that

maintained by Charles Tissot, who sees in the word ``Africa''

the name of the great Berber tribe, the Aourigha (whose name

would have been pronounced Afarika), the modern Aouraghen,

now driven back into the Sahara, but in ancient times the

principal indigenous element of the African empire of Carthage

(Tissot, Geogr. comp. i. 389). Thus Africa was originally,

in the eyes of the Romans and Carthaginians alike, the country

inhabited by the great tribe of Berbers or Numidians called

Afarik. Cyrenaica, on the east, attached to Egypt, was then

excluded from it, and, similarly, Mauretania, on the west.

At the time of the Third Punic War the Africa of the Carthaginians

was but a fragment of their ancient native empire. It comprised

the territory bounded by a vague line running from the mouth

of the Tusca (Wad el Kebir), opposite the island of Tabraca

(Tabarca), as far as the town of Thenae (Tina), at the mouth

of the Gulf of Gabes. The rest of Africa had passed into the

hands of the kings of Numidia, who were allies of the Romans.

After the capture of Carthage by Scipio (146 B.C.) this

territory was erected into a Roman province, and a trench,

the fossa regia, was dug to mark the boundary of the

Roman province of Africa and the dominions of the Numidian

princes. There have been discovered (1907) the remains of

this ditch protected by a low wall or a stone dyke; some of

the boundary stones which marked its course, and inscriptions

mentioning it, have also been found. From Testur on the

Mejerda the fossa regia can be followed by these indications

for several miles along the Jebel esh-Sheid. The ditch ran

northward to Tabarca and southward to Tina. The importance

of the discoveries lies in the fact that the ditch which

in later times divided the provinces of Africa vetus and

Africa nova was at the time of the Third Punic War the

boundary of Carthaginian territory (R. Cagnat, ``Le fosse

des frontieres romaines'' in Melanges Boissier, 1905, p.

227; L. Poinssot in Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscript.

et Belles Lettres, 1907, p. 466; Classical Review, 1907,

December, p. 255). The government of the Roman province thus

delimited was entrusted to a praetor or propraetor, of

whom several are now known, e.g. P. Sextilius, propraetor

Africae, according to coins of Hadrumetum of the year 94

B.C. The towns which had fought on the side of the Romans

during the Third Punic War were declared civitates liberae,

and became exceedingly prosperous. They were Utica (Bu

Shatir), Hadrumetum (Susa), Thapsus (Dimas), Leptis Minor

(Lemta), Achulla (Badria), Uzalis (about 11 m. from Utica)

and Theudalis. Those towns, however, which had remained

faithful to Carthage were destroyed, like Carthage itself.

After the Jugurthine war in 106, the whole of the regio

Tripolitana, comprising Leptis Magna (Lebda), Oea (Tripoli),

Sabrata, and the other towns on the littoral of the two Syrtes,

appears to have been annexed to the Roman province in a more

or less regular manner (Tissot ii. 21). The battle of Thapsus

in 46 made the Romans definitely masters of Numidia, and the

spheres of administration were clearly marked out. Numidia was

converted into a new province called ``Africa Nova,'' and of

this province the historian Sallust was appointed proconsul and

invested with the imperium. From that time the old province

of Africa was known as ``Africa Vetus'' or ``Africa Propria.''

This state of affairs, however, lasted but a short time. In

31 B.C. Octavius gave up Numidia, or Africa Nova, to King

Juba II. Five years later Augustus gave Mauretania and some

Gaetulian districts to Juba, and received in exchange Numidia,

which thus reverted to direct Roman control. Numidia, however,

no longer formed a distinct government, but was attached to the

old province of Africa. From 25 B.C. the Roman province of

Africa comprised the whole of the region between the mouth of

the Ampsaga (Wad Rummel, Wad el Kebir) on the west, and the two

tumuli called the altars of the Philaeni, the immutable boundary

between Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, on the east (Tissot ii.

261). In the partition of the government of the provinces of

the Roman empire between the senate and the emperor, Africa

fell to the senate, and was henceforth administered by a

proconsul. Subordinate to him were the legati pro consule,

who were placed at the head of districts called dioceses.

At first there were only three dioceses: Carthaginiensis,

Hipponiensis (headquarters Hippo Diarrhytus, now Bizerta),

and Numidica (headquarters Cirta, now Constantine). At

a later date the diocesis Hadrumetina was formed, and

perhaps at some date unknown the diocesis Tripolitana.

The province of Africa was the only senatorial province

whose governor had originally been invested with military

powers. The proconsul of Africa, in fact, had command of

the legio III. Augusta and the auxiliary corps. But in

A.D. 37 Caligula deprived the proconsul of his military

powers and gave them to the imperial legate (legatus Augusti

pro praetore provinciae Africae), who was nominated directly

by the emperor, and whose special duty it was to guard the

frontier zone (Tacitus, Mist. iv. 48; Dio Cass. lix. 20). The

headquarters of the imperial legate were originally at Cirta

and afterwards at Lambaesa (Lambessa). The military posts were

drawn up in echelon along the frontier of the desert, especially

along the southern slopes of the Aures, as far as Ad Majores

(Besseriani), and on the Tripolitan frontier as far as Cydamus

(Ghadames), forming an immense arc extending from Cyrenaica to

Mauretania. A network of military routes, constructed and

kept in repair by the soldiers, led from Lambaesa in all

directions, and stretched along the frontier as far as

Leptis Magna, passing Theveste (Tebessa), Thenae and Tacape

(Gabes). The powers of the proconsul, however, extended

scarcely beyond the ancient Africa Vetus and the towns on the

littoral. Towards 194 Septimius Severus completed the reform

of Caligula by detaching from the province of Africa the greater

part of Numidia to constitute a special province governed by a

procurator, subordinate to the imperial legate and resident

at Cirta (Tissot ii. 34). This province was called Numidia

Cirtensis, as opposed to Numidia Inferior or proconsular Numidia.

In Diocletian's great reform of the administrative system of

the empire, the whole of Roman Africa, with the exception of

Mauretania Tingitana (which was attached to the province of

Spain), constituted a single diocese subdivided into six

provinces: Zeugitana (Carthage), Byzacium (Hadrumetum, now

Susa), Numidia Cirtensis (Cirta, Constantine), Tripolitana

(Tripolis), Mauretania Sitifensis (Sitifis, Setif), and

Mauretania Caesariensis (Caesarea, now Cherchel). These

provinces were administered, according to circumstances, by

a praeses of senatorial rank, a legatus pro praetore, or

a vir clarissimus consularis. Some changes were eventually

necessitated by the wars with the Moors and the Vandals.

By a treaty concluded in 476, the emperor Zeno recognized

Genseric as master of all Africa. Reconquered by Belisarius in

534, Africa formed, under the name of praefectura Africae,

one of the great administrative districts of the Byzantine

empire. It was subdivided into six provinces, which were

placed under the authority of the praetorian prefect of

Africa. These provinces were Zeugitana (the former

Proconsularis), Carthage, Byzacium, Tripolitana, Numidia and

Mauretania. The civil government was carried on by consulares

or praesides, while the military government was in the

hands of four duces militum, who made strenuous efforts to

drive out the barbarians. The country was studded thickly

with burgi (small forts) and clausurae (long walls), the

ruins of which still subsist. In 647 the Arabs penetrated

into Ifrikia, which was destined to fall for ever out

of the grasp of the Romans. In 697 Carthage was taken.

The bulk of the population of Roman Africa was invariably

composed of three chief elements: the indigenous Berber tribes,

the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician origin and the Roman

colonists. The Berber tribes, whose racial unity is attested by

their common spoken language and by the comparatively numerous

Berber inscriptions that have come down to us, bore in ancient

times the generic names of Numidians, Gaetulians and Moors or

Maurusiani. Herodotus mentions a great number of these

tribes. During the Roman period, according to Pliny, there

were settlements of 26 indigenous tribes extending from the

Ampsaga as far as Cyrenaica. The much more detailed list of

Ptolemy enumerates 39 indigenous tribes in the province of

Africa and 25 in Mauretania Caesariensis. Ammianus Marcellinus,

Procopius and Flavius Cresconius Corippus give still further

names. Besides the Afri (Aourigha) of the territory of

Carthage, the principal tribes that took part in the wars

against the Romans were the Lotophagi, the Garamantes, the

Maces, the Nasamones in the regions of the S.E., the Misulani

or Musulamii (whence the name Mussulman), the Massyli

and the Massaesyli in the E., who were neighbours of the

Moors. The non-nomads of these Libyan tribes dwelt in huts

made of stakes supporting plaited mats of rush or asphodel.

These dwellings, which were called mapalia, are the modern

gourbis. African epigraphy has revealed the names of some

of their deities: deus invictus Aulisva; the god Motmanius,

associated with Mercury; the god Lilleus; Baldir Augustus;

Kautus pater; the goddess Gilva, identified with Tellus, and

Ifru Augustus (Tissot i. 486). The Johannis of Corippus

mentions three native divinities: Sinifere, Mastiman and

Gurzil. There were also local divinities in all the principal

districts. The rock bas-reliefs and other monuments showing

native divinities are rare, and give only very summary

representations. Dolmens, however, occur in great numbers

in Tunisia and the province of Constantine. Tumuli, too,

are found throughout northern Africa, the most celebrated

being that near Cherchel, the Kubr-er-Rumia (``tomb of

the Christian lady''), which was regarded by Pomponius

Mela as the royal burying-place of the kings of Numidia.

