These dark days of abasement were pierced by one ray of sunlight; the

United States refused the tribute demanded by the Barbary Rovers. From

its very birth the new nation had, in common with all other maritime

countries, accepted as a necessary evil a practice it was now full

time to abolish. As early as 1785 the Dey of Algiers found in American

commerce a fresh field for his ploughing; and of all traders, none

proved so welcome as that which boasted of its shipping, yet carried

not an ounce of shot to defend it. Hesitating protests and

negotiations were essayed in vain; until at last public opinion was so

aroused by the sufferings of the captives as to demand of Congress the

immediate construction of a fleet. Ill news travels apace, and the

rumours of these preparations echoed so promptly among the white walls

of Algiers, that the Dey hastened to conclude a treaty; and so, long

before the frigates were launched, immunity was purchased by the

payment of a heavy tribute. Like all cowardly compromises, this one

shaped itself into a two-edged sword; and soon every rover from

Mogador to the Gates of the Bosphorus was clamouring for _backsheesh_.

In 1800, Y[=u]suf, the Pasha of Tripoli, threatened to slip his

falcons upon the western quarry, unless presents, similar to those

given by England, France, and Spain, were immediately sent him. He

complained that the American Government had bribed his neighbours, the

cut-throats of Tunis, at a higher price, and he saw no reason why,

like his cousin of Algiers, he should not receive a frigate as

hush-money. His answer to a letter of the President, containing

honeyed professions of friendship, was amusing. "We would ask," he

said, "that these your expressions be followed by deeds, and not by

empty words. You will, therefore, endeavour to satisfy us by a good

manner of proceeding.... But if only flattering words are meant

without performance, every one will act as he finds convenient. We beg

a speedy answer without neglect of time, as a delay upon your part

cannot but be prejudicial to your interests."

The Bey of Tunis made demands no less arrogant. He declared that

Denmark, Spain, Sicily, and Sweden had made concessions to him, and

then he announced: "It would be impossible to keep peace longer,

unless the President sent him without delay ten thousand stand of arms

and forty cannons of _different calibre_. And all these last" (he

added, with a fine Hibernicism) "must be 24-pounders." Algiers hinted

that her money was in arrears, and Morocco intimated that her delay

in arranging terms was due simply to the full consideration which she

was giving to a matter so important.

Whatever other faults Y[=u]suf of Tripoli may have had, he was in this

matter as good as his word, and the six months' notice having been

fruitless, he proclaimed war on May 14, 1801, by chopping down the

flagstaff of the American Consulate. But the government of the United

States was weary of the old traditions followed by Christendom in its

dealings with these swashbucklers. They had by this time afloat a

small but effective squadron, and were very proud of the successes it

had gained in the _quasi_-war with France just ended. They were tired

also of a policy which was utterly at odds with their boast that all

men were born free and equal, and the nation was roused with the

shibboleth that there were "millions for defence, but not one cent for

tribute."

When the excitement had cooled, however, it seemed as if there was as

usual to be more in the promise than in the performance, for, though a

force existed sufficient for vigorous and decisive action, nothing was

accomplished during two years and more. Of the three squadrons sent

out, the first, under Dale, was hampered by the narrow restrictions of

the President's orders, due to constitutional scruples as to the

propriety of taking hostile measures before Congress had declared war;

and the second was unfortunate in its commander, though individual

deeds reflected the greatest credit upon many of the subordinate

officers. In 1803 the third squadron assembled at Gibraltar under the

broad pennant of Commodore Edward Preble, and then at last came the

time for vigorous measures.

The flag-officer's objective point was Tripoli, but hardly were his

ships gathered for concerted action, when the _Philadelphia_,

thirty-six guns, captured off the coast of Spain the _Meshboa_, an

armed cruiser which belonged to Morocco, and had in company as prize

the Boston brig _Celia_. Of course it was of the highest importance to

discover upon what authority the capture had been made; but the

Moorish commander lied loyally, and swore that he had taken the

_Celia_ in anticipation of a war which he was sure had been declared,

because of the serious misunderstanding existing when he was last in

port between his Emperor and the American consul. This story was too

improbable to be believed, and Captain Bainbridge of the

_Philadelphia_ threatened to hang as a common pirate the mendacious

Reis Ibrah[=i]m Lubarez unless he showed his commission. When the

rover saw this menace did not issue in idleness, he confessed he had

been mistaken, and that he had been ordered by the Governor of

Tangiers to capture American vessels. This made the matter one which

required decisive action, and so the prize was towed to Gibraltar, and

Preble sailed for Tangiers to demand satisfaction. There was the usual

interchange of paper bullets and of salutes; but, in the end, the

aggressive Commodore prevailed. The Emperor expressed his regret for

the hostile acts, and disowned them; he punished the marauders,

released all vessels previously captured, agreed to ratify the treaty

made by his father in 1786, and added that "his friendship for

America should last for ever."

This affair being settled, Preble detailed the _Philadelphia_ and

_Vixen_ for the blockade of Tripoli, and then, as the season was too

advanced for further operations, began preparations for the repairs

and equipment needed for the next season.

The work assigned to the _Philadelphia_ and _Vixen_ was rigorous, for

the coast--fretted with shoals, reefs, and unknown currents, and

harassed by sudden squalls, strong gales, and bad holding

grounds--demanded unceasing watchfulness, and rendered very difficult

the securing of proper food and ship's stores from the distance of the

supplying base. Bad as this was in the beginning, it became worse when

in October the _Vixen_ sailed eastward in search of a Tripolitan

cruiser which was said to have slipped past the line at night, for

then the whole duty, mainly inshore chasing, fell to the deep-draught

frigate. It was while thus employed that she came to misfortune, as

Cooper writes, in his History of the United States Navy: "Towards the

last of October the wind, which had been strong from the westward for

some time previously, drove the _Philadelphia_ a considerable distance

to the eastward of the town, and on Monday, October the 31st, as she

was running down to her station again with a fair breeze, about nine

in the morning a vessel was seen inshore and to windward, standing for

Tripoli. Sail was made to cut her off. Believing himself to be within

long gun-shot a little before eleven, and seeing no other chance of

overtaking the stranger in the short distance that remained, Captain

Bainbridge opened fire in the hope of cutting something away. For near

an hour longer the chase and the fire were continued; the lead, which

was kept constantly going, giving from seven to ten fathoms, and the

ship hauling up and keeping away as the water shoaled or deepened. At

half-past eleven, Tripoli then being in plain sight, distant a little

more than a league, (satisfied that he could neither overtake the

chase nor force her ashore,) Captain Bainbridge ordered the helm

a-port to haul directly off the land into deep water. The next cast of

the lead, when this order was executed, gave but eight fathoms, and

this was immediately followed by casts that gave seven and six and a

half. At this moment the wind was nearly abeam, and the ship had eight

knots way upon her. When the cry of 'half-six' was heard, the helm was

put hard down and the yards were ordered to be braced sharp up. While

the ship was coming up fast to the wind, and before she had lost her

way, she struck a reef forwards, and shot on it until she lifted

between five and six feet."

Every effort was made to get her off, but in vain. The noise of the

cannonading brought out nine gun-boats; and then, as if by magic,

swarms of wreckers slipped by the inner edge of the shore, stole from

some rocky inlet, or rushed from mole and galley, and keeping beyond

range, like vultures near a battle-field, awaited the surrender of the

ship. A gallant fight was made with the few guns left mounted, but at

last the enemy took up a position on the ship's weather quarter, where

her strong heel to port forbade the bearing of a single piece. "The

gun-boats," continues the historian, "were growing bolder every

minute, and night was at hand. Captain Bainbridge, after consulting

again with his officers, felt it to be an imperious duty to haul down

his flag, to save the lives of his people. Before this was done the

magazines were drowned, holes were bored in the ship's bottom, the

pumps were choked, and everything was performed that it was thought

would make sure the final loss of the vessel. About five o'clock the

colours were lowered." The ship was looted, the officers and men were

robbed, half stripped in some cases, and that night the crew was

imprisoned in a foul Tripolitan den. Within a week the rovers, aided

by favourable winds and unusual tides, not only got the _Philadelphia_

afloat, but, as the scuttling had been hastily done, towed her into

port, and weighed all the guns and anchors that lay in shallow water

on the reef. The ship was immediately repaired, the guns were

re-mounted, and the gallant but unfortunate Bainbridge had the final

misery of seeing his old command safely moored off the town, and about

a quarter of a mile from the Pasha's castle.

