outdoors they were very likely to be blown out by the wind. So Alfred
put the candle inside of a little box, and in order that the light
might shine through the box, he made sides of very thin pieces of
cow’s-horn, for glass then was very scarce. This box with horn sides
was called a horn lamp or “lamphorn,” and after a while this word when
said rapidly became “lanthorn,” and finally “lantern,” which we still
call such a thing to-day, although horn is, of course, no longer used,
but glass. This is one explanation of the word as the old spelling was
“lanthorn,” but it seems more likely that lantern came from the Latin
word “lanterna.”
Such inventions may seem very small and unimportant, and they are when
you think of the marvelous inventions and wonderful machines that are
made by the thousands nowadays. These inventions of Alfred were no
more than the household ideas for which some magazines now offer only
a dollar apiece. But I have told you about them just to show you how
ignorant and almost barbarian the English, as well as other Teuton
tribes of Europe, were in those days. How much superior were the Arab
thinkers with their striking clocks. The English were just “getting a
start.”
47
The End of the World
What would you do if you knew the world was coming to an end next week,
or even next year?
The people who lived in the tenth century thought the Bible said[4]
something that meant that the world was coming to an end in the Year
1000--which was called the millennium from the Latin word meaning a
thousand years.
[4] Book of Revelations, chapter xx.
Some people were glad that the world was coming to an end. They were
so poor and miserable and unhappy here that they were anxious to go to
heaven, where everything would be fine and lovely--if they had been
good here. So they were particularly good and did everything they could
to earn a place for themselves in heaven when this old world should end.
Others were not so anxious to have the world come to an end. But, they
thought, if it were coming to an end so soon, they might as well hurry
up and enjoy themselves here while they still had a chance.
Well, the Year 1000 came, and nothing happened. At first people simply
thought that a mistake had been made in counting the years--that there
had not really been one thousand years since Christ’s birth. The years
went by, and still people waited for the end. They re-read their Bibles
and thought perhaps it meant a thousand years after Christ’s _death_,
instead of his birth. As time went on, without any change, they began
to think the end was delayed for some reason they could not explain.
But it was not for many years after the millennium that people came at
last to realize that the world was not going to stop after all.
Every once in a while some one who thinks he knows more than others
says the end of the world is not far off, but we may be quite sure that
the world will keep on going and that it will keep on going long after
we have all grown up and died and our children have done the same.
At this time, when people were looking for the end of the world there
was in the north of Europe a tribe of Teutons who were not Christians
and knew and cared nothing about what the Bible said as to the end of
the world. They belonged to the same family as the Danes who had come
to England in the time of King Alfred. They were called Norsemen or
Vikings. They were bold seafaring men, even more hardy and unafraid
than the Phenician sailors of old. Their boats were painted black and
had prows carved with figures of sea-monsters or dragons. They sailed
the northern seas and went farther westward toward the setting sun than
any sailors had ever gone. They had discovered Iceland and Greenland,
and at last under their chief who was named Leif Ericson they reached
the shores of America. So about the same year that the Christians in
Europe were expecting the end of the world--the Year 1000--the Vikings
had gone to what they thought was “the end of the world.”
They called the new country Vineland or Wineland, because they found
grapes, from which wine is made, growing there. They did not go far on
shore, however, and they thought this new land was only another small
island. They had no idea it was a new world. But it was too far away
from their own country, and they found wild savages there who made
it so uncomfortable for them that they sailed back home leaving the
country for good. The Vikings did nothing more about their discovery,
and people forgot all about this new country until nearly five hundred
years later.
48
Real Castles
You may think that castles belong only in fairy-tales of princes and
princesses.
But about the Year 1000 there were castles almost everywhere over
Europe, and they were not fairy-castles but real ones with real people
in them.
After the downfall of Rome in 476, the Roman Empire was broken to
pieces like a cut-up puzzle-map, and people built castles on the
pieces, and they kept on building castles up to the fourteen hundreds.