During the Roman period the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician

origin and the bastard population termed by ancient authors

Libyo-Phoenicians, like the modern Maltese, invariably formed

the predominant population of the towns on the littoral,

and retained the Punic language until the 6th century of the

Christian era. The municipal magistrates took the title of

suffetes in place of that of duumvirs, and in certain

towns the Christian bishops were obliged to know the lingua

Punica, since it was the only language that the people

understood. Nevertheless, the Roman functionaries, the

army and the colonists from Italy soon brought the Latin

element into Africa, where it flourished with such vigour

that, in the 3rd century, Carthage became the centre of a

Romano-African civilization of extraordinary literary brilliancy,

which numbered among its leaders such men as Apuleius,

Tertullian, Arnobius, Cyprian, Augustine and many others.

Carthage regained its rank of capital of Africa under

Augustus, when thousands of Roman colonists flocked to the

town. Utica became a Roman colony under Hadrian, and the

civitates liberae, municipia, castella, pagi and turres

were peopled with Latins. The towns of the ancient province

of Africa which received coloniae were very numerous:

Abitensis (civitas Avittensis Bibba), Bisica Lucana

(Tastour), Byzacium, Capsa (Gafsa), Carthage, Cuina, Curubis

(Kurba), Hadrumetum (Susa), Hippo Diarrhytus or Zarytus

(Bizerta), Leptis Magna (Lebda), Maxula (Ghades, Rades or

Gades), Neapolis (Nabel, Nebeul), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata

(Zoara), colonia Scillitana (Ghasrin), Sufes (Sbiba), Tacape

(Gabes), Thaenae or Thenae (Tina), Thelepte (Medinet Kedima),

Thugga (Dugga), Thuburbo maius (Kasbat), Thysdrus (El Jem),

Uthina (Wadna) and Vallis (Median). Of the municipia may

be mentioned Gigthis or Gigthi (Bu Grara), Thibussicensium

Bure (Tebursuk), Zita and the turris Tamalleni (Telmin).

The province of Numidia was at first colonized principally by

the military settlements of the Romans. Cirta (Constantine)

and Bulla Regia(Hammam Darraj), its chief towns, received

coloniae of soldiers and veterans, as well as Theveste

(Tebessa) and Thamugas (Timgad). The fine ruins which have

been discovered at the last-mentioned place have earned

for it the surname of the African Pompeii (see below).

Archaeology.--Roman Africa has been the subject of innumerable

historical and archaeological researches, especially since

the conquest of Algeria and Tunisia by the French. The

country is covered with Roman and Byzantine remains. Each

of these ruins has been visited by archaeologists who have

copied inscriptions, described the temples, triumphal arches,

porticos, mausoleums and the other monuments which are still

standing, collected statues or other antiquities; and in many

cases they have actually excavated. The results of all these

labours have been published, from about 1850 onwards, annually,

and, indeed, almost from day to day, in various scientific

periodicals. Among the principal of these are:--Memoires

de la Societe archeologique de Constantine, Bulletin

de la Societe geographique et archeologique d'Oran,

Revue africaine of Algiers, to which we should add the

Revue archeologique of Paris, the Archives des missions

scientifiques and the Bulletin archeologique du Comite

des travaux historiques and the Melanges of the French

School at Rome. In all the towns of Algeria and Tunisia

museums have been founded for storing the antiquities of

the region; the most important of these are the museums of

St Louis, Carthage and the palace of Bardo (musee Alaoui)

near Tunis, those of Susa, Constantine, Lambessa, Timgad,

Tebessa, Philippeville, Cherchel and Oran. Under the title

of Musees et collections archeologiques de l'Algerie

et de la Tunisie, the Ministry of Public Instruction

publishes from time to time illustrated descriptions of all

these archaeological treasures. In this collection have

already appeared descriptions of the museums of Algiers by

G. Doublet; of Constantine by G. Doublet and P. Gauckler;

of Oran by R. de La Blanchere; of Cherchel by P. Gauckler;

of Lambessa by R. Cagnat; of Philippeville by S. Gsell and

Bertrand; of the Bardo by R. de La Blanchere and P. Gauckler;

of Carthage by R. P. Delattre; of Tebessa by S. Gsell; of

Susa by P. Gauckler; of Timgad by R. Cagnat and A. Ballu.

The archaeological exploration of Algeria has kept pace with

the expansion of French dominion. From 1846 to 1854 Delamarre

published his Exploration archeologique de l'Algerie, in

collaboration with the French officers. In 1850 Leon Renier

was officially instructed to collect all the inscriptions in

Algeria which should be found by the military expeditionary

columns. This scholar examined first the ruins of Lambessa,

an account of which he published in 1854 in his Melanges

d'epigraphie; subsequently he made his important collection

of Inscriptions romaines de l'Algerie (1855-1858)

which formed the groundwork of the volume of the Corpus

Inscr. Lat. of the Academy of Berlin, devoted to Roman

Africa. A little later General Faidherbe published his

Collection complete des inscriptions numidiques

(1870). Apart from the province of Constantine, Algeria

is less rich in Roman remains than Tunisia; mention must,

however, be made of the excavations of Victor Waille at

Cherchel, where were found fine statues in the Greek style

of the time of King Juba II.; of P. Gavault at Tigzirt

(Rusuccuru), and finally of those of Stephane Gsell at Tipasa

(basilica of St Salsa) and throughout the district of Setif

and at Khamissa (Thuburticum Numidarum). In the department

of Constantine, which is peculiarly rich in Roman remains,

Tebessa has been most carefully explored by M. Heron de

Villefosse, who has laid bare a beautiful temple of Jupiter,

a triumphal arch of Caracalla, a Byzantine basilica and the

gate of the Byzantine general Solomon. But all these ruins

fade into insignificance in comparison with the majestic

grandeur of those of Timgad which are almost entirely laid

bare; they are described in Timgad, une cite africaine sous

l'empire romain, by R. Cagnat, G. Boeswillwald and A. Ballu.

In Tunisia, Carthage early became the object of archaeological

investigation. Major Humbert was sent there by Napoleon

in 1808 and his notes are still preserved in the museum of

Leiden. Chateaubriand visited and described the ruins; the Dane

Falbe, the Englishman Nathan Davis, Beule, P. de Sainte-Marie

and others also have carried out researches; for more than

twenty years Pere Delattre has explored the ruins of Carthage

(q.v.) with extraordinary success. For the rest of Tunisia,

the first explorer interested in archaeology was Victor

Guerin in 1860; his results are contained in his remarkable

Voyage archeologique dans la Regence de Tunis (1862, 2

vols.). A. Daux, in the years preceding 1869, explored the

sites of the ancient harbours of Utica, Hadrumetum, Thapsus

(Dimas). But it was the occupation of Tunisia by the French

in 1881 which really gave the impetus to modern investigations

in this district of ruined cities. They were put on a solid

foundation by the publication of the Geographie comparee

of Charles Tissot (1884). Trained scholars were sent there

annually by the French government: Cagnat, Saladin, Poinssot,

La Blanchere, S. Reinach, E. Babelon, Carton, Audollent,

Steph. Gsell, J. Toutain, Esperandieu, Gauckler, Merlin,

Homo and many others, to say nothing of German scholars, such

as Willmans and Schulten, and especially of a great number

of enthusiastic officers of the army of occupation, who

explored all the ancient sites, and in many cases excavated

with great success (for their results see the works quoted

above). It would be impossible to enumerate here all the

monographs describing, for example, the ruins of Carthage, those

of the temple of the waters at Mount Zaghuan, the amphitheatre

of El Jem (Thysdrus), the temple of Saturn, the royal tomb

and the theatre of Dugga (Thugga), the bridge of Chemtu

(Simitthu), the ruins and cemeteries of Tebursuk and Medeina

(Althiburus), the rich villa of the Laberii at Wadna (Uthina),

the sanctuary of Saturn Balcaranensis on the hill called

Bu-Kornain, the ruins of the district of Enfida (Aphrodisium,

Uppenna, Segermes), those of Leptis minor (Lemta), of Thenae

(near Sfax), those of the island of Meninx (Jerba), of the

peninsula of Zarzis, of Mactar, Sbeitla (Sufetula), Gigthis

(Bu-Grara), Gafsa (Capsa), Kef (Sicca Veneria), Bulla Regia, &c.

From this accumulation of results most valuable evidence as to

the history and more especially the internal administration of

Africa under the Romans has been derived. In particular we know

how rural life was there developed, and with what care the water

necessary for the growing of cereals was everywhere provided.

Sculpture throughout the district is very provincial and of

minor importance; the only exceptions are certain statues found

at Carthage and Cherchel, the capital of the Mauretanian kings.

AUTHORITIES.--Among general works on the subject may be

mentioned: Morcelli, Africa christiana (1816); Gustave

Boissiere, L'Algerie romaine (2nd ed., 1883); E. Mercier,

Histoire de l'Afrique septentrionale (1888); Charles Tissot,

Geographie comparee de la province romaine d'Afrique

(1884-1888), with atlas; Vivien de Saint-Martin, Le Nord

de l'Afrique dans l'antiquite grecque et romaine (1883);

Gaston Boissier, L'Afrique romaine (1895); Cl. Pallu de

Lessert, Fastes des provinces africaines (Proconsulaire,

Numidie, Mauretainie) sous la domination romaine

(1896-1901); R. Cagnat, L'Armee romaine d'Afrique

(1892); A. Daux, Les Emporia pheniciens dans le Zeugis

et le Byzacium (1869); Ludwig Muller, Numismatique de

l'ancienne Afrique (1860-1862; Supplement, 1874); Ch. Diehl,

L'Afrique byzantine (1896); Stephane Gsell, Recherches

archeologiques en Afrique (1893); Paul Monceaux, Histoire

litteraire de l'Afrique chretienne (1901-1905); J.