[Illustration: TRIPOLI.

(_Ogilby's Africa, 1670._)]

Preble heard of this catastrophe from an English frigate to which he

spoke off Sardinia on his way to Tripoli. The blow was a severe one,

for the ship represented over one-third of his fighting force, and the

great number of captives gave the enemy a material and sentimental

strength which he would be sure to use pitilessly in all future

negotiations. But the energetic sailor was only stimulated by the

disaster to greater exertions, and plans were immediately made for the

destruction of the captured ship. Fortunately there was no lack of

material, and, in selecting the leaders, it became an embarrassment to

decide between the claims of the volunteers. Finally the choice fell

upon Lieutenant Stephen Decatur. He was at this time twenty-four years

of age, and had by his marked qualities so distinguished himself as to

have been appointed to the command of the _Enterprise_. To great

prudence, self-control, and judgment, he united the dash, daring, and

readiness of resources which have always characterized the famous

sailors of the world; and in the victory which made his name renowned

in naval annals, he displayed these qualities in such a high degree as

to deserve the greatest credit for what he achieved as well as for

what, under great temptation, he declined to do.

After taking on board a load of combustibles, the _Intrepid_ sailed

from Syracuse for Tripoli upon the 3rd of February, 1804. The ketch

itself had a varied history, for she was originally a French gun

vessel, which had been captured by the English in Egypt and presented

to Tripoli, and which finally was seized by Decatur while running for

Constantinople with a present of female slaves for the Grand Vez[=i]r.

The brig _Siren_, Lieutenant Charles Stewart, commanding, convoyed the

expedition, and had orders to cover the retreat, and if feasible to

assist the attack with its boats. In affairs of this kind personal

comfort is always the least consideration, but had not the weather

been pleasant, the hardships endured might seriously have affected the

success of the enterprise. The five commissioned officers were crowded

in the small cabin; the midshipmen and pilot on one side, and the

seamen upon the other, were stowed like herrings upon "a platform laid

across water-casks, whose surface they completely covered when they

slept, and at so small a distance below the spar deck that their heads

would reach it when seated." To these inconveniences were added the

want of any room for exercise on deck, the attacks of innumerable

vermin which their predecessors, the slaves, had left behind them, and

(as the salted meat put on board had spoiled) the lack of anything but

biscuits to eat and water to drink.

After a voyage of six days the town was sighted, but strong winds had

rendered the entrances dangerous, and the heavy gale which came with

night drove the Americans so far to the eastward before it abated that

they found themselves fairly embayed in the Gulf of Sidra. On the

afternoon of the 16th Tripoli was once more made out; and as the wind

was light, the weather pleasant, and the sea smooth, Decatur

determined to attack that night. By arrangement the _Siren_ kept

almost out of sight during the day, and her appearance was so changed

as to lull all suspicion of her true character. The lightness of the

wind allowed the ketch to maintain the appearance of an anxious desire

to reach the harbour before night, without bringing her too near to

require any other change than the use of drags (in this case buckets

towed astern) which could not be seen from the city. The crew was kept

below, excepting six or eight persons at a time, so that inquiry might

not be awakened by unusual numbers; and such men remained on deck as

were dressed like Maltese. When the _Philadelphia_ was sighted, no

doubt was left of the hazardous nature of the attack, for she lay a

mile within the entrance, riding to the wind and abreast of the town.

Her foremast, which was cut away while on the reef, had not yet been

replaced, her main and mizzen masts were housed, and her lower yards

were on the gunwales. The lower standing rigging, however, was set up,

and her battery was loaded and shotted. She lay within short range of

the guns on the castle, on the mole-head, and in the New Fort; and

close aboard rode three Tripolitan cruisers and twenty gun-boats and

galleys. To meet and overcome this force Decatur had a few small guns

and seventy men, but these were hearts of oak, tried in many a

desperate undertaking, and burning now to redeem their country's

honour.

As the _Intrepid_ drew in with the land, they saw that the boiling

surf of the western passage would force them to select the northern

entrance, which twisted and turned between the rocks and the shoals.

It was now nearly ten o'clock, and as the ketch drifted in before the

light easterly breeze she seemed a modest trader bent upon barter, and

laden with anything but the hopes of a nation.

The night was beautiful; a young moon sailed in the sky; the lights

from wall and tower and town, and from the ships lazily rocking at the

anchorages, filled the water with a thousand points of fire. The

gentle breeze wafted the little craft past reefs and rocks into the

harbour noiselessly, save for the creaking of the yards, the

complainings of the block, the wimple of wavelets at the bow, and the

gurgle of eddies at the pintles and under the plashing counter. On

deck forward only a few figures were silhouetted against the

background of white wall and grayish sky; and aft Decatur and the

pilot stood conning the ship as it stole slowly for the frigate's bow.

Owing to the ketch's native rig, and to the glib Tripolitanese of the

Sicilian pilot, no suspicion was excited in the _Philadelphia's_ watch

by the answer to their hail that she had lost her anchors in a gale

and would like to run a line to the war-ship and to ride by it through

the night. So completely were the Tripolitans deceived that they

lowered a boat and sent it with a hawser, while at the same time some

of the _Intrepid's_ crew leisurely ran a fast to the frigate's

fore-chains. As these returned they met the enemy's boat, took its

rope, and passed it into their own vessel. Slowly, but firmly, it was

hauled upon by the men on board, lying on their backs, and slowly and

surely the _Intrepid_ was warped alongside. But at the critical moment

the ruse was discovered, and up from the enemies' decks went the

wolf-like howl of "Americanos! Americanos!"

The cry roused the soldiers in the forts and batteries, and the chorus

these awakened startled the Pasha from his sleep, and thrilled with

joy the captive Americans behind their prison walls.

In another moment the _Intrepid_ had swung broadside on, and

quickly-passed lashings held the two ships locked in a deadly embrace.

Then Decatur's cry of "board" rang out, and with a quick rush, and the

discharge of only a single gun, the decks were gained.

The surprise was as perfect as the assault was rapid, and the

Tripolitan crew, panic stricken, huddled like rats at bay awaiting the

final dash. Decatur had early gathered his men aft, stood a moment for

them to gain a sight of the enemy, and then, with the watchword

"_Philadelphia_" rushed upon the rovers. No defence was made, for,

swarming to leeward, they tumbled, in mad affright, overboard; over

the bows, through gun-ports, by aid of trailing halliards and stranded

rigging, out of the channels, pell-mell by every loop-hole they

went--and then, such as could, swam like water-rats for the friendly

shelter of the neighbouring war-galleys.

One by one the decks and holds were cleared, and in ten minutes

Decatur had possession of the ship, without a man killed, and only one

slightly wounded. In the positions selected so carefully beforehand,

the appointed divisions assembled and piled up and fired the

combustibles. Each party acted by itself, and as it was ready; and so

rapid were all in their movements, that those assigned to the

after-holds had scarcely reached the cockpit and stern store-rooms

before the fires were lighted over their heads. Indeed, when the

officer entrusted with this duty had completed his task, he found the

after-hatches so filled with smoke from the fire in the ward-room and

steerage, that he was obliged to escape to the deck by the forward

ladders.