And this is why and how people built them and why they at last stopped
building them.
Whenever any ruler, whether he was a king or only a prince, conquered
another ruler, he gave to his generals, who had fought with him and
helped him to win, pieces of the conquered land as a reward instead of
paying them in money. The generals in turn gave pieces of their land to
the chief men who had been under them and helped them in battle. These
men who were given land were called lords or nobles, and each lord was
called a vassal of him who gave the land. Each vassal had to promise
to fight with his lord whenever he was needed. He could not make this
promise lightly in an offhand way, however. He had to do it formally so
that it would seem more binding. So the vassal had to kneel in front of
his lord, place his folded hands between the folded hands of his lord,
and make the solemn promise to fight when called upon. This was called
“doing homage.” Then once a year, at least, thereafter, he had to make
the same promise over again. This method of giving away land was known
as the Feudal System.
[Illustration: Castle, drawbridge, moat and knights.]
Each of these lords or nobles then built himself a castle on the land
that was given him, and there he lived like a little king with all his
work-people about him. The castle was not only his home, but it had to
be a fort as well to protect him from other lords who might try to
take his castle away from him. So he usually placed it on the top of
a hill or a cliff, so that the enemy could not reach it easily, if at
all. It had great stone walls often ten feet or more thick. Surrounding
the walls there was usually a ditch called a moat filled with water to
make it more difficult for an enemy to get into the castle.
In times of peace when there was no fighting the men farmed the land
outside of the castle; but when there was war between lords, all the
people went inside the castle walls, carrying all the food and cattle
and everything else they had, so that they could live there for months
or even years while the fighting was going on. A castle, therefore, had
to be very large to hold so many people and animals for so long a time,
and often it was really like a walled town.
Inside the walls of the castle were many smaller buildings to house the
people and animals and for cooking and storing the food. There might
even be a church or chapel. The chief building was, of course, the
house of the lord himself and this was called the _keep_.
The main room of the keep was the hall, which was like a very large
living-room and dining-room combined. Here meals were served at tables
which were simply long and wide boards placed on something to hold them
up. These boards were taken down and put away after the meal was over.
That is where we get the names “boarding” and “boarding-house.” There
were no forks nor spoons nor plates nor saucers nor napkins. Every one
ate with his fingers and licked them or wiped them on his clothes.
Table manners were more like _stable_ manners. The bones and scraps
they threw on the floor or to the dogs, who were allowed in the room.
Itchy-scratchy! At the end of the meal a large bowl of water and towels
were brought in so that those who wished might wash their hands.
After dinner the household was entertained during the long evenings
with songs and stories by men called minstrels, who played and sang and
amused the company.
Shut up within the castle walls, it seemed as if the lord and his
people would be absolutely safe against any attacks of his enemies. In
the first place, any enemy would have had to cross the moat or ditch
which surrounded the castle. Across this moat there was a drawbridge
to the entrance or gate of the castle. In the entrance itself was an
iron gate called a portcullis, which was usually raised like a window
to allow people to pass. In time of war the drawbridge was raised. But
in case an enemy was seen approaching and there was no time to raise
the drawbridge, this portcullis could be dropped at a moment’s notice.
When the drawbridge was raised there was no way of getting into the
castle except by crossing the moat filled with water. Any one trying
to do this would have had stones or melted tar thrown down on him.
Instead of windows in the wall of the castle there were only long slits
through which the fighters could shoot arrows at the enemy. At the same
time, it was very difficult for any one on the outside to hit the small
crack-like opening with an arrow.
And yet attacks _were_ made on castles. Sometimes the enemy built a
tall wooden tower on wheels. This they would roll up as closely as they
could get to the walls, and from its top shoot directly over into the
castle.
Sometimes they built tunnels from the outside right under the ground,
under the moat, and under the castle walls into the castle itself.
Sometimes they built huge machines called battering-rams, and with
these they battered down the walls.
Sometimes they used machines like great slingshots to throw stones over
the walls. Of course there were no cannons nor cannon-balls nor guns
nor gunpowder then.