Toutain, Les Cites romaines de la Tunisie (1895); Atlas

archeologique de la Tunisie, published by the Ministry of

Public Instruction (1895 foll.); Atlas archeologique de

l'Algerie, published by Stephane Gsell (1900 foll.);

Toulotte, Geographie de l'Afrique chretienne (1892-1894);

Corpus inscriptionum latiniarum, vol. viii. and Supplement

(1881). Cf. also articles CARTHAGE, NUMIDIA, &c.,

JUGURTHA, and articles relating to Roman History. (E. B.n)

AFRICAN LILY (Agapanthus umbellatus), a member of

the natural order Liliaceae, a native of the Cape of Good

Hope, whence it was introduced at the close of the 17th

century. It is a handsome greenhouse plant, which is hardy

in the south of England and Ireland if protected from severe

frosts. It has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow,

arching leaves, 1/2 to 2 ft. long, and a central flower-stalk, 2

to 3 ft. high, ending in an umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped

flowers. The plants are easy to cultivate, and are generally

grown in large pots or tubs which can be protected from frost in

winter. During the summer they require plenty of water,

and are very effective on the margins of lakes or running

streams, where they thrive admirably. They increase by

offsets, or may be propagated by dividing the root-stock

in early spring or autumn. A number of forms are known in

cultivation; such are albidus, with white flowers, aureus,

with leaves striped with yellow, and variegatus, with leaves

almost entirely white with a few green bands. There are

also double-flowered and larger and smaller flowered forms.

AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, a Christian traveller and historian

of the 3rd century, was probably born in Libya, and may have

served under Septimius Severus against the Osrhoenians in

A.D. 195. Little is known of his personal history, except

that he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to

the emperor Heliogabalus1 to ask for the restoration of the

town, which had fallen into ruins. His mission succeeded,

and Emmaus was henceforward known as Nicopolis. Dionysius

bar-Salibi makes him a bishop, but probably he was not even a

presbyter. He wrote a history of the world(Chronografiai,

in five books) from the creation to the year A.D. 221, a

period, according to his computation, of 5723 years. He

calculated the period between the creation and the birth of

Christ as 5499 years, and ante-dated the latter event by three

years. This method of reckoning became known as the Alexandrian

era, and was adopted by almost all the eastern churches. The

history, which had an apologetic aim, is no longer extant, but

copious extracts from it are to be found in the Chronicon of

Eusebius, who used it extensively in compiling the early episcopal

lists. There are also fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus and

the Paschale Chronicon. Eusebius (Hist. Ecc. i. 7, cf.

vi. 31) gives some extracts from his letter to one Aristides,

reconciling the apparent discrepancy between Matthew and

Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a reference to the Jewish

law, which compelled a man to marry the widow of his deceased

brother, if the latter died without issue. His terse and

pertinent letter to Origen, impugning the authority of the

apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's wordy and uncritical

answer, are both extant. The ascription to Africanus of an

encyclopaedic work entitled Kestoi (embroidered girdles),

treating of agriculture, natural history, military science,

&c., has been needlessly disputed on account of its secular

and often credulous character. Neander suggests that it

was written by Africanus before he had devoted himself

to religious subjects. For a new fragment of this work

see Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Grenfell and Hunt), iii. 36 ff.

AUTHORITIES.--Edition in M. J. Routh, Rel. Sac. ii. 219-509;

translation in Ante-Nicene Fathers (S. D. F. Salmond) vi.

125-140. See H. Gelzer, Sex. Jul. Africanus und die

byzant. Chronographie, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1880-1885);

G. Kruger, Early Christian Literature, 248-253; A.

Harnack, Altchristl. Litt. Gesch. i. 507, ii. 70.

1 So Eusebius. Syncellus says Alexander Severus.

AFRIDI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains on the

Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier province of

India. The Afridis are the most powerful and independent

tribe on the border, and the largest with the exception of the

Waziris. Their special country is the lower and easternmost

spurs of the Safed Koh range, to the west and south of the

Peshawar district, including the Bazar and Bara valleys.

On their east they are bounded by British districts, on the

north by the Mohmands, on the west by the Shinwaris and on

the south by the Orakzai and Bangash tribes. Their origin

is obscure, but they are said to have Israelitish blood

in their veins, and they have a decidedly Semitic cast of

features. They are possibly the Aparytai of Herodotus,

the names and positions being identical. If this theory is

correct, they were then a powerful people, and held a large

tract of country, but have been gradually driven back by the

encroachments of other tribes. The tribe is divided into

the following eight clans:--Kuki Khel, Malikdin Khel, Kambar

Khel, Kamar Khel, Zakka Khel (the most numerous and the most

turbulent), Sipah, Aka Khel and Adam Khel. The first seven

clans live in the vicinity of the Khyber Pass, and migrate

to Tirah in the summer months. The Adam Khel (5900 fighting

men) live round the Kohat Pass, and are more settled and less

migratory in their habits. In appearance the Afridi is a

fine, tall, athletic highlander with a long, gaunt face,

high nose and cheek-bones, and a fair complexion. On his own

hillside he is one of the finest skirmishers in the world,

and in the Indian army makes a first-rate soldier, but he is

apt to be home-sick when removed from the air of his native

mountains. In character the Afridi has obtained an evil name

for ferocity, craft and treachery, but Colonel Sir Robert

Warburton, who lived eighteen years in charge of the Khyber

Pass and knew the Afridi better than any other Englishman,

says:--``The Afridi lad from his earliest childhood is taught

by the circumstances of his existence and life to distrust

all mankind, and very often his near relations, heirs to his

small plot of land by right of inheritance, are his deadliest

enemies. Distrust of all mankind, and readiness to strike

the first blow for the safety of his own life, have therefore

become the maxims of the Afridi. If you can overcome this

mistrust, and be kind in words to him, he will repay you by

a great devotion, and he will put up with any treatment you

like to give him except abuse.'' In short the Afridi has the

vices and virtues of all Pathans in an enhanced degree. The

fighting strength of the Afridis is said to be 27,000, but this

estimate is excessive, judged by the number and size of their

villages. They derive their importance from their geographical

position, which gives them command of the Khyber and Kohat

roads, and the history of the British connexion with them

has been almost entirely with reference to these two passes.

There have been several British expeditions against the separate clans:--

(1) Expedition against the Kohat Pass Afridis under Sir Colin

Campbell in 1850. The British connexion with the Adam Khel

Afridis commenced immediately after the annexation of the Peshawar

and Kohat districts. Following the example of all previous

rulers of the country, the British agreed to pay the tribe a

subsidy to protect the pass. But in 1850 a thousand Afridis

attacked a body of sappers engaged in making the road, killing

twelve and wounding six. It was supposed that they disliked

the making of a road which would lay open their fastnesses

to regular troops. An expedition of 3200 British troops was

despatched, which traversed the country and punished them.

(2) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis of the Bori villages in

1853. When the Afridis of the Kohat Pass misbehaved in 1850, the

Jowaki Afridis offered the use of their route instead; but they

turned out worse than the others, and in 1853 a force of 1700

British traversed their country and destroyed their stronghold at

Bori. The Jowaki Afridis are a clan of the Adam Khel, who inhabit

the country lying between the Kohat Pass and the river Indus.

(3) Expedition against the Aka Khel Afridis under Colonel

Craigie in 1855. In 1854 the Aka Khels, not finding

themselves admitted to a share of the allowances of the

Kohat Pass, commenced a series of raids on the Peshawar

border and attacked a British camp. An expedition of 1500

troops entered the country and inflicted severe punishment

on the tribe, who made their submission and paid a fine.

(4) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Colonel Mocatta in

1877. In that year the government proposed to reduce the Jowaki

allowance for guarding the Kohat Pass, and the tribesmen resented

this by cutting the telegraph wire and raiding into British

territory. A force of 1500 troops penetrated their country in

three columns, and did considerable damage by way of punishment.

(5) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Brigadier-General

Keyes in 1877-78. The punishment inflicted by the previous

expedition did not prove sufficiently severe, the attitude of

the Jowakis continued the same and their raids into British

territory went on. A much stronger force, therefore, of

7400 British troops, divided into three columns, destroyed

their principal villages and occupied their country for some

time, until the tribe submitted and accepted government

terms. The Kohat Pass was afterwards practically undisturbed.

(6) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar

Valley under Brigadier-General Tytler in 1878. At the time of

the British advance into Afghanistan, during the second Afghan

War, the Zakka Khel opposed the British advance and attacked

their outposts. A force of 2500 British troops traversed

their country, and the tribesmen made their submission.

(7) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar

Valley under Lieutenant-General Maude in 1879. After the

previous expedition the Afridis of the Khyber Pass continued

to give trouble during the progress of the second Afghan

War, so another force of 3750 British troops traversed their

country, and after suffering some loss the tribesmen made

their submission. After this both the Khyber and Kohat

Passes were put on a stable footing, and no further trouble

of any consequence occurred in either down to the time of

the frontier risings of 1897, when the Afridis attacked

the Khyber Pass, which was defended by Afridi levies.

(8) For the Tirah Campaign of 1897 see TIRAH CAMPAIGN.

(9) In the February of 1908 the restlessness of the Zakka Khel

again made a British expedition necessary, under Sir James

Willcocks; but the campaign was speedily ended, though in the

following April he had again to proceed against the Mohmands,

the situation being complicated by an incursion from Afghanistan.

See also Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884);

Warburton's Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). (C. L.)

AFTERGLOW, a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light appearing

occasionally in the sky above the highest clouds in the hour

of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snowfields

in mountain regions long after sunset. The phenomenon is due

to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions

of the atmosphere that produce a scattering effect upon the

component parts of white light. After the eruption of Krakatoa in

1883, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared all over the

world. These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly

fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion,

and then universally diffused by the high atmospheric currents.