Satisfied that the work was thoroughly done, the Americans leaped upon

the _Intrepid's_ deck, cut with swords and axes the hawsers lashing

them to the _Philadelphia_, manned the sweeps, and, just as the

flames were scorching their own yards and bulwarks, swung clear. Then

came the struggle for escape, and this last scene can best be told,

perhaps, in the words of one of the participants, Commodore Charles

Morriss, who gave on that night, when he was the first to board the

_Philadelphia_, the earliest proof of the great qualities which

afterwards made him one of the first sailors of his time. "Up to this

time," he wrote, "the ships and batteries of the enemy had remained

silent, but they were now prepared to act; and when the crew of the

ketch gave three cheers in exultation of their success, they received

the return of a general discharge from the enemy. The confusion of the

moment probably prevented much care in their direction, and though

under the fire of nearly a hundred pieces for half an hour, the only

shot which struck the ketch was one through the topgallant sail. We

were in greater danger from the _Philadelphia_, whose broadsides

commanded the passage by which we were retreating, and whose guns were

loaded, and discharged as they became heated. We escaped these also,

and while urging the ketch onwards with sweeps, the crew were

commenting upon the beauty of the spray thrown up by the shot between

us and the brilliant light of the ship, rather than calculating any

danger that might be apprehended from the contact. The appearance of

the ship was, indeed, magnificent. The flames in the interior

illuminated her ports, and, ascending her rigging and masts, formed

columns of fire, which, meeting the tops, were reflected into

beautiful capitals; whilst the occasional discharge of her guns gave

an idea of some directing spirit within her. The walls of the city

and its batteries, and the masts and rigging of cruisers at anchor,

brilliantly illuminated and animated by the discharge of artillery,

formed worthy adjuncts and an appropriate background to the picture.

Fanned by a light breeze our exertions soon carried us beyond the

range of their shot, and at the entrance of the harbour we met the

boats of the _Siren_, which had been intended to co-operate with us,

and whose crew rejoiced at our success, whilst they grieved at not

having been able to partake in it.... The success of this enterprise

added much to the reputation of the navy, both at home and abroad.

Great credit was given, and was justly due to Commodore Preble, who

directed and first designed it, and to Lieutenant Decatur, who

volunteered to execute it, and to whose coolness, self-possession,

resources, and intrepidity its success was, in an eminent degree,

due."

Commodore Preble, in the meantime, hurried his preparations for more

serious work, and on July 25th arrived off Tripoli with a squadron,

consisting of the frigate _Constitution_, three brigs, three

schooners, six gun-boats, and two bomb vessels. Opposed to him were

arrayed over a hundred guns mounted on shore batteries, nineteen

gun-boats, one ten-gun brig, two schooners mounting eight guns each,

and twelve galleys. Between August 3rd and September 3rd five attacks

were made, and though the town was never reduced, substantial damage

was inflicted, and the subsequent satisfactory peace rendered

possible. Preble was relieved by Barron in September, not because of

any loss of confidence in his ability, but from exigencies of the

service, which forbade the Government sending out an officer junior to

him in the relief squadron which reinforced his own. Upon his return

to the United States he was presented with a gold medal, and the

thanks of Congress were tendered him, his officers, and men, for

gallant and faithful services.

The blockade was maintained vigorously, and in 1805 an attack was made

upon the Tripolitan town of Derna, by a combined land and naval force;

the former being under command of Consul-General Eaton, who had been a

captain in the American army, and of Lieutenant O'Bannon of the

Marines. The enemy made a spirited though disorganized defence, but

the shells of the war-ships drove them from point to point, and

finally their principal work was carried by the force under O'Bannon

and Midshipman Mann. Eaton was eager to press forward, but he was

denied reinforcements and military stores, and much of his advantage

was lost. All further operations were, however, discontinued in June,

1805, when, after the usual intrigues, delays, and prevarications, a

treaty was signed by the Pasha, which provided that no further tribute

should be exacted, and that American vessels should be for ever free

of his rovers. Satisfactory as was this conclusion, the uncomfortable

fact remains that tribute entered into the settlement. After all the

prisoners had been exchanged man for man, the Tripolitan Government

demanded, and the United States paid, the handsome sum of sixty

thousand dollars to close the contract.

This treaty, however, awakened the conscience of Europe, and from the

day it was signed the power of the Barbary Corsairs began to wane. The

older countries saw their duty more clearly, and ceased to legalize

robbery on the high seas. To America the success gave an immediate

position which could not easily have been gained in any other way,

and, apart from its moral results, the contest with Tripoli was the

most potent factor in consolidating the navy of the United States.

XXI.

THE BATTLE OF ALGIERS.

1816.

Nelson was in the Mediterranean at the beginning of the nineteenth

century, as every one knows, but the suppression of the Barbary

Corsairs formed no part of his instructions. Twice, indeed, he sent a

ship of war to inquire into the complaints of the consuls, but without

effect; and then on the glorious Twenty-First of October, 1805, the

great admiral fell in the supreme hour of victory. Collingwood made no

attempt to deal with the Algerine difficulty, beyond sending a

civilian agent and a present of a watch, which the Dey consigned to

his cook. The British victories appear to have impressed the pirates'

mind but slightly; and in 1812 we find Mr. A'Court (Lord Heytesbury)

condescending to negotiate terms between the Corsairs and our allies

the Portuguese, by which the latter obtained immunity from molestation

and the release of their countrymen by the payment altogether of over

a million of dollars, and an annual tribute of $24,000.

To the United States of America belongs the honour of having first

set an example of spirited resistance to the pretensions of the

Corsairs. So long as they had been at war with Great Britain, the

States were unable to protect their commerce in the Mediterranean; and

they were forced to fall in with the prevailing custom and make peace

with the robbers on the basis of a bribe over a million of Spanish

dollars, and a large annual tribute in money and naval stores. But as

soon as the Treaty of Ghent set them free in 1815 they sent a squadron

to Algiers, bearing Mr. William Shaler as American consul, and

Captains Bainbridge and Stephen Decatur as his assessors in the

impending negotiations. The result was that after only two days a

Treaty was concluded on June 30, 1815, by which all money payment was

abolished, all captives and property were restored, and the United

States were placed on the footing of the most favoured nation. The

arguments of the Americans appear to have been more eloquent than

British broadsides.

Shamed by this unexpected success, the English Government at length

sent Lord Exmouth (formerly Sir Edward Pellew) to obtain favourable

terms for some of the minor Mediterranean Powers, and to place the

Ionian Islands, as British dependencies, on the same footing as

England. Yet he was evidently not authorized to proceed to extreme

measures or demand unconditional surrender of existing pretensions. He

arranged terms for Naples, which still included tribute and presents.

Sardinia escaped for a sum down. The Ionians were admitted on the

English footing. Then Lord Exmouth went on to Tunis and Tripoli, and

obtained from the two Beys the promise of the total abolition of

Christian slavery.

His proceedings at Tunis were marked by much firmness, and rewarded

with commensurate success. He arrived on the 12th of April, 1816,

shortly after a Tunisian Corsair, in devastating one of the Sardinian

islands, had roused the indignation of Europe. Lord Exmouth demanded

nothing less than the total abolition of Christian slavery. "It

happened that at this very time Caroline, Princess of Wales, was

enjoying the splendid hospitality of Mahm[=u]d Bey in his city palace.

Neither party seemed inclined to yield, and matters assumed a very

threatening aspect. The mediation of the royal guest was invoked in

vain; Lord Exmouth was inexorable. The Princess sent the greater part

of her baggage to the Goletta, the British merchants hastened to

embark on board the vessels of the squadron, the men-of-war were

prepared for action, and the Bey did his best to collect all available

reinforcements. The excitement in Tunis was immense, and a pacific

solution was considered almost impossible. On the 16th Lord Exmouth,

accompanied by Mr. Consul-General Oglander and his staff, proceeded to

the Bardo Palace. The flagstaff of the British Agency was previously

lowered to indicate a resolution to resort to an appeal to arms in

case of failure, and the Princess of Wales expected every hour to be

arrested as a hostage. The antecedents of the Bey were not precisely

calculated to assuage her alarm, but Mahm[=u]d sent one of his

officers to assure her that, come what might, he should never dream of

violating the Moslem laws of hospitality. While the messenger was

still with her, Lord Exmouth entered the room and announced the

satisfactory termination of his mission. On the following morning the

Bey signed a Treaty whereby in the name of the Regency he abolished

Christian slavery throughout his dominions. Among the reasons which

induced the Bey to yield to the pressure used by Lord Exmouth was the

detention of the Sultan's envoy, bearing the imperial firman and robe

of investiture, at Syracuse. The Neapolitan Government would not allow

him to depart until the news of the successful result of the British

mission had arrived, and Mahm[=u]d felt it impossible to forego the

official recognition of his suzerain."[90]

The wife of George IV. was extremely angry at being interrupted in a

delightful course of entertainments, and picnics among the ruins of

Carthage and the orange groves, whither she repaired in the Bey's

coach and six, escorted by sixty meml[=u]ks. The Tunisians were, of

course, indignant at the Bey's surrender, nor did piracy cease on

account of the Treaty. Holland, indeed, repudiated the blackmail in

1819, but Sweden still paid a species of tribute in the form of one

hundred and twenty-five cannons in 1827.