The lord and his family were the society people; all the others were
little better than slaves. In times of peace most of the common people
lived outside the castle walls on the land called the _manor_. The
lord gave them just as little as he could and took from them just as
much as he could. He had to feed and take some care of them so that
they could fight for him and serve him, just as he had to feed and take
care of his horses that carried him to battle, and the cattle that
provided him with milk and meat. But he didn’t treat them as well as
he did his domestic animals. The common people had to give their time
and labor and a large part of the crops they raised to the lord. They
themselves lived in miserable huts more like cow-sheds, with only one
room, and that had a dirt floor. Above this was perhaps a loft reached
by a ladder where they went to bed. But bed was usually only a bundle
of straw, and they slept in the clothes they wore during the day.
These work-people were called serfs. Sometimes a serf could stand this
kind of life no longer, and he would run away. If he was not caught
within a year and a day, he was a free man. But if he was caught before
the year and a day were up, the lord might whip him, brand him with
hot irons, or even cut off his hands. Indeed, a lord could do almost
anything he wished with his serfs--except kill them, or sell them.
So what do you think of the Feudal System?
49
Knights and Days of Chivalry
Those _years_ in history which I have been telling you about are
known as the _days_ of chivalry--which means the times of ladies and
gentlemen. The lord and his family were the gentlemen and the ladies.
All the other people, by far the greater number, were just common
people.
There were no schools for these common people. Little was done for
them. They were taught to work and nothing else. The sons of a lord
of a castle, however, were very carefully taught. But even they were
taught only two things, how to be gentlemen and how to fight. Reading
and writing were thought of no importance; in fact, it was usually
considered a waste of time to learn such things.
And this is the way the son of a lord was brought up. He stayed with
his mother until he was seven years old. When he reached the age of
seven he was called a page; and for the next seven years--that is,
until he was fourteen, he remained a page. During the time he was a
page his chief business was to wait on the ladies of the castle. He
ran their errands, carried their messages, waited on table, etc. He
also learned to ride a horse and to be brave and courteous.
When he was fourteen years old he became a squire and remained a squire
for the next seven years; that is, until he was twenty-one. During
the time he was a squire he waited on the men, as he had waited on
the ladies when he was a page. He attended to the men’s horses, went
to battle with them, led an extra horse, and carried another spear or
lance, in case these should be needed.
When he was twenty-one years old, if he had been a good squire and
had learned the lessons that he was taught, he then became a knight.
Becoming a knight was an important ceremony like graduating exercises,
for the grown boy was now to take up the business of a man.
To get ready for this ceremony, first, he bathed. This may not seem
worth mentioning, but in those days one very rarely took a bath,
sometimes not for years. He was then dressed in new clothes. Thus
washed and dressed, he prayed all night long in the church. When day
came he appeared before all the people and solemnly swore always to do
and to be certain things:
To be brave and good;
To fight for the Christian religion;
To protect the weak;
To honor women.
These were his vows. A white leather belt was then put on him and gold
spurs fastened on his boots. After this had been done he knelt, and
his lord struck him over the shoulders with the flat side of a sword,
saying as he did so, “I dub thee knight.”
A knight went into battle covered with a suit of armor made of iron
rings or steel plates like fish-scales, and with a helmet or hood of
iron. This suit protected him from the arrows and lances of the enemy.
Of course if they had had any shot or shell, armor would have been no
use at all, but they had no such things then.
Knights were so completely covered by their armor that when sides
became mixed up in fighting, they could not tell one another apart. It
was impossible to know which were friends and which were enemies.
So the knights wore, on the outside of the coat that went over their
armor, a design of an animal, such as a lion, or of a plant or a rose
or a cross or some ornament, and this design was known as a coat of
arms. Perhaps your father may use a coat of arms on his letter-paper
to-day, and if so he has inherited it from some great-great-grandparent
who was a knight.