AFZELIUS, ADAM (1750-1837), Swedish botanist, was born at

Larf, Vestergotland, in 1750. He was appointed teacher

of oriental languages at Upsala in 1777, and in 1785

demonstrator of botany. From 1792 he spent some years on

the west coast of Africa, and in 1797-1798 acted as secretary

of the Swedish embassy in London. Returning to Sweden, he

founded the Linnaean institute at Upsala in 1802, and in

1812 became professor of materia medica at the university.

He died at Upsala in 1837. In addition to various botanical

writings, he published the autobiography of Linnaeus in 1823.

His brother, JOHAN AFZELIUS (1753-1837),known as ARVIDSON,

was professor of chemistry at Upsala; and another brother, PER

AF (1760-1843), who became professor of medicine at Upsala in

1801, was distinguished as a medical teacher and practitioner.

AFZELIUS, ARVID AUGUST (1785-1871), Swedish pastor, poet,

historian and mythologist, was born on the 8th of October

1785. From 1828 till his death on the 25th of September 1871

he was parish priest of Enkoping. He is mainly known as a

collaborator with the learned historian, Erik Gustaf Geijer, in

the great collection of Swedish folk-songs, Svenske folkirsor

fran forntiden, 3 vols. (Stockholm, 1814-1816). He published

also translations of the Samunder Edda and Herwara-Saga,

and a history of Sweden to Charles XII. (of which a German

translation was published in 1842), as well as original poems.

AGA, or AGHA, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying

a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is applied to the

chief of the janissaries, to the commanders of the artillery,

cavalry and infantry, and to the eunuchs in charge of the

seraglio. It is also employed generally as a term of

respect in addressing wealthy men of leisure, landowners, &c.

AGAIAMBO, or AGAUMBU, a race of dwarf marsh-dwellers

in British New Guinea, now almost extinct. In his annual

report for 1904 the acting administrator of British New

Guinea stated that on a visit he paid to their district

he saw six males and four females. The Agaiambo live in

huts erected on piles in the lakes and marshes. Dwarfish

in stature but broadly built, they are remarkable for the

shortness of their legs. They live almost entirely in their

``dug-outs'' or canoes, or actually wading in the water.

Their food consists of sago, the roots of the water-lily and

fish. The Agaiambo are believed to have been formerly

numerous, but within the last few years have suffered from the

raids of their cannibalistic Papuan neighbours. In features,

colour and hair they closely resemble the true Papuans.

AGA KHAN I., HIS HIGHNESS THE (1800-1881), the title

accorded by general consent to HASAN ALI SHAH (born in Persia,

1800), when, in early life, he first settled in Bombay under

the protection of the British government. He was believed to

have descended in direct line from Ali by his wife Fatima, the

daughter of the Prophet Mahomet. Ali's son, Hosain, having

married a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the

time of Mahomet, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the

royal house of Persia from the most remote, almost prehistoric,

times. His ancestors had also ruled in Egypt as caliphs

of the Beni-Fatimites for a number of years, at a period

coeval with the Crusades. Before the Aga Khan emigrated from

Persia, he was appointed by the emperor Fateh Ali Shah to be

governor-general of the extensive and important province of

Kerman. His rule was noted for firmness, moderation and

high political sagacity, and he succeeded for a long time

in retaining the friendship and confidence of his master the

shah, although his career was beset with political intrigues

and jealousy on the part of rival and court favourites,

and with internal turbulence. At last, however, the fate

usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, and

he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh Ali Shah. He

fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory,

preferring to settle down eventually in India, making Bombay his

headquarters. At that period the first Afghan War was at its

height, and in crossing over from Persia through Afghanistan

the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services

to the British army, and thus cast in his lot for ever with the

British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous

services in the course of the Sind campaign, when his help

was utilized by Napier in the process of subduing the frontier

tribes, a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority

as their spiritual head. Napier held his Moslem ally in great

esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political

acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan

reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship

by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to

the British government, and when he finally settled down in

India, his position as the leader of the large Ismailiah

section of Mahommedan British subjects was recognized by the

government, and the title of His Highness was conferred on

him, with a large pension. From that time until his death

in 1881 the Aga Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful

and peacemaking citizen, under the protection of British

rule, continued to discharge his sacerdotal functions,

not only among his followers in India, but towards the

more numerous communities which acknowledged his religious

sway in distant countries, such as Afghanistan, Khorasan,

Persia, Arabia, Central Asia, and even distant Syria and

Morocco. He remained throughout unflinchingly loyal to the

British Raj, and by his vast and unquestioned influence

among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of India

he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times of

trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several

expeditions led by British arms on the north-west frontier of

India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism

of the more turbulent Mahommedans in British India,

which in times of internal troubles and misunderstandings

finds vent in the shape of religious or political riots.

He was succeeded by his eldest son, AGA KHAN II. This prince

continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner

that won the approbation of the local government, and earned

for him the distinction of a knighthood of the Order of the

Indian Empire and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay.

AGA KHAN III. (Sultan Mahommed Shah), only son of the

foregoing, succeeded him on his death in 1885, and became

the head of the family and its devotees. He was born in

1877, and, under the care of his mother, a daughter of the

ruling house of Persia, was given not only that religious and

oriental education which his position as the religious leader

of the Ismailians made indispensable, but a sound European

training, a boon denied to his father and grandfather. This

blending of the two systems of education produced the happy

result of fitting this Moslem chief in an eminent degree both

for the sacerdotal functions which appertain to his spiritual

position, and for those social duties of a great and enlightened

leader which he was called upon to discharge by virtue of that

position. He travelled in distant parts of the world to

receive the homage of his followers, and with the object

either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare

by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The

distinction of a knight commander of the Indian Empire was

conferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897, and he received

like recognition for his public services from the German emperor,

the sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates.

See Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan (1903) (M. M. BH.)

AGALMATOLITE (from Gr. agalma, statue, and

lithos, stone), a soft species of mineral, also called

pagodite, used by the Chinese for carving, especially

into grotesque figures (whence called ``figure-stone'').

AGAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Erginus, king of Orchomenus in

Boeotia. He is always associated with his brother Trophonius

as a wonderful architect, the constructor of underground

shrines and grottos for the reception of hidden treasure. When

building a treasure-house for Hyrieus, the brothers fixed one

of the stones in the wall so that they could remove it whenever

they pleased, and from time to time carried off some of the

treasure. Hyrieus thereupon set a trap in which Agamedes

was caught; Trophonius, to prevent discovery, cut off his

brother's head and fled with it. He was pursued by Hyrieus,

and swallowed up by the earth in the grove of Lebadeia. On

this spot was the oracle of Trophonius in an underground cave;

those who wished to consult it first offered the sacrifice of

a ram and called upon the name of Agamedes. A similar story

is told of Rhampsinitus by Herodotus (ii. 121). According

to Pindar (apud Plutarch), the brothers built the temple

of Apollo at Delphi; when they asked for a reward, the god

promised them one in seven days; on the seventh day they died.

Pausanias ix. 37; Plutarch, Consolatio ad

Apollonium, 14; Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 47.

AGAMEMNON, one of the most distinguished of the Greek

heroes, was the son of Atreus (king of Mycenae) and Aerope,

grandson of Pelops, great-grandson of Tantalus and brother of

Menelaus. Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes

(the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been

Aerope's first husband. Atreus was murdered by Aegisthus

(q.v.), who took possession of the throne of Mycenae and

ruled jointly with his father Thyestes. During this period

Agamemnon and Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, king

of Sparta, whose daughters Clytaemnestra (more correctly

Clytaemestra) and Helen they respectively married. By

Clytaemnestra, Agamemnon had three daughters, Iphigeneia

(Iphianassa), Electra (Laodice), Chrysothemis, and a son,

Orestes. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus, and Agamemnon,

with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and

Thyestes, and recovered his father's kingdom. He extended his

dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in

Greece. When Paris (Alexander), son of Priam, had carried

off his brother's wife, he went round to the princes of the

country and called upon them to unite in a war of revenge

against the Trojans. He himself furnished 100 ships, and

was chosen commander-in-chief of the combined forces. The

fleet, numbering 1200 ships, assembled at the port of Aulis in

Boeotia. But Agamemnon had offended the goddess Artemis by

slaying a hind sacred to her, and boasting himself a better

hunter. The army was visited by a plague, and the fleet was

prevented from sailing by the total absence of wind. Calchas

announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be appeased

by the sacrifice of Iphigeneia (q.v..) The fleet then set

sail. Little is heard of Agamemnon until his quarrel with Achilles

(q.v..) After the capture of Troy, Cassandra, the daughter of

Priam, fell to his lot in the distribution of the prizes of

war. On his return, after a stormy voyage, he landed in

Argolis. His kinsman, Aegisthus, who in the interval had

seduced his wife Clytaemnestra, invited him to a banquet at

which he was treacherously slain, Cassandra also being put

to death by Clytaemnestra. According to the account given

by Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his

wife alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first

been thrown over him to prevent resistance. Her wrath at the

sacrifice of Iphigeneia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are

said to have been the motives of her crime. The murder of

Agamemnon was avenged by his son Orestes (q.v..) Although

not the equal of Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon is a dignified

representative of kingly authority. As commander-in-chief,

he summons the princes to the council and leads the army in

battle. He takes the field himself, and performs many heroic

deeds until he is wounded and forced to withdraw to his

tent. His chief fault is his overweening haughtiness, due to

an over-exalted opinion of his position, which leads him to

insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby bringing great disaster

upon the Greeks. But his family had been marked out for

misfortune from the outset. His kingly office had come to

him from Pelops through the blood-stained hands of Atreus and

Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain fatality which.

explained the hostile destiny which pursued him. The fortunes

of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous tragedies,

ancient and modern, the most famous being the Oresteia of

Aeschylus. In the legends of Peloponnesus, Agamemnon was

regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in

Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon. His

tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at Amyclae.