Having gained his point at Tunis and Tripoli--a most unexpected

triumph--Lord Exmouth came back to Algiers, and endeavoured to

negotiate the same concessions there, coolly taking up his position

within short range of the batteries. His proposals were indignantly

rejected, and he was personally insulted; two of his officers were

dragged from their horses by the mob, and marched through the streets

with their hands tied behind their backs; the consul, Mr. McDonell,

was put under guard, and his wife and other ladies of his family were

ignominiously driven into the town from the country house.[91] Lord

Exmouth had no instructions for such an emergency; he arranged that

ambassadors should be sent from Algiers to London and Constantinople

to discuss his proposal; and then regretfully sailed for England. He

had hardly returned when news arrived of extensive massacres of

Italians living under British protection at Bona and Oran by order of

the Dey--an order actually issued while the British admiral was at

Algiers. Lord Exmouth was immediately instructed to finish his work.

On the 25th of July in the same year his flagship, the _Queen

Charlotte_, 108, led a squadron of eighteen men of war, of from ten to

one hundred and four guns, and including three seventy-fours, out of

Portsmouth harbour. At Gibraltar the Dutch admiral, Baron Van

Capellan, begged to be allowed to join in the attack with six vessels,

chiefly thirty-sixes, and when the time came he fought his ships

admirably. On the 27th of August they arrived in the roads of Algiers.

The _Prometheus_ had been sent ahead to bring off the consul McDonell

and his family. Captain Dashwood succeeded in bringing Mrs. and Miss

McDonell on board; but a second boat was less fortunate: the consul's

baby took the opportunity of crying just as it was being carried in a

basket past the sentinel, by the ship's surgeon, who believed he had

quieted it. The whole party were taken before the Dey, who, however,

released all but the boat's crew, and, as "a solitary instance of his

humanity," sent the baby on board. The Consul-General himself remained

a prisoner.

No reply being vouchsafed to his flag of truce, Lord Exmouth bore up

to the attack, and the _Queen Charlotte_ dropped anchor in the

entrance of the Mole, some fifty yards off, and was lashed to a mast

which was made fast to the shore. A shot from the Mole, instantly

answered from the flagship, opened the battle. "Then commenced a

fire," wrote the admiral, "as animated and well-supported as I believe

was ever witnessed, from a quarter before three till nine, without

intermission, and which did not cease altogether till half-past eleven

[P.M.]. The ships immediately following me were admirably and coolly

taking up their stations, with a precision even beyond my most

sanguine hope; and never did the British flag receive, on any

occasion, more zealous and honourable support.

"The battle was fairly at issue between a handful of Britons, in the

noble cause of Christianity, and a horde of fanatics, assembled round

their city, and enclosed within its fortifications, to obey the

dictates of their Despot. The cause of God and humanity prevailed; and

so devoted was every creature in the fleet, that even British women

served at the same guns with their husbands, and, during a contest of

many hours, never shrank from danger, but animated all around them."

Some of the men-of-war, especially the _Impregnable_, Rear-Admiral

Milne, were hard beset; but about ten o'clock at night the main

batteries were silenced, and in a state of ruin, and "all the ships in

the port, with the exception of the outer frigate [which had been

boarded], were in flames, which extended rapidly over the whole

arsenal, storehouses, and gun-boats, exhibiting a spectacle of awful

grandeur and interest no pen can describe."[92] At one o'clock

everything in the Marine seemed on fire: two ships wrapped in flames

drifted out of the port. Heavy thunder, lightning, and rain, increased

the lurid effect of the scene.

Next morning, says Mr. Shaler, "the combined fleets are at anchor in

the bay, apparently little damaged; every part of the town appeared to

have suffered. The Marine batteries are in ruins, and may be occupied

without any effort. Lord Exmouth holds the fate of Algiers in his

hands."

Instead, however, of demolishing the last vestige of the

fortifications, and exacting pledges for future good behaviour, the

admiral concluded a treaty by which prisoners of war in future should

be exchanged and not enslaved; and the whole of the slaves in Algiers,

to the number of 1,642 (chiefly Italian, only eighteen English), were

at once set at liberty, and the Dey was made to refund the money,

amounting to nearly four hundred dollars, which he had that year

extorted from the Italian States. Finally, he was made to publicly

apologize to the unfortunate McDonell, who had been confined during

the siege half naked in the cell for condemned murderers, loaded with

chains, fastened to the wall, exposed to the heavy rain, and

momentarily expecting his doom. He was now reinstated, and publicly

thanked by the admiral.

It was, indeed, satisfactory to have at last administered some

salutary discipline to the insolent robbers of Algiers; but it had

been well if the lesson had been final. Their fleet was certainly

gone: they had but two vessels left. Their fortifications were

severely damaged, but these were soon repaired. No doubt it was no

small advantage to have demonstrated that their batteries could be

turned and silenced; but it would have been better to have taken care

that they should never mount another gun. Even the moral effect of the

victory seems to have been shortlived, for when, in 1819, in pursuance

of certain resolutions expressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle

(1818) the French and English admirals delivered "identical notes" to

the new Dey, that potentate replied after his manner by throwing up

earthworks.

As a matter of fact the same course of insolence and violence

continued after the Battle of Algiers as before. Free European girls

were carried off by the Dey; the British consulate was forced open,

and even the women's rooms searched; Mr. McDonell was still

victimized; and the diplomacy and a little fancy firing of Sir Harry

Neale in 1824 failed to produce the least effect. Mr. McDonell had to

be recalled, and the Dey as usual had his own way. Nothing but

downright conquest could stop the plague, and that final measure was

reserved for another nation than the English.

FOOTNOTES:

[90] Broadley, 85-6.

[91] Playfair, 256.

[92] Lord Exmouth's Despatch, August 26, 1816. See also the American

Consul Shaler's Report to his Government, September 13th, quoted by

Playfair, 269-72. The bombardment destroyed a large part of Mr.

Shaler's house, and shells were perpetually whizzing by his ears. His

report is full of graphic details, and he was always a true friend of

the unlucky McDonell. It is stated that the fleet fired 118 tons of

powder, 50,000 shot, nearly 1,000 shells, &c. The English lost 128

killed and 690 wounded. The admiral was wounded in three places, his

telescope broken in his hand, and his coat cut to strips. Nor was the

Dey less forward at the post of danger.

XXII.

THE FRENCH IN AFRICA.

1830-1881.

The successes of the English and American fleets had produced their

effects, not so much in arresting the course of piracy, as in

encouraging the European States to defy the pirates. The _coup de

grace_ was administered by France--the _vis-a-vis_, the natural

opponent of the Algerine Corsairs, and perhaps the chief sufferer by

their attacks. A dispute in April, 1827, between the French consul and

the Dey, in which the former forgot the decencies of diplomatic

language, and the latter lost his temper and struck the offender with

the handle of his fan, led to an ineffectual blockade of Algiers by a

French squadron for two years, during which the Algerines aggravated

the breach by several acts of barbarity displayed towards French

prisoners. Matters grew to a crisis; in August, 1829, the Dey

dismissed a French envoy and fired upon his ship as he was retiring

under a flag of truce; and it became evident that war on a decisive

scale was now inevitable.

Accordingly, on May 26th, 1830, a large fleet sailed out of Toulon.

Admiral Duperre commanded, and the land-forces on board numbered

thirty-seven thousand foot, besides cavalry and artillery. Delayed by

stress of weather, the fleet was not sighted off Algiers till June

13th, when it anchored in the Bay of Sidi Ferr[=u]j, and there landed

next day, with little opposition, and began to throw up entrenchments.