A knight, as I told you, was first of all taught to be a gentleman,
and so we still speak of one who has good manners and is courteous,
especially to ladies, as knightly or chivalrous. When a knight came
into the presence of a lady he took off his helmet. It meant, “You are
my friend, and so I do not need my helmet.” That is why gentlemen raise
their hats nowadays when they meet ladies.
But the most important thing the knights had to learn was to fight.
Even their games were play fights.
Each country and each age has had its own games or sports in which it
has taken special delight. The Greeks had their Olympic Games. The
Romans had their chariot-races and gladiatorial contests. We have
football and baseball. But the chief sport of the knights was a kind of
sham battle called the tournament.
The tournament was held in a field known as the _lists_. Large crowds
with banners flying and trumpets blowing would gather around the lists
to watch the sham fight, as crowds nowadays flock to a big football
game waving pennants and tooting horns. The knights on horseback took
their places at opposite ends of the lists. They carried lances, the
points of which were covered so that they would not make a wound. At
a given signal, they rushed toward the center of the field and tried
with their lances to throw each other off their horses. The winner who
succeeded in throwing the other knights was presented with a ribbon
or a keepsake by one of the ladies, and a knight thought as much of
this trophy of victory as the winner of a cup in a tennis tournament
nowadays.
[Illustration: Lady with falcon.]
Knights were very fond of hunting with dogs. But they also hunted with
a trained bird called a falcon, and both lords and ladies delighted
in this sport. The falcon was trained like a hunting-dog to catch
other birds, such as wild ducks and pigeons and also small animals.
The falcon was chained to the wrist of the lord or lady, and its head
was covered with a hood as it was carried out to hunt. When a bird was
seen the hood was removed, and the falcon, which was very swift, would
swoop upon its prey and capture it. Thereupon the hunter would come
up, take the captured animal, and put the hood on the falcon again.
The men, however, usually preferred hunting the wild boar, which was a
kind of pig with sharp tusks, for this was more dangerous and therefore
supposed to be more of a man’s sport.
[Illustration]
50
A Pirate’s _Great_ Grandson
When Alfred was king the Danes had raided England.
At the same time their cousins the Norsemen had raided the coast of
France.
King Alfred at last had to give the Danes a part of the English coast,
and they then settled down and became Christians.
The French king likewise did the same thing. In order to save himself
from further raids, he gave the Norsemen a part of the French coast.
Then the Norsemen, as the Danes had done, settled down and became
Christians.
These Norsemen who raided France were led by a very bold and brave
pirate named Rollo. In return for this gift of land Rollo was supposed
to do homage by kissing the king’s foot. But Rollo thought it beneath
him to kneel and kiss the king’s foot, so he told one of his men to do
it for him. His man did as he was told, but he didn’t like to do it,
either, and so as he kissed the king’s foot he raised it so high that
he tipped his Majesty over backward.
[Illustration]
That part of France which was given the Norsemen came to be called
Normandy, and it is so called to-day, and the people were known
thereafter as Normans.
In 1066 there was a very powerful duke ruling over Normandy. His name
was William, and he was descended from Rollo the pirate. Perhaps your
name may be William. Perhaps you may even be descended from this
William.
William was strong in body, strong in will, and strong in rule over
his people. He could shoot an arrow farther, straighter, and with more
deadly effect than any of his knights. No one else was strong enough
even to bend the bow he used.
William and his people had become Christians, but according to their
idea the Christian God was more like their old god Woden under a new
name. William believed that “might made right,” for he was descended
from a pirate, and he still thought and acted like a pirate. So
whatever he wanted he went after and took, even though he was supposed
to be a Christian.
Now, William was only a duke, not a king, and he wanted to be a king.
In fact, he thought he would like to be king of England, which was just
across the channel from his own dukedom.
It so happened that a young English prince named Harold was shipwrecked
on the coast of Normandy and was found and brought before William.