In works of art there is considerable resemblance between

the representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and

Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally characterized

by the sceptre and diadem, the usual attributes of kings.

See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie

and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.

AGAPE (Gr. agape, ``Love''), the early Christian

lovefeast. The word seems to be used in this sense in the

epistle of Jude 12: ``These are they who are hidden rocks in

your lovefeasts when they banquet with you.'' But this is not

certain, for in 2 Pet. ii. 13 the verse is cited, but reading

apatais (``deceits'') for agapais, and the oldest MSS.

hesitate. The history of the agape coincides, until the

end of the 2nd century, with that of the eucharist (q.v.),

and it is doubtful whether the following detailed account of

the agape given in Tertullian's Apology (c. 39) is to

be regarded as exclusive of an accompanying eucharist: ``It

is the banquet (triclinium) alone of the Christians that is

criticised. Our supper (coena) shows its character by its

name. It is called by a word which in Greek signifies love

(i.e. agape.) Whatever it costs, it is anyhow a clear

gain that it is incurred on the score of piety, seeing that

we succour the poorest by such entertainments (refrigerio.)

We do not lie down at table until prayer has been offered to

God, as it were a first taste. We eat only to appease our

hunger, we drink only so much as it is good for temperate

persons to do. If we satisfy our appetites, we do so without

forgetting that throughout the night we must say our prayers

to God. If we converse, it is with the knowledge that the

Lord is listening. After washing our hands and lighting the

lamps, each is invited to sing a hymn before all to God,

either taken from holy writ or of his own composition. So

we prove him, and see how well he has drunk. Prayer ends,

as it began, the banquet; and we break up not in bands of

brigands, nor in groups of vagabonds, nor do we burst out

into debauchery. . . . This meeting of Christians we admit

deserves to be made illicit, if it resembles illicit acts; it

deserves to be condemned, if any complain of it on the same

score on which complaints are levelled at factious meetings.

But to do harm to whom do we ever thus come together?''

The evidence of Tertullian is good for Africa. But in Egypt

about the same time (180-210), Clement of Alexandria in his

Pedagogus (ii. 1) condemns the ``little suppers which were

called, not without presumption, agape.'' This word, he

complains, should denote the heavenly food, the reasonable

feast alone, and the Lord never used it of mere junketings.

Clement wished the name to be reserved for the eucharist.

because the love-feasts of the church had degenerated, as

Tertullian too discovered, as soon as he turned Montanist.

For in his tract on fasting (ch. xvii.) he complains that the

young men misbehaved with the sisters after the agapee.

Among the spurious works of Athanasius is printed a tract

entitled About Virginity, ch. xiii. of which directs how

the sisters after the synaxis of the ninth hour (3 P.M.)

are to dine: ``When you sit down at a table and come to break

bread, seal it thrice with the sign of the cross and thus give

thanks: `We thank thee, our Father, for thy holy resurrection;

for through Jesus thy servant thou hast shewn it unto us.

And as this bread on this table was scattered, but has been

brought together and become one, so may thy church be brought

together into thy kingdom. For thine is the power and the

glory, for ever and ever, Amen.' This prayer as you break the

bread, and are about to eat, you must say. And when you lay

it on the table and desire to eat it, repeat the `Our Father'

entire. But after dinner (or breakfast), and when we rise

from table, we use the prayer given above, viz. `Blessed be

God, who hath pity and nourisheth us from our infancy, who

giveth food to all flesh. Fill our hearts with joy and

gladness, that ever having of all things a sufficiency, we

may superabound in all good works, in Christ Jesus our Lord,

&c.''' The writer then enjoins that, ``if two or three other

virgins are present, they also shall give thanks over the

bread set out, and join in the prayers. But if a catechumen

be found at the table, she shall not be suffered to join with

the full believers in their prayers, nor shall the latter sit

with her to eat the morsel'' (fiomon, used specially of

the sanctified bread). ``Nor shall they sit with frivolous

and joking women, if they can help it, for they are sanctified

to God, and their food and drink have been hallowed by the

prayers and holy words used over them. . . . If a rich woman

sits down with them at table, and they see a poor woman,

they shall invite her also to eat with them, and not put

her to shame because of the rich one.'' The last words echo

1 Cor. x., and the prayer is nearly the same as that which

the teaching of the Apostles assigns for the eucharistic

rite. Here, then, we have pictured as late as the 4th century

a Lord's supper, which like the one described in 1 Cor. x.

is agape and eucharist in one, and it is held in a private

house and not in church, and the celebrants are holy women!

The historian Socrates (Hist. Eccl. v. 22) testifies to the

survival in Egypt of such Lord's suppers as were love-feasts

and eucharists in one. Around Alexandria and in the Thebaid,

he says, they hold services on the sabbath, and unlike other

Christians partake of the mysteries (i.e. sacrament). For

after holding good cheer and filling themselves with meats of

all kinds, they at eventide make the offering (prosfora)

and partake of it. So Basil of Cappadocia (Epistle 93), about

the year 350, records that in Egypt the laity, as a rule,

celebrated the communion in their own houses, and partook of

the sacrament by themselves whenever they chose. In the old

Egyptian church order, known as the Canons of Hippolytus,

there are numerous directions for the service of the agape,

held on Sundays, saints' days or at commemorations of the

dead. The 74th canon of the council of Trullo (A.D. 692)

forbade the holding of symposia known as agapes in church.

In his 54th homily (tom. v. p. 365) Chrysostom describes how

after the eucharistic synaxis was over, the faithful remained

in church, while the rich brought out meats and drink from

their houses, and invited the poor, and furnished ``common

tables, common banquets, common symposia in the church

itself.'' The council of Gangra (A.D. 355) anathematized

the over-ascetic people who despised ``the agapes based

on faith.'' Only a few years later, however, the council of

Laodicea forbade the holding of agapes in churches. The

42nd canon of the council of Carthage under Aurelius likewise

forbade them, but these were only local councils. In the

age of Chrysostom and Augustine the agape was frequent.

In the east Syrian, the Armenian and the Georgian churches,

respectively Nestorian, Monophysite and Greek Orthodox in their

tenets, the agape was from the first a survival, under

Christian and Jewish forms, of the old sacrificial systems of

a pre-Christian age. Sheep, rams, bullocks, fowls are given

sacrificial salt to lick, and then sacrificed by the priest and

deacon, who has the levitical portions of the victim as his

perquisite. In Armenia the Greek word agape has been

used ever since the 4th century to indicate these sacrificial

meals, which either began or ended with a eucharistic

celebration. The earlier usage of the Armenians is expressed

in the two following rules recorded against them by a renegade

Armenian prelate named Isaac, who in the 8th century went over

to the Byzantine church: ``Christ did not hand down to us the

teaching to celebrate the mystery of the offering of the bread

in church, but in an ordinary house, and sitting at a common

table. So then let them not sacrifice the offering of bread in

churches. It was after supper, when his disciples were

thoroughly sated, that Christ gave them of his own body to

eat. Therefore let them first eat meats and be sated, and

then let them partake of the mysteries.'' These old canons are

adduced by way of ridiculing the Armenians, yet they reflect old

usage. They are given in the Historia Monothelitarum of

Combefisius, col. 317. Older MSS. of the Greek Euchologion

contain numerous prayers to be offered over animals sacrificed;

and in the form of agape such sacrifices were common

in Italy and Gaul on the natalis dies of a saint, and

Paulinus of Nola, the friend of Augustine, in his Latin

poems, describes them (c. 400) in detail. Gregory the

Great sent to Mellitus, bishop of London, a written rite of

sacrificing bulls for use in the English church of the early 7th

century. In Augustine's work against Faustus the Manichean

(xx. 4), the latter taxes the Catholics with having turned

the sacrifices of the heathen into agapes, their idols into

martyrs, whom they worship with similar rites. ``You appease,''

he says, ``the shades of the dead with wines and banquets, you

celebrate the feast-days of the heathen along with them . . .

in their way of living you have certainly changed nothing.''

This was true enough, but there is truth also in the remark of

Prof. Sanday (``Eucharist'' in Hastings' Dictionary of

the Bible) that Providence even in its revolutions is

conservative. The world could only be christianized on

condition that old holy days and customs were continued.

The early Christian agape admitted of adaptation to the

older funeral and sacrificial feasts, and was so adapted. The

association in the synoptics of the earliest eucharist with

the paschal sacrifice provided a model, and long after the

eucharist was separated with the agape on other days of the

year, we still find celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday

the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, immediately followed by an

eucharist. The 41st canon of the council of Carthage enacted

that the sacraments of the altar should be received fasting,

except on the anniversary of the Lord's supper. It is clear

that at an earlier date the agape preceded the eucharist.

Pagan Analogues.--In ancient states common meals called

sussitia (sussitia) were instituted, particularly in

the Doric states, e.g. in Lacaedemon and in Crete. Plato

advocated them, and perhaps the later Jews imitated the

Spartan community. Trade and other gilds in antiquity held

subscription suppers or iranoi, similar to those of the early

Corinthian church, usually to support the needs of the poorer

members. These hetairiae or clubs were forbidden (except in

cities formally allied to Rome) by Trajan and other emperors,

as being likely to be centres of disaffection; and on this

ground Pliny forbade the agape of the Bithynian churches,

Christianity not being a lawful religion licensed for such

gatherings. The custom which most resembles the eucharist

and agape was that known as charistia described by

Valerius Maximus ii. 1. 8. It was a solemn feast attended

only by members of one clan, at which those who had quarrelled

were at the sacrament of the table (apud sacra mensae)

reconciled. It was held on the 20th of February. Ovid in

his Fasti, ii. 617, alludes to it-- Proxima cognati dixere

charistia cari, Et venit ad socios turba propinqua deos.