A force of Arabs and Kabyles was severely defeated on the 19th, with

the loss of their camp and provisions, and the French slowly pushed

their way towards the city, beating back the Algerines as they

advanced. The defenders fought game to the last, but the odds were

overwhelming, and the only wonder is that so overpowering a force of

besiegers, both by sea and land, should have evinced so much caution

and diffidence of their own immense superiority. On July 4th, the

actual bombardment of the city began; the Fort de l'Empereur was

taken, after the Algerines had blown up the powder magazine; and the

Dey asked for terms of surrender. Safety of person and property for

himself and for the inhabitants of the city was promised by the French

commander, and on this condition the enemy occupied Algiers on the

following day, July 5th. A week later the Dey, with his family and

attendants and belongings, sailed for Naples in a French frigate, and

Algiers had seen the last of its Mohammedan rulers.[93]

Here, so far as Algiers is concerned, the Story of the Corsairs

properly ends. But a glance at the events which have occurred during

the French occupation may usefully supplement what has already been

recorded. The conquest had been marked by a moderation and humanity

which did infinite honour to the French arms; it would have been well

if a similar policy had distinguished their subsequent proceedings. It

is not necessary to dwell upon the assurance given by France to Great

Britain that the occupation was only temporary; upon the later

announcement of permanent annexation; or upon England's acquiescence

in the perfidy, upon the French engaging never to push their conquests

further to the east or west of Algiers--an engagement curiously

illustrated by the recent occupation of Tunis. But if the

aggrandizement of France in North Africa is matter for regret,

infinitely more to be deplored is the manner in which the possession

of the interior of the country has been effected. It is not too much

to say that from the moment when the French, having merely taken the

city of Algiers, began the work of subduing the tribes of the interior

in 1830, to the day when they at last set up civil, instead of

military, government, after the lessons of the Franco-German war in

1870, the history of Algeria is one long record of stupidly brutal

camp-rule, repudiation of sacred engagements, inhuman massacres of

unoffending natives of both sexes and all ages, violence without

judgment, and severity without reason. One French general after

another was sent out to bring the rebellious Arabs and Kabyles into

subjection, only to display his own incompetence for the inhuman

task, and to return baffled and brutalized by the disgraceful work he

thought himself bound to carry out. There is no more humiliating

record in the annals of annexation than this miserable conquest of

Algiers. It is the old story of trying to govern what the conquerors

call "niggers," without attempting to understand the people first.

Temper, justice, insight, and conciliation would have done more in

four years than martial intolerance and drum tyranny accomplished in

forty.

In all these years of miserable guerilla warfare, in which such

well-known commanders as Bugeaud, Pelissier, Canrobert, St. Arnaud,

MacMahon, and many more, learned their first demoralizing lessons in

warfare, the only people who excite our interest and admiration are

the Arab tribes. That they were unwise in resisting the inevitable is

indisputable; but it is no less certain that they resisted with

splendid valour and indomitable perseverance. Again and again they

defeated the superior forces of France in the open field, wrested

strong cities from the enemy, and even threatened to extinguish the

authority of the alien in Algiers for ever. For all which the invaders

had only to thank themselves. Had General Clausel, the first military

governor of Algiers, been a wise man, the people might have accepted,

by degrees, the sovereignty of France. But the violence of his

measures, and his ignorance of the very word "conciliation," raised up

such strenuous opposition, engendered such terrible reprisals, and set

the two parties so hopelessly against each other, that nothing less

than a prolonged struggle could be expected.

The hero of this sanguinary conflict was 'Abd-el-K[=a]dir, a man who

united in his person and character all the virtues of the old Arabs

with many of the best results of civilization. Descended from a

saintly family, himself learned and devout, a H[=a]j or Meccan

pilgrim; frank, generous, hospitable; and withal a splendid horseman,

redoubtable in battle, and fired with the patriotic enthusiasm which

belongs to a born leader of men, 'Abd-el-K[=a]dir became the

recognized chief of the Arab insurgents. The Dey of Algiers had

foreseen danger in the youth, who was forced to fly to Egypt in fear

of his life. When he returned, a young man of twenty-four, he found

his country in the hands of the French, and his people driven to

desperation. His former fame and his father's name were talismans to

draw the impetuous tribes towards him; and he soon had so large a

following that the French deemed it prudent for the moment to

recognize him (1834) as Em[=i]r of Maskara, his native place, of which

he had already been chosen king by general acclamation. Here he

prepared for the coming struggle; and when the French discovered a

pretext for attacking him in 1835, they were utterly routed on the

river Maska. The fortunes of war vacillated in the following year,

till in May, 1837, 'Abd-el-K[=a]dir triumphantly defeated a French

army in the plain of the Metija. A fresh expedition of twenty thousand

met with no better success, for Arabs and Berbers are hard to trap,

and 'Abd-el-K[=a]dir, whose strategy evoked the admiration of the Duke

of Wellington, was for a time able to baffle all the marshals of

France. The whole country, save a few fortified posts, was now under

his sway, and the French at last perceived that they had to deal with

a pressing danger. They sent out eighty thousand men under Marshal

Bugeaud, and the success of this officer's method of sweeping the

country with movable columns was soon apparent. Town after town fell;

tribe after tribe made terms; even 'Abd-el-K[=a]dir's capital,

Takidemt, was destroyed; Maskara was subdued (1841); and the heroic

chief, still repudiating defeat, retreated to Morocco. Twice he led

fresh armies into his own land, in 1843 and 1844; the one succumbed to

the Duc d'Aumale, the other to Bugeaud. Pelissier covered himself with

peculiar glory by smoking five hundred men, women, and children to

death in a cave. At last, seeing the hopelessness of further efforts

and the misery they brought upon his people, 'Abd-el-K[=a]dir accepted

terms (1847), and surrendered to the Duc d'Aumale on condition of

being allowed to retire to Alexandria or Naples. It is needless to add

that, in accordance with Algerian precedent, the terms of surrender

were subsequently repudiated, though not by the Royal Duke, and the

noble Arab was consigned for five years to a French prison. Louis

Napoleon eventually allowed him to depart to Brusa, and he finally

died at Damascus in 1883, not, however, before he had rendered signal

service to his former enemies by protecting the Christians during the

massacres of 1860.

Though 'Abd-el-K[=a]dir had gone, peace did not settle upon Algeria.

Again and again the tribes revolted, only to feel once more the

merciless severity of their military rulers. French colonists did not

readily adopt the new field for emigration. It seemed as though the

best thing would be to withdraw from a bootless, expensive, and

troublesome venture. Louis Napoleon, however, when he visited Algiers

in 1865, contrived somewhat to reassure the Kabyles, while he

guaranteed their undisturbed possession of their territories; and

until his fall there was peace. But the day of weakness for France was

the opportunity for Algiers, and another serious revolt broke out; the

Kabyles descended from their mountains, and Gen. Durieu had enough to

do to hold them in check. The result of this last attempt, and the

change of government in France, was the appointment of civil instead

of military governors, and since then Algeria has on the whole

remained tranquil, though it takes an army of fifty thousand men to

keep it so. There are at least no more Algerine Corsairs.

It remains to refer to the affairs of Tunis. If there was provocation

for the French occupation of Algiers in 1830, there was none for that

of Tunis in 1881.[94] It was a pure piece of aggression, stimulated by

the rival efforts of Italy, and encouraged by the timidity of the

English Foreign Office, then under the guidance of Lord Granville. A

series of diplomatic grievances, based upon no valid grounds, was set

up by the ingenious representative of France in the Regency--M.

Theodore Roustan, since deservedly exposed--and the resistance of the

unfortunate Bey, Mohammed Es-S[=a]dik, to demands which were in

themselves preposterous, and which obviously menaced his

semi-independence as a viceroy of the Ottoman Empire, received no

support from any of the Powers, save Turkey, who was then depressed in

influence and resources by the adversities of the Russian invasion.

The result was natural: a strong Power, unchecked by efficient rivals,

pursued her stealthy policy of aggression against a very weak, but not

dishonest, State; and finally seized upon the ridiculous pretext of

some disturbances among the tribes bordering on Algeria to invade the

territory of the Bey. In vain Mohammed Es-S[=a]dik assured M. Roustan

that order had been restored among the tribes; in vain he appealed to

all the Powers, and, above all, to England. Lord Granville believed

the French Government when it solemnly assured him that "the

operations about to commence on the borderland between Algeria and

Tunis are meant solely to put an end to the constant inroads of the

frontier clans into Algerian territory, and that the independence of

the Bey and the integrity of his territory are in no way threatened."