Now, it seemed likely that some day Harold would be king of England,
and William thought this a good chance to get England for himself. So
before he would let Harold leave, he made the young man promise that
when his turn came to be king he would give him England just as if that
country were a horse or a suit of armor that could be given away. Then,
in order that this promise should be solemnly binding, William made
Harold place his hand on the altar and swear, just as people place a
hand on the Bible nowadays, when they take an oath. After Harold had
sworn on the altar, William had the top lifted and showed Harold that
below it were the bones of some of the Christian saints. Swearing on
the bones of a saint was the most solemn kind of an oath one could
possibly take. It was thought one would not dare to break such an oath
for fear of the wrath of God.
Then Harold returned to England. But when the time came that he should
be king the people naturally would not let him give England to William.
Besides that, Harold said that such an oath, which he had taken against
his will, an oath which had been forced on him by a trick, was not
binding. So Harold became king.
When William heard that Harold had been made king, he was very angry.
He said that he had been cheated and that Harold had broken his oath.
So at once he got ready an army and sailed over to take the country
away from Harold.
As William landed from his boat he stumbled and fell headlong on the
shore. All his soldiers were shocked and greatly worried by this, for
they thought it very bad luck--a bad omen, the Greeks would have called
it. But William was quick-witted, and as he fell he grabbed up some of
the earth in both hands. Then, rising, he made believe he had fallen on
purpose and, lifting his hands in the air, exclaimed that he had taken
up the ground as a sign that he was going to have _all_ the land of
England. This changed the bad omen into good luck.
The battle started, and the English fought furiously to defend
themselves against these foreigners who were trying to take their
country away from them. Indeed, they had almost won the battle when
William gave an order to his men to pretend they were running away.
The English then followed, wildly rejoicing, and running pell-mell
after the Normans. Just as soon, however, as the English were scattered
and in disorder, William gave another signal, and his men faced about
quickly. The English were taken by surprise, and before they could get
into fighting order again, they were defeated, and Harold, their king,
was shot through the eye and killed. This was the battle of Hastings,
one of the most famous battles in English History.
Harold had put up a brave fight. But luck was against him. Only a few
days before this, he had had to fight a battle with his own brother,
who in a traitorous way had got together an army against him. We are
sorry for Harold, and yet it was probably better for England that
things turned out as they did--yet who can tell?
William marched on to London and had himself crowned king on Christmas
day, 1066. Ever since then he has been known as William the Conqueror,
and the event is called the Norman Conquest. After this England had a
new line of kings--a Norman family and a pirate family--to rule over
her.
William divided England up among his nobles as if it were a pie, and
gave each a share in the feudal way. They had to do homage to him as
his vassals and promise to fight for him and to do as he said. Each of
William’s nobles built a castle on the property he was given. William
himself built a castle in London by the Thames River. On the same spot
Julius Cæsar had built a fort, but it had disappeared; and Alfred the
Great had built a castle there, but it, too, had disappeared. But the
castle William built is still standing to-day. It is known as the Tower
of London.
William was a splendid boss and very businesslike. He set to work and
had a list made of all the land in England, a list of all the people
and of all the property they had. This record was called the Domesday
Book and was something like the _census_ now taken in this country
every ten years. This list gave the name of every one in England and
everything each owned, even down to the last cow and pig. If your
ancestors were living in England then you can look in the Domesday Book
and find their names, how much land they owned, and how many cows and
pigs they had.
In order that no mischief might take place at night, William started
what was called the _curfew_. Every evening at a certain hour a bell
was rung. Then all lights had to be put out, and every one had to go
indoors--supposedly to bed.
One thing, however, that William did made the English very angry. He
was extremely fond of hunting, but there was no good place where he
could hunt near London. So in order to have a place for hunting, he
destroyed a large number of village houses and farms and turned that
part of the country into a forest. This was called the New Forest, and
though it is now nearly nine hundred years _old_ it is still called New
to this day.
But on the whole, William, although descended from a pirate, gave
England a good government and made it a much safer and better place in
which to live than it ever had been under its former rulers. So 1066
was almost like the Year 1 for the English.