AUTHORITIES.--``The Canons of Hippolytus,'' in Duchesne's

Origines du culte chretien (Paris, 1898).; A. Allen,

Christian Institutions (London, 1898); P. Batiffol,

Etudes d'histoire (Paris, 1902 and 1905); F. X. Funk,

``L'Agape,'' in the Revue de l'histoire ecclesiastique

(Louvain, Jan. 1903); Ad. Harnack, ``Brod und Wasser'' (Texte

und Untersuch. vii. 2, Leipzig, 1891); J. F. Keating,

The Agape and the Eucharist (London, 1901): F. X. Kraus,

arts. ``Agapes'' and ``Mahle'' in the Realencycklop. d.

christl. Altertumer; P. Ladeuze, ``L'Eucharistie et les

repas communs'' in the Revue de l'orient chretien, No.

3, 1902; Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire

(London, 1894); A. Spitta, Zur Geschichte und Litteratur

(Gottingen, 1893); E. von der Goltz, Das Gebet in

altesten Christianheit (Leipzig, 1901); F. E. Warren; The

Liturgy and Ritual of the Antenicene Church (London, 1897);

T. Zahn, art. ``Agapen'' in Hauck's Realencyklop.; F.. C.

Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum (Oxford, 1905; it contains the

oldest Latin and Greek forms), The Key of Truth (Oxford,

1898), and art. on ``The Survival of Animal Sacrifices'' in

the American Journal of Theology (Chicago, Jan. 1903); F. X.

Funk, Didascalia et Constitutiones Apostolorum (Paderborn,

1906); V. Ermoni, L'Agape (Paris, 1904); G. Horner, The

Statutes of the Apostles, translated from Ethiopic and

Arabic MSS. (London, 1904); Thefr. Drescher, Diss. de

vet. Christianorum Agapis (Giesse, 1824); L. A. Muratori,

Anecdota Graeca, ``De agapis sublatis'' (Patavii, 1709); I.

A. Fabricius, Bibliogr. Ant. p. 587; Muenter, Primord.

Eccl. Afr. p. 111; Walafrid Strabo, De Rebus Eccles.

capita 18,19; Gregory of Tours, De miraculis S. Juliani,

xxxi.; Pualini Nolani Carmen xii. in S. Felicem. (F. C. C.)

AGAPEMONITES, or COMMUNITY OF THE SON OF MAN. This sect,

based upon the theories of various German religious mystics,

and having for its primary object the spiritualization of the

matrimonial state, was founded in 1846 by the Rev. Henry James

Prince, a clergyman of the Church of England (1811-1899).

He studied medicine, obtained his qualifications in 1832

and was appointed medical officer to the General Hospital in

Bath, his native city. Compelled by ill-health to abandon

his profession, he entered himself in 1837 as a student at

St. David's Theological College, Lampeter, where he gathered

about him a band of earnest religious enthusiasts, known as

the Lampeter Brethren, and was eventually ordained to the

curacy of Charlinch in Somerset, where he had sole charge

in the illness and absence of the rector, the Rev. Samuel

Starkey. By that time he had contracted his first ``spiritual

marriage,'' and had persuaded himself that he had been absorbed

into the personality of God and had become a visible embodiment

of the Holy Spirit. During his illness Mr. Starkey read one

of his curate's sermons and was not only ``cured'' forthwith,

but embraced his strange doctrines, and together they procured

many conversions in the countryside and the neighbouring

towns. In the end the rector was deprived of his living and

Prince's licence withdrawn, and together with a few disciples

they started the Charlinch Free Church, which had a very brief

existence. Prince shortly afterwards became curate of Stoke in

Suffolk, where, however, the character of his revivalist zeal

caused his departure at the end of twelve months. It was now

decided that Prince, Starkey (whose sister Prince had married

as his second wife) and the Rev. Lewis Prince should leave the

Church of England and preach their own gospel; Prince opened

Adullam Chapel, Brighton, and Starkey established himself at

Weymouth. The chief success lay in the latter town, and

thither Prince soon migrated. A number of followers,

estimated by Prince at 500, but by his critics at one-fifth

of the number, were got together, and it was given out by

``Beloved'' or ``The Lamb''--the names by which the Agapemonites

designated their leader--that his disciples must divest

themselves of their possessions and throw them into the common

stock. This was done, even by the poor or ill-furnished,

all of whom looked forward to the speedy end of the present

dispensation, and were content, for the short remainder of this

world, to live in common, and, while not repudiating earthly

ties, to treat them as purely spiritual. With the money

thus obtained the house at Spaxton, which was to become the

``Abode of Love,'' was enlarged and furnished luxuriously, and

three sisters, who contributed L. 6000 each, were immediately

married to three of Prince's nearest disciples. Despite the

purely spiritual ideas which underlay the Agapemonite view

of marriage, a son was born to one of these couples, and

when the father endeavoured to carry it away an action was

brought which resulted in the affirmation of the mother's

right to its custody. The circumstance in which a fourth

sister who joined the community was abducted by her brothers

led to an inquiry in lunacy and to her final settlement at

Spaxton. A few years after the establishment of the ``Abode

of Love,'' a peculiarly gross scandal, in which Prince and one

of his female followers were involved, led to the secession

of some of his most faithful friends, who were unable any

longer to endure what they regarded as the amazing mixture

of blasphemy and immorality offered for their acceptance.

The most prominent of those who remained received such titles

as the ``Anointed Ones,'' the ``Angel of the Last Trumpet,''

the ``Seven Witnesses'' and so forth. In 1862 ``Brother

Prince'' sent ``to the kings and people of the earth'' letters

``making known to all men that flesh is saved from death.''

At that period the Agapemonites counted their adherents at

600, and it was no doubt a grievous shock to them when their

deathless founder died on the 8th of March 1899, four years

after he had opened a branch church at Clapton, London, which

is said to have cost L. 20.000. This church, decorated with

elaborate symbolism,'was styled the ``Ark of the Covenant,''

and in it the elect were to await the coming of the Lord.

On the death of ``Brother'' Prince, the Rev. T. H. Smyth-Pigott,

pastor of the ``Ark,'' became the acknowledged head of the

sect. He was born in 1852, of an old Somersetshire county

family, and, after a varied career as university man, sailor

before the mast, soldier, coffee-planter, curate in the Church

of England and evangelist in the Salvation Army, was converted

about 1897 to the views of Prince. For five years after

this he was not heard of outside his own sect. On the 7th of

September 1902, however, the congregation, assembled at the

Ark of the Covenant for service, found the communion table

replaced by a chair. In this Pigott presently seated himself

and proclaimed himself as the Messiah with the words, ``God is

no longer there,'' pointing upwards, ``but here,'' pointing to

himself. This astonishing announcement was followed by an

excellent sermon on Christian love. Pigott's claim was at

once admitted by the members of his sect, including even

his own wife, as the fulfilment of the promise of Christ to

appear in due time in the ``Ark.'' By the outside world the

affair was greeted with mingled ridicule and indignation,

and the new Messiah had to be protected by the police from

the violence of an angry mob. After providing ``copy'' for

the newspapers for a few days, however, the whole thing was

forgotten. Pigott retired to the headquarters of the sect,

the ``Abode of Love'' in Somerset, and all efforts to interview

him or to obtain details of the life of the community were

abortive. At last, in August 1905, the long and mysterious

silence was broken by the announcement that a son had been

born to Pigott by his ``spiritual wife,'' Miss Ruth Preece, an

inmate of the Agapemone. This event by no means disconcerted

the believers, who saw in it only another manifestation

of Pigott's divinity, and proclaimed it as ``an earnest of

the total redemption of man.'' The child was registered as

``Glory,'' and, at the christening service in the chapel

of the Abode, hymns were sung in its honour as it lay in

a jewelled cradle in the chancel. Another child by Miss

Preece, christened ``Power,'' was born on the 20th of August

1908. The publicity given to this event renewed the

scandal, and in November an attempt to ``tar and feather''

Mr Pigott resulted in two men being sent to prison. Later

in the month proceedings were instituted against him by the

bishop of Bath and Wells under the Clergy Discipline Act.

One outcome of the disclosures connected with the Agapemone

deserves passing mention, as throwing some light on the

origin of the wealth of the community. Mr Charles Stokes

Read, a resident at the Agapemone and director of the V.

V. Bread Company, was requested by his fellow-directors to

resign, on the ground that his connexion with the sect

was damaging the business of the company. He denied this

to be the case and refused to resign, pleading religious

liberty and the large interests of Agapemonites in the

concern. On the 13th of September 1905, a meeting of the

shareholders of the company was held, and Read ``asked them

to believe that it was not in the interests of the company,

but because he knew that the Lord Jesus Christ had come

again and was now dwelling at the Agapemone, that he was

thus cast out by his colleagues.'' The motion calling on

him to resign was carried on a poll being taken by 46,770

votes to 2953. (See The Times, 14th of September 1905.)

AGAPETAE, a class of ``virgins'' who, in the church of

the early middle ages, lived with professedly celibate monks

to whom they were said to be united by spiritual love.

The practice was suppressed by the Lateran Council of 1139.

AGAPETUS, the name of two popes:--

AGAPETUS I., pope from 535 to 536. He was an enlightened

pontiff and collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding at

Rome a library of ecclesiastical authors. King Theodahad

sent him on an embassy to Constantinople, where he

died, after having deposed Anthimus, the monophysite

bishop of that town, and ordained Menas his successor.

AGAPETUS II., pope from 946 to 955, at the time when Alberic,

son of Marozia, was governing the independent republic of

Rome under the title of ``prince and senator of the Romans.''