It was Algiers over again, but with even more serious consequences to

English influence--indeed to all but French influence--in the

Mediterranean. "Perfide Albion" wholly confided in "Perfida Gallia,"

and it was too late to protest against the flagrant breach of faith

when the French army had taken Kef and Tabarka (April 26, 1881), when

the tricolor was floating over Bizerta, and when General Breart, with

every circumstance of insolent brutality, had forced the Treaty of

Kasr-es-Sa'[=i]d upon the luckless Bey under the muzzles of the guns

of the Republic (May 12th). It is difficult to believe that the

feeling of the English statesmen of the day is expressed in the

words--_Haec olim meminisse juvabit._

The Bey had been captured--he and since his death Sidi 'Al[=i] Bey

have continued to be the figureheads of the French Protectorate--but

his people were not so easily subdued. The southern provinces of Tunis

broke into open revolt, and for a time there ensued a period of

hopeless anarchy, which the French authorities made no effort to

control. At last they bestirred themselves, and to some purpose. Sfax

was mercilessly bombarded and _sacked_, houses were blown up with

their inhabitants inside them, and a positive reign of terror was

inaugurated, in which mutual reprisals, massacres, and executions

heightened the horrors of war. The whole country outside the fortified

posts became the theatre of bloodshed, robbery, and anarchy. It was

the history of Algiers _in petto_. Things have slowly improved since

then, especially since M. Roustan's recall; doubtless in time Tunis

will be as subdued and as docile as Algiers; and meanwhile France is

developing the resources of the land, and opening out one of the

finest harbours in existence. Yet M. Henri de Rochefort did not,

perhaps, exaggerate when he wrote: "We compared the Tunisian

expedition to an ordinary fraud. We were mistaken. The Tunis business

is a robbery aggravated by murder." The "Algerian business" was of a

similar character. _Qui commence bien finit bien_, assumes Admiral

Jurien de la Graviere in his chapter entitled "Gallia Victrix." If the

history of France in Africa ends in bringing the southern borderlands

of the Mediterranean, the old haunts of the Barbary Corsairs, within

the pale of civilization, it may some day be possible to bury the

unhappy past, and inscribe upon the tombstone the optimistic motto:

_Finis coronat opus._

FOOTNOTES:

[93] See the graphic journal of the British Consul-General, R. W. St.

John, published in Sir R. Lambert Playfair's _Scourge of Christendom_,

pp. 310-322.

[94] For a full account of this scandalous proceeding, see Mr. A. M.

Broadley's _Tunis, Past and Present_.

THE END.

INDEX.

A

'Abd-el-K[=a]dir, 305-6

'Abd-el-Melik. Khalif, 7

'Abd-er-Rahm[=a]n, 7

Acre, 62

Acton, Chevalier, 191

Aden, 98

Aegina, 97

"Africa" (Mahd[=i]ya), Siege of, 128-133;

(Illustr.) 129;

taken by Dragut, 133;

retaken by Doria, 134.

Aghlab[=i]s, 7, 21

Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress, 4, 299

Alghero, 62

Algiers, 8;

taken by D. Pedro Navarro, 13;

orthography, 13 _n._, 16, 19;

occupied by Ur[=u]j Barbarossa, 46;

ruled by Kheyr-ed-d[=i]n, 54;

Hasan Aga, viceroy, 81;

Charles V.'s Expedition, 112-123;

renegade Pashas, 185;

Turkish Deys, 185-7;

its galleys, 218 ff.;

its slaves, 235 ff.;

arrogance of its Deys, 257 ff.;

bombardment, 297;

French occupation, 301-7

Algiers (Illustr.) frontispiece, 48, 115

Alhucemas, 188

'Ali Aga, 272

'Ali Pasha at Lepanto, 164, 173-6

Allen, Sir T., 272

Almohades, 7, 21

Almoravides, 21

Alva, Duke of, 113

'Amr, General, 7

Angelo, Fort (Corfu), 97

Angelo, Fort (Malta), 136, 142 ff.

Aragon, 23

Aranda, Emanuel d', 195

Arenela, 143

Armadores, 221

Arta, Gulf of, 101 ff.

Astrolabe, 170

Astrolabe, observation with, 104

Atlas range, 14

Aubusson, D', 66

Aumale, Duc d', 306

Ay[=a]s, Grand Vez[=i]r, 96

Ayd[=i]n Reis "Drub-Devil," 56, 57, 89

B

Bab Az[=u]n, 117, 118

Bab-el-W[=e]d, 117

Bainbridge, Capt., 277 ff.

Balaklava, 62

Balearic Islands, 24, 56, 57

Baltimore in Ireland sacked, 233, 265

Barbarigo, 173, 175

Barbarossa, Ur[=u]j, birth, 31;

Lives of, 31 _n._;

arrives at Tunis, 32;

takes Papal Galleys, 35;

settles at Jerba, 40;

attacks Buj[=e]ya, 40;

is wounded, 43;

second attempt on Buj[=e]ya, 44;

goes to J[=i]jil, 44;

surprises Shersh[=e]l, 46;

occupies Algiers, 49;

defeats the Spaniards, 50;

conquers Tinnis, 51;

is pursued by the Spaniards, 51;

and killed, 52

Barbarossa, Kheyr-ed-d[=i]n, see _Kheyr-ed-d[=i]n_

Barbary peninsula, 14 ff.

Barbary, map of, 17

Barcone, 231

Bastion de France, 253-4

Bazan, Alvaro de, 173

Beaufort, Henry, 131

Bekri, El, 26

Beshiktash, 111

Besist[=a]n, 243

Beys of Tunis, 22

Blake, Admiral, 269

Blomberg, Barba, 167

Boccanegra, 103

Bona, 19, 24, 26

Bona, Cape, 19

Bor[=a]k Reis, 66-7

Bourbon, Duke of, 131

Bourbon, Francois de, 106

Boyssat, 89 _n._

Brigantine (Vergatina), 10, 205

Bragadino, 164

Braithwaite, Capt., 191 _n._

Breves, M. de, 226

Broadley, A. M., 89 _n._, 257, 295, 307

Bruce, James, 273

Bugeaud, Marshal, 306

Buj[=e]ya, taken by Spaniards, 12;

harbour, 19, 23;

besieged by

Ur[=u]j Barbarossa, 40;

again, 44, 51;

Charles V. at, 122, 254

Burgol, 222

C

Caesarea Augusta, 13 _n._

Cairo, 21

Canale, 95

Capellan, Van, 296

Capello, 101-4, 194

Carack, 86, 103

Caramuzel, 231

Caravel (Illustr.), 11, 231

Cardona, Juan de, 150, 168, 177

Carthage, 19

Castelnuovo, 105

Catena, 9, 168 _n._

Cattaro, 105

Cerda, Juan de la, 147

Cervantes, 177, 246-8

Cervellon, 182

Cetraro, 84

Ceuta, 16, 20, 23, 188

Challoner, Sir T., 122

Charles V., 51, 57, 77;

at Tunis, 86-91;

at Algiers, 112-123, 167

Chenier, 191 _n._

Chesneau, 83 _n._

Chioggia, 62

Christian privileges in Barbary, 22

Clement, Saint-, 161, 192

Col, 55

Collingwood, Admiral, 292

Colonna, 163, 173, 176

Comares, Marq. de, 51

Comelin, Father, 255

Commercial Treaties, 22

Compass, 99

Condulmiero, 103

Constantine, 55

Constantinople, 82-3

Consuls at Algiers, &c., 259 ff.

Cordova, 7

Corfu, 95;

besieged, 96-7

Corsica, 7, 24

Cortes, 114

Cossier, 89

Cottington, 229

Courcy, De, 131

Crossbow, observation with, 55

Cruz, Marquis of Santa, 177

Cyprus, 72;

taken by Turks, 162-4

D

Damad 'Al[=i], 181

Dan, Father, 218, 219, 220, 233, 235 ff., 252 ff.

Danser, Simon, 226

Dardanelles, 62

Da[=u]d Pasha, 67-71

Decatur, Stephen, 283 ff., 293

Delgarno, 188

Deli Memi, 246

Dell[=a]ls, 243

Denis, Sir Peter, 264

Denmark and Tunis, 258 ff.

Deys of Algiers, 22, 262 ff.

Doria, Andrea, drives Kheyr-ed-d[=i]n from the Goletta, 43;

life up to 1533, 76-8;

portrait, 79;

takes Coron, 81;

misses Kheyr-ed-d[=i]n, 82;

expedition to Tunis, 86 ff.;

chases Kheyr-ed-d[=i]n, 93;

fight off Paxos, 95;

defeated at Prevesa, 101-4;

inactivity, 110;

expedition to Algiers, 113 ff.;

to Mahd[=i]ya, 133;

lets Dragut slip, 135;

death, 140

Doria, Giannettino, 112, 127

Doria, Giovanni Andrea, 138-40, 163, 168, 173, 175

Doria, Roger, at Jerba, 128

Dragut, Reis (Torgh[=u]d), 56, 98, 103, 110, 112;

early career, 124;

captivity, 127;

ransom, 112, 127;

at Jerba, 128;

takes "Africa," 133, and loses it, 134;

escape from Jerba, 135;

joins the Ottoman navy, 136, 138;

destroys the Christian fleet at Jerba, 140;

dies at the siege of Malta, 146-9

"Drub-Devil" Ayd[=i]n, 56

Duperre, Admiral, 302

Dynasties of N. Africa, 21

E

Echinades, 173

Elba looted, 82

Elmo, Fort St., 142-9

England and Algiers, 257 ff.

Eski Serai, 82

Evangelista, Master, 142

Exmouth, Lord, 293 ff.

F

Falcon, Consul, 264

F[=a]tim[=i]s, 7, 21, 24

Ferdinand the Catholic, 8, 13, 44

Fez, Bishop of, 22

Fondi sacked, 84-5

Formentara, 57, 224

France and Algiers, 256 ff., 301 ff.

Francis I., 77, 94, 106-10

Frazer, Hon. A. C., 264

Frizell, Consul, 266

Froissart, 128-33

Furttenbach, 206 ff., 232

G

Gabes, Gulf of, 26

Galata, 62

Galleasse, 68, (illustr.) 69, 227;

description, 206, 230

Galleon (illustr.), 6;

description, 205

Galleot, description, 218

Galley (illustr.), 37, 64;

building at Constantinople, 83;

(illustr.) 107, 203, 207, 209, 211;

description of, 200 ff., 213 ff.

Gembloux, 178

Genoa, 23, 43, 61 ff., 77

Goletta of Tunis, 16, 32, 78, 86

Gonzaga, Giulia, escape of, 84-5

Granada, fall of, 8

Graviere, Admiral Jurien de la, 31 _n._, 59, 71, 73, 81, 83, 104, 123,

138, 150, 177, 206, 215

Greece, raid among the isles of, 97

Greek fire, 131

Grimani, 67, 71, 101-4

Guaras, Jean de, 146

H

Haedo, Diego de, 31 _n._, 36, 82 _n._, 200-5, 219, 220, 223-4

Hafs, dynasty, 21, 23, 32, 85

H[=a]jji Khal[=i]fa, 31 _n._, 67, 82 _n._, 98, 104

Hamm[=a]d, dynasty, 21

Hammer, Von, 31 _n._, 104

Harebone, Mr., 260

Hasan Aga, 81, 112;

defends Algiers against Charles V., 112-23

Hasan, King of Tunis, 85-91

Hasan, Pasha of Algiers, 246-7

Herbert, Admiral, 272

His[=a]r Reis, 134

Holland and Algiers, 257 ff., 271, 295

Hope, Capt., 264

Hospitallers, Knights of St. John, 66, 73, 76, and see _Malta_

I

Ibrah[=i]m, Grand Vez[=i]r, 83, 89, 94

Ibrah[=i]m Lubarez, 277

Idr[=i]s, 21

Inchiquin, Earl of, 269

India, expedition to, 98

J

Jerba, lotus-eaters' island, 16, 40;

(illustr.) 125;

Dragut's lair, 128;

his escape from, 135;

destruction of the Christian fleet, 139

Jezair, Al-, 13 _n._

J[=i]jil, 19, 20;

occupied by Ur[=u]j Barbarossa, 44

John of Austria, Don, 164-78, 246

Julius II., Pope, 35

K

Kasaba at Algiers, 244 ff.

Kara Hasan, 49

Kayraw[=a]n, 91

Kem[=a]l Reis, 66

Keppel, Admiral, 273

Khald[=u]n, Ibn-, 26

Khalifs, 7, 21

Kheyr-ed-d[=i]n Barbarossa, birth, 31 and _n._, 36 _n._;

driven from the Goletta, 43;

character, 53;

policy towards Sultan, 54;

appointed Governor of Algiers, 54;

defeats Hugo de Moncada, 55;

storms the Penon de Alger, 58;

summoned to Constantinople, 75;

arrival, 82;

High Admiral of Turkey, 83, 94;

raid in Italy, 84;

sacks Fondi, 85;

takes Tunis, 86;

is expelled, 89;

sacks Port Mahon, 92-3;

at Stambol, 94;

lays waste Apulia, 96;

siege of Corfu, 96-7;

takes Castelnuovo, 105;

at Marseilles, 106;

siege of Nice, 109;

winters at Toulon, 109;

returns to Constantinople, 111;

death, 111

Knights of St. John, 66, 73, 76

Koka, 67

Kuroghler, Creole, 221

L

Lacalle, 19;

taken by Turks, 71

Lepanto, 67;

battle of, 164-178

Lesbos, 31

Liman Reis, Port Admiral, 225

Lomellini family, 19, 43

Loredani family, 65, 68

Louis, St., 85

Lucida, S., stormed, 84

Luni, 24

Lutfi Pasha, 81, 96

M

Madeira, 232

Mahon, Port, sacked, 93, 114

Mahd[=i]ya, 16, 21, 24, 26;

siege by Bourbon, 128-133;

(Illustr.) 129;

taken by Dragut, 133;

by Doria, 134

Mahm[=u]d, Bey of Tunis, 294-5

Majorca, 57

Malta, description of, 143

Malta, Knights of, 76, 86 ff., 109, 118-123, 136-8, 141-159, 161, 177,

213;

captives, 244 ff.

Mansell, Sir R., 272

Marabut, 222

Marmora, 62

Matha, Juan de, 251

Marmol, 31 _n._

Marsa, La, 143

Mars-el-Keb[=i]r, 19

Marseilles merchants, 19, 254

Marseilles receives the Turkish fleet, 106

Martinego, 73

Mas-Latrie, Cte. de, 24, 25

Maura, Santa, 103

McDonell, Consul, 296 ff.

Medina-Celi, Duke of, expedition to Jerba and defeat, 138-140

Memi Arnaut, 185

Memi Gancho, 220

Mendoza, 81, 114

Merin, dynasty, 22

Minorca, 92

Modon, 71

Mohammed II., 31, 65, 66

Mohammed Es-S[=a]dik, 308-9

Moor of Alexandria, 95

_Moors in Spain_, _Story of_, 8, 167

Morgan, S., 36, 46, 52, 58, 91, 104, 215, 241, 268

Moriscos, 26, 57, 59

Morocco, 187-191

Muj[=a]hid (Muget), 24

Munatones, 156

Mur[=a]d Reis, 98, 192, 193, 233

Mur[=a]d IV., 194

Muset, 143

Mustafa, Seraskier, 144 ff.