Agapetus, a man of some force of character, did his best

to put a stop to the degradation into which the papacy had

fallen, the so-called ``Pornocracy,'' which lasted from

the accession of Sergius III. in 904 to the deposition of

John XII. in 963. His appeal to Otto the Great to intervene

in Rome remained without immediate effect, since Alberic's

position was too strong to be attacked, but it bore fruit

after his death. Agapetus died on the 8th of November 955.

AGAPETUS, a deacon of the church of St Sophia at

Constantinople. He presented to the emperor Justinian, on his

accession in 527, a work entitled Scheda regia sive de officio

regis, which contained advice on the duties of a Christian

prince. The work was often reprinted and is included in Dom

Anselme Banduri's Imperium Orientale (Paris, 1711). There

is an English translation by Thomas Paynell (1550) and a French

translation, executed in 1612 from a Latin version by Louis

XIII., with the assistance of his tutor, David Rivault.

AGARDE, ARTHUR (1540-1615), English antiquary, was born at

Foston, Derbyshire, in 1540. He was trained as a lawyer,

but entered the exchequer as a clerk. On the authority of

Anthony a Wood it has been stated that he was appointed

by Sir Nicholas Throckmorton to be deputy-chamberlain in

1570, and that he held this office for forty-five years. His

patent of appointment, however, preserved in the Rolls Office,

proves that he succeeded one Thomas Reve in the post on the

11th of July 1603. With his friends, Sir Robert Cotton and

Camden, he was one of the original members of the Society of

Antiquaries. He spent much labour in cataloguing the records

and state papers, and made a special study of the Domesday

Book, preparing an explanation of its more obscure terms.

Thomas Hearne, in his Collection of Curious Discourses

written by Eminent Antiquaries (Oxford, 1720), includes

six by Agarde on such subjects as the origin of parliament,

the antiquity of shires, the authority and privileges of

heralds, &c. Agarde died on the 22nd of August 1615 and was

buried in the cloister of Westminster Abbey, on his tomb

being inscribed ``Recordorum regiorum hic prope depositorum

diligens scrutator.'' He bequeathed to the exchequer all

his papers relating to that court, and to his friend Sir

Robert Cotton his other manuscripts, amounting to twenty

volumes, most of which are now in the British Museum.

AGAS, RADULPH, or RALPH (c. 1540-1621), English land

surveyor, was born at Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk, about

1540, and entered upon the practice of his profession in

1566. Letters which he wrote to Lord Burghley, describing the

methods of surveying, are extant, and a kind of advertising

prospectus of his abilities, in which he describes himself as

clever at arithmetic and ``skilled in writing smaule, after

the skantelinge & proportion of copiynge the Oulde & New

Testamentes seven tymes in one skinne of partchmente without

anie woorde abreviate or contracted, which maie also serve

for drawinge discriptions of contries into volumes portable in

verie little cases.'' He is best known for his maps of Oxford

(1578), Cambridge (1592) and London. Copies of the first two

are preserved in the Bodleian Library. Of the map of London

and Westminster, which was probably prepared about 1591, two

copies have been preserved, one by the Corporation of London

and the other in the Pepysian collection at Magdalene College,

Cambridge. The map is over six feet long, printed from

wooden blocks, and gives a valuable picture of the London of

Elizabeth's time. Agas died on the 26th of November 1621.

AGASIAS. There were two Greek sculptors of this name.

Agasias, son of Dositheus, has signed the remarkable statue

called the Borghese Warrior, in the Louvre. Agasias, son

of Menophilus, is the author of another striking figure

of a warrior in the museum of Athens. Both belonged to

the school of Ephesus and flourished about 100 B.C.

See E. A. Gardner, Handbook Greek Sculpture, ii. p. 475.

AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-1910), American man of

science, son of J. L. R. Agassiz, was born in Neuchatel,

Switzerland, on the 17th of December 1835. He came to the

United States with his father in 1846; graduated at Harvard

in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry,

and taking the degree of bachelor of science at the Lawrence

scientific school of the same institution in 1857; and in

1859 became an assistant in the United States Coast Survey.

Thenceforward he became a specialist in marine ichthyology,

but devoted much time to the investigation, superintendence

and exploitation of mines, being superintendent of the Calumet

and Hecla copper mines, Lake Superior, from 1866 to 1869, and

afterwards, as a stockholder, acquiring a fortune, out of

which he gave to Harvard, for the museum of comparative zoology

and other purposes, some $500,000. In 1875 he surveyed Lake

Titicaca, Peru, examined the copper mines of Peru and Chile,

and made a collection of Peruvian antiquities for that museum,

of which he was curator from 1874 to 1885. He assisted Sir

Wyville Thomson in the examination and classification of the

collections of the ``Challenger'' exploring expedition, and

wrote the Review of the Echini (2 vols., 1872-1874) in the

reports. Between 1877 and 1880 he took part in the three

dredging expeditions of the steamer ``Blake,'' of the United

States Coast Survey, and presented a full account of them

in two volumes (1888). Of his other writings on marine

zoology, most are contained in the bulletins and memoirs of

the museum of comparative zoology; but he published in 1865

(with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, his step-mother) Seaside Studies

in Natural History, a work at once exact and stimulating,

and in 1871 Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay.

AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (1807-1873), Swiss naturalist

and geologist, was the son of the Protestant pastor of the

parish of Motier, on the north-eastern shore of the Lake of

Morat (Murten See), and not far from the eastern extremity

of the Lake of Neuchatel. Agassiz was born at this retired

place on the 28th of May 1807. Educated first at home, then

spending four years at the gymnasium of Bienne, he completed

his elementary studies at the academy of Lausanne. Having

adopted medicine as his profession, he studied successively

at the universities of Zurich, Heidelberg and Munich; and

he availed himself of the advantages afforded by these

universities for extending his knowledge of natural history,

especially of botany. After completing his academical

course, he took in 1829 his degree of doctor of philosophy at

Erlangen, and in 1830 that of doctor of medicine at Munich.

Up to this time he had paid no special attention to the study of

ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the great occupation

of his life. Agassiz always declared that he was led into

ichthyological pursuits through the following circumstances:--

In 1819-1820, J. B. Spix and C. F. P. von Martius were engaged

in their celebrated Brazilian tour, and on their return to

Europe, amongst other collections of natural objects they

brought home an important set of the freshwater fishes of

Brazil, and especially of the Amazon river. Spix, who died

in 1826, did not live long enough to work out the history

of these fishes; and Agassiz though little more than a youth

just liberated from his academic studies, was selected by

Prof. Martius for this purpose. He at once threw himself into

the work with that earnestness of spirit which characterized

him to the end of his busy life, and the task of describing and

figuring the Brazilian fishes was completed and published in

1829. This was followed by an elaborate research into the

history of the fishes found in the Lake of Neuchatel.

Enlarging his plans, he issued in 1830 a prospectus of a

History of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe. It was

only in 1839, however, that the first part of this publication

appeared, and it was completed in 1842. In 1832 he was

appointed professor of natural history in the university of

Neuchatel. Having become a professed ichthyologist, it was

impossible that the fossil fishes should fail to attract his

attention. The rich stores furnished by the slates of Glarus

and the limestones of Monte Bolca were already well known;

but very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific

study of them. Agassiz, as early as 1829, with his wonted

enthusiasm, planned the publication of the work which, more

than any other, laid the foundation of his world-wide fame.

Five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons fossiles

appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843 [1844]. They were

magnificently illustrated, chiefly through the labours of Joseph

Dinkel, an artist of remarkable power in delineating natural

objects. In gathering materials for this great work Agassiz

visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting Cuvier in

Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him.

Agassiz found that his palaeontological labours rendered

necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The

fossils rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of

fishes. They consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins,

even the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few

instances. He therefore adopted his well-known classification,

which divided fishes into four groups--viz. Ganoids,

Placoids, Cycloids and Ctenoids, based on the nature of

the scales and other dermal appendages. While Agassiz

did much to place the subject on a scientific basis, his

classification has not been found to meet the requirements

of modern research. As remarked by Dr A. Smith Woodward,

he sought to interpret the past structures by too rigorous

a comparison with those of living forms. (See Catalogue

of Fossil Fishes in the British Natural History Museum.)

As the important descriptive work of Agassiz proceeded, it

became obvious that it would over-tax his resources, unless

assistance could be afforded. The British Association came

to his aid, and the earl of Ellesmere--then Lord Francis

Egerton--gave him yet more efficient help. The original

drawings made for the work, chiefly by Dinkel, amounted

to 1290 in number. These were purchased by the Earl, and

presented by him to the Geological Society of London.

In 1836 the Wollaston medal was awarded by the council of

that society to Agassiz for his work on fossil ichthyology;

and in 1838 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal

Society. Meanwhile the invertebrate animals engaged his

attention. In 1837 he issued the ``Prodrome'' of a monograph

on the recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which

appeared in 1838; in 1839-1840 he published two quarto volumes

on the fossil Echinoderms of Switzerland; and in 1840-1845 he

issued his Etudes critiques sur les mollusques fossiles.

Subsequently to his first visit to England in 1834, the labours

of Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the

remarkable fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of the north-east of

Scotland. The strange forms of the Pterichthys, the

Coccosteus and other genera were then made known to geologists

for the first time. They naturally were of intense interest

to Agassiz, and formed the subject of a special monograph

by him published in 1844-1845: Monographie des poissons

fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien

(Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie.

The year 1836 witnessed the inauguration of a new investigation,

which proved to be of the utmost importance to geological

science. Previously to this date de Saussure, Venetz,

Charpentier and others had made the glaciers of the Alps

the subjects of special study, and Charpentier had even

arrived at the conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine

rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura

mountains had been conveyed thither by glaciers. The question

having attracted the attention of Agassiz, he not only made

successive journeys to the alpine regions in company with

Charpentier, but he had a hut constructed upon one of the Aar

glaciers, which for a time he made his home, in order to

investigate thoroughly the structure and movements of the

ice. These labours resulted in the publication of his grand

work in two volumes entitled Etudes sur les glaciers,

1840. Therein he discussed the movements of the glaciers,

their moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding

the rocks over which they travelled, and in producing the

striations and roches moutonnees with which we are now so

familiar. He not only accepted Charpentier's idea that some

of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide plains and

valleys drained by the Aar and the Rhone, and thus landed parts

of their remains upon the uplands of the Jura, but he went still

farther. He concluded that, at a period geologically recent,

Switzerland had been another Greenland; that instead of a few

glaciers stretching across the areas referred to, one vast

sheet of ice, originating in the higher Alps, had extended

over the entire valley of north-western Switzerland until

it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, which, though

they checked and deflected its further extension, did not

prevent the ice from reaching in many places the summit of the

range. The publication of this work gave a fresh impetus

to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world.

Thus familiarized with the phenomena attendant on the

movements of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a

discovery which he made in 1840, in conjunction with William

Buckland. These two savants visited the mountains of Scotland

together, and found in different localities clear evidence of

ancient glacial action. The discovery was announced to the

Geological Society of London in successive communications from

the two distinguished observers. The mountainous districts

of England and Wales and Ireland were also considered to

constitute centres for the dispersion of glacial debris; and

Agassiz remarked ``that great sheets of ice, resembling those

now existing in Greenland, once covered all the countries

in which unstratified gravel (boulder drift) is found;

that this gravel was in general produced by the trituration

of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent surface, &c.''

In 1842-1846 he issued his Nomenclator Zoologicus, a

classified list, with references, of all names employed in

zoology for genera and groups--a work of great labour and

research. With the aid of a grant of money from the king of

Prussia, Agassiz, in the autumn of 1846, crossed the Atlantic,

with the twofold design of investigating the natural history

and geology of the United States and delivering a course of

lectures on zoology, by invitation from J. A. Lowell, at the

Lowell Institute at Boston; the tempting advantages, pecuniary

and scientific, presented to him in the New World induced

him to settle in the United States, where he remained to the

end of his life. He was appointed professor of zoology and

geology in Harvard University, Cambridge, U.S., in 1847.

In 1852 he accepted a medical professorship of comparative

anatomy at Charlestown, but this he resigned in two years.

The transfer to a new field and the association with

fresh objects of interest gave his energies an increased

stimulus. Volume after volume now proceeded from his pen:

some of his writings were popular, but most of them dealt

with the higher departments of scientific research. His work

on Lake Superior, and his four volumes of Contributions to

the Natural History of the United States, 1857-1862, were

of this latter character. We must not overlook the valuable

service he rendered to science by the formation, for his own

use, of a catalogue of scientific memoirs--an extraordinary

work for a man whose hands were already so full. This

catalogue, edited and materially enlarged by the late Hugh

E. Strickland, was published by the Ray Society under the

title of Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae, in 4 vols.,

1848-1854. Nor must we forget that he was building up another

magnificent monument of his industry in the Museum of Natural

History, which rose under his fostering care, at Cambridge.

But at length the great strain on his physical powers began to

tell. His early labours among the fishes of Brazil had often

caused him to cast a longing glance towards that country,

and he now resolved to combine the pursuit of health with the

gratification of his long cherished desires. In April 1865

he started for Brazil, with his wife and class of qualified

assistants. An interesting account of this expedition,

entitled A Journey in Brazil (1868), was published by Mrs

Agassiz and himself after they returned home in August 1866.

In 1871 he made a second excursion, visiting the southern shores

of the North American continent, both on its Atlantic and its

Pacific sea-boards. He had for many years yearned after the

establishment of a permanent school where zoological science

could be pursued amidst the haunts of the living subjects of

study. The last, and possibly the most influential, of

the labours of his life was the establishment of such an

institution, which he was enabled to effect through the

liberality of Mr John Anderson, a citizen of New York. That

gentleman, in 1873, not only handed over to Agassiz the island

of Penikese, in Buzzard's Bay, on the east coast, but also

presented him with $50,000 wherewith permanently to endow it

as a practical school of natural science, especially devoted

to the study of marine zoology. Unfortunately he did not

long survive the establishment of this institution. The

disease with which he had struggled for some years proved

fatal on the 14th of December 1873. He was buried at Mount

Auburn. His monument is a boulder selected from the moraine

of the glacier of the Aar near the site of the old Hotel des

Neuchatelois, not far from the spot where his hut once stood;

and the pine-trees which shelter his grave were sent from his

old home in Switzerland. His extensive knowledge of natural

history makes it somewhat remarkable to find that from first

to last he steadily rejected the doctrine of evolution, and

affirmed his belief in independent creations. When studying

the superficial deposits of the Brazilian plains in 1865,

his vivid imagination covered even that wide tropical area,

as it had covered Switzerland before, with one vast glacier,

extending from the Andes to the sea. This view, however,

has not been generally accepted. His daring conceptions were

only equalled by the unwearied industry and genuine enthusiasm

with which he worked them out; and if in details his labours

were somewhat defective, it was only because he had ventured

to attempt what was too much for any one man to accomplish.

It may be interesting to mention that the charming verses

written by Longfellow on ``The fiftieth birthday of

Agassiz'' were read by the author at a dinner given to

Agassiz by the Saturday Club in Cambridge, Mass., in 1857.

Louis Agassiz was twice married, and by his first wife he had

an only son, Alexander Agassiz (q.v.), born in 1835; in 1850,

after her death, he married his second wife, Elizabeth Cabot

Cary of Boston, Mass., afterwards well known as a writer and

as an active promoter of educational work in connexion with

Radcliffe College (see an article on Radcliffe College, by

Helen Leah Reed in the New England Magazine for January 1895).

AUTHORITIES--L. Agassiz, His Life and Correspondence, 2 vols.,

by E. C (Mrs) Agassiz (London, 1885); Louis Agassiz, His Life and

Work, by C. F. Holder (New York and London, 1893). (H. B. Wo.)

AGATE, a term applied not to a distinct mineral species,

but to an aggregate of various forms of silica, chiefly

Chalcedony (q.v..) According to Theophrastus the agate

(achates) was named from the river Achates, now the Drillo,

in Sicily, where the stone was originally found. Most agates

occur as nodules in eruptive rocks, or ancient lavas, where

they represent cavities originally produced by the disengagement

of vapour in the molten mass, and since filled, wholly or

partially, by siliceous matter deposited in regular layers

upon the walls. Such agates, when cut transversely, exhibit

a succession of parallel lines, often of extreme tenuity,

giving a banded appearance to the section, whence such stones

are known as banded agate, riband agate and striped agate.

Certain agates also occur, to a limited extent, in veins, of

which a notable example is the beautiful brecciated agate of

Schlottwitz, near Wesenstein in Saxony--a stone mostly composed

of angular fragments of agate cemented with amethystine quartz.

In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that

waters containing silica in solution--derived, perhaps,

from the decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava

itself--percolated through the rock, and deposited a siliceous

coating on the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in

the character of the solution, or in the conditions of deposit,

may have caused corresponding variation in the successive

layers, so that bands . of chalcedony often alternate with

layers of crystalline quartz, and occasionally of opaline

silica. By movement of the lava, when originally viscous,

the vesicles were in many cases drawn out and compressed,

whence the mineral matter with which they became filled

assumed an elongated form, having the longer axis in the

direction in which the magma flowed. From the fact that

these kernels are more or less almond-shaped they are called

amygdales, whilst the rock which encloses them is known as an

amygdaloid. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the

rock is viscous, and thus form a large cavity which may

become the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a

Brazilian geode, lined with amethyst, of the weight of 35

tons, was exhibited at the Dusseldorf Exhibition of 1902.

The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the

``skin'' of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral

substance, like celadonite, delessite or ``green earth,''

which are hydrous silicates rich in iron, derived probably

from the decomposition of the augite in the mother-rock.,

This green silicate may give rise by alteration to a brown

oxide of iron (limonite), producing a rusty appearance on

the outside of the agate-nodule. The outer surface of an

agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted and rough,

apparently in consequence of the removal of the original

coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the cavity

has been called the ``priming,'' and upon this basis zeolitic

minerals may be deposited, as was pointed out by Dr M. F.

Heddle. Chalcedony is generally one of the earlier deposits

and crystallized quartz one of later formation. Tubular

channels, usually choked with siliceous deposits, are often

visible in sections of agate, and were formerly regarded,

especially by L. von Buch and J. Noggerath, as inlets of

infiltration, by which the siliceous solutions gained access

to the interior of the amygdaloidal cavity. It seems likely,

however, that the solution transuded through the walls

generally, penetrating the chalcedonic layers, as Heddle

maintained, by osmotic action. Much of the chalcedony in an

agate is known, from the method of artificially staining the

stone, to be readily permeable. It was argued by E. Reusch

that the cavities were alternately filled and emptied by means

of intermittent hot springs carrying silica; while G. Lange, of

Idar, suggested that the tension of the confined steam might

pierce an outlet through some weak point in the coating of

gelatinous silica, deposited on the walls, so that the tubes

would be channels of egress rather than of ingress--a view

supported by Heddle, who described them as ``tubes of escape.''

It sometimes happens that horizontal deposits, or strata usually

opaline in character, are formed on the floor of a cavity

after the walls have been lined with successive layers of

chalcedony. Many agates are hollow, since deposition has

not proceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such

cases the last deposit commonly consists of quartz, often

amethystine, having the apices of the crystals directed towards

the free space, so as to form a crystal-lined cavity or geode.