Mustafa, Lala, 162-3

Mustafa, Bogotillos, 187

N

Narborough, Sir John, 272

Navarino, 67, 68

Navarro, D. Pedro, takes Oran, Algiers, &c., 12-13, 43, 138

Nave, 231

Naxos, 97

Neale, Sir H., 300

Negropont, 65

Nelson, Admiral Lord, 292

Nice, siege of, 109

O

Ochiali (El-Ul[=u]ji, Uluj Ali), at Jerba, 140;

at Malta, 146;

his exploits, 161;

at the battle of Lepanto, 175-7;

retakes Tunis, 182;

death, 185, 219

Oglander, Consul, 294

Oliva, 57

'Omar, Khalif, 7

Oran, 8;

taken by Spaniards, 12;

harbour, 19, 51

Othello, 65

Otranto, 65

P

Page, Sanson Le, 252-4

Pallavicini, Cristofero, 81

Patras, 71, 81

Paxos, 95, 97

Pellew, Sir Edward, see _Exmouth_

Penon de Alger founded, 13, 45, 46, 49, 51;

destroyed, 59

Penon de Velez da la Gomera, 188

Pertev Pasha, 176

Pi[=a]li Pasha, 138;

at Jerba, 140;

at Malta, 145 ff.;

at Cyprus, 162-4

Pichinin, 'Ali, 194-9

Piracy, pleasures of, 9-13

Pisa, 23, 24, 25

Pius V., 162, 164, 177

_Philadelphia_, loss of the, 280

Playfair, Sir R. L., 242 _n._, 261, 273, 296, 302

Polacca, 231

Porto Farino, 19, 269

Portundo, General, 57

Portus Divinus, 19

Preble, Commodore, 276 ff.

Prevesa, battle of, 101-4

Provence, 23

R

Ramadan Sardo, 185, 200

Ransoms, 267

Redemption, order of, 251 ff.

Reggio looted, 84;

burnt, 106

Reis, 221

"Religion, The," 86

Renegades, 200 ff.

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 273

Rhodes, siege of, 66;

second siege and fall, 73

Robles, Melchior de, 150 ff.

Roe, Sir T., 272, 285

Romegas, 142

Roustan, M., 307-9

S

Sahara, 14, 15

Sal[=e], 20, 23, 188, 191

S[=a]lih Reis, 56, 57, 98, 103, 110, 112

S[=a]lih Reis (II.), 156, 185

Salim, 45, 46, 49, 50

Sandwich, Lord, 272

Sanson Napolon, 254

Saracens, arts of, 72

Sardinia, 7, 24

Sarmiento, D. Francisco, 105

Scirocco (Mohammed Shaluk), 175

Sel[=i]m II., 161

Sevigne, Mons., on galley slaves, 217

Sfax, 128

Shaler, W., 293, 298

Sher[=i]fs of Morocco, 22

Shersh[=e]l, 8, 19;

taken by Ur[=u]j Barbarossa, 46;

attacked by Doria, 78;

219

Ship supersedes galley, 229 ff.

Sicily, 7, 23, 24, 25

Sin[=a]n Pasha, attacks Malta, 136;

and Tripoli, 137

Sin[=a]n Reis, 56, 89, 98, 112

Simeoni, 109

Slaves on galleys, 39

Soame, Sir W., 273

Spain and Tunis, 258 ff.

Spragg, Sir E., 272

Spratt, Rev. D., 266

Stradiotes, 65

Suleym[=a]n the Magnificent, 60, 72 ff., 78, 82, 96-8, 104, 134, 142,

143, 161

Susa, 128

Syrtes, Greater, 16

Sweden and Tunis, 258 ff., 295

T

Tabarka, 19, 43

Tangiers, 16, 188

Tartana, 231

Temendefust, 121

Tetw[=a]n, 188, 223-4

Tierra Nuova, Duke of, 192

Tilims[=a]n, 7, 51

Timur, 66

Tinnis, 19;

conquered by Ur[=u]j, 51

Tipton, John, 259

Toledo, D. Garcia de, 133

Tongues of the Order of St. John, 73, 137

Torgh[=u]d, see _Dragut_

Torpedoes, 232

Toulon receives Turkish fleet, 109

Treaties of Commerce, 22

Tripoli, 23, 274 ff., 294-5;

(Illustr.) 281

Tron, Alexandro, 97

Tunis, 7, 16, 20, 21, 23, 25, 32, 85;

taken by Kheyr-ed-d[=i]n, 86;

retaken by Charles V., 86-93;

taken by Ochiali, 161;

retaken by Don John of Austria, 178;

again taken by Ochiali, 182;

arrogance of the Beys, 257 ff.;

Lord Exmouth, 294-5;

French invasion, 307-310

Tunis, Illustr. of, 33, 87

_Turkey_, _Story of_, 65, 66, 72, 78, 82, 94, 138

U

United States and Barbary States, 258 ff., 274-293

Ur[=u]j, see _Barbarossa_

V

Vacher, Jean de, 263

Valette, de la, 127, 142, 145 ff.

Vargas, D. Martin de, 58

Vasquez, 168

Venice, 23, 61 ff., 71 ff., 94 ff.

Venice, Oriental commerce of, 72

Venice, Greek islands, 97

Veniero, 62, 173, 176

Vera, D. Diego de, 50

Villiers, Gaspard de, 138

W

Wales, Caroline, Princess of, 294-5

Watts, H. E., on Cervantes, 246-8

Wer, Captain, 226

William III., letter to 'Ali Reis, 187

Winchelsea, Earl of, 272

Windus, J., 191 _n._

X

Ximenes, Cardinal, 50

Y

Yamboli, 104

Y[=a]ni, 66

Z

Zanne, 163

Zante, 72

Zeyr[=i]s of Tunis, 21

Ziy[=a]n, dynasty, 21

The Story of the Nations.

Messrs. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS take pleasure in announcing that they have

in course of publication a series of historical studies, intended to

present in a graphic manner the stories of the different nations that

have attained prominence in history.

In the story form the current of each national life will be distinctly

indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes

will be presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to

each other as well as to universal history.

It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into

the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as

they actually lived, labored, and struggled--as they studied and

wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the

myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be

overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the

actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical

authorities have resulted in definite conclusions.

The subjects of the different volumes will be planned to cover

connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so

that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative

the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it will, of

course not always prove practicable to issue the several volumes in

their chronological order.

The "Stories" are printed in good readable type, and in handsome 12mo

form. They are adequately illustrated and furnished with maps and

indexes. They are sold separately at a price of $1.50 each.

The following volumes are now ready (November, 1889):

THE STORY OF GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.

" " " ROME. Arthur Gilman.

" " " THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.

" " " CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin.

" " " GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.

" " " NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.

" " " SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale.

" " " HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vambery.

" " " CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.

" " " THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.

" " " THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.

" " " THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.

" " " PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin.

" " " ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.

" " " ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahaffy.

" " " ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin.

" " " THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.

" " " IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.

" " " TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.

" " " MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z. A. Ragozin.

" " " MEDIAEVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustav Masson.

" " " HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.

" " " MEXICO. Susan Hale.

" " " PH[OE]NICIA. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.

" " " THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.

" " " EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.

Now in Press for immediate issue:

THE STORY OF BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Poole.

" " " RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill.

" " " VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin.

" " " THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith.

" " " MODERN FRANCE. Emily Crawford.

" " " THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison.

" " " CANADA. A. R. Macfarlane.

" " " SCOTLAND. James Macintosh.

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS

NEW YORK

27 AND 29 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET

LONDON

27 KING WILLIAM STREET, STRAND

PUBLICATIONS OF G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS

THE SCRIPTURES,

HEBREW AND CHRISTIAN.

ARRANGED AND EDITED AS AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE.

EDITORS.

REV. EDWARD T. BARTLETT, D.D.,

Dean of the Divinity School of the P. E. Church in Philadelphia, and

Mary Wolfe, Prof. of Ecclesiastical History.

REV. JOHN P. PETERS, PH.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Literature and Language in the Divinity

School of the P. E. Church in Philadelphia, and Professor of Hebrew in

the University of Pennsylvania.

The work is to be completed in three volumes, containing each about

500 pages, Vols. I. and II. now ready.

Vol. I. includes Hebrew story from the Creation to the time of

Nehemiah, as in the Hebrew canon.

Vol. II. is devoted to Hebrew poetry and prophecy.

Vol. III. will contain the selections from the Christian Scriptures.

The volumes are handsomely printed in 12mo form, and with an open,

readable page, not arranged in verses, but paragraphed according to

the sense of the narrative.

Each volume is complete in itself, and will be sold separately at

$1.50.

The editors say in their announcement: "Our object is to remove stones

of stumbling from the path of young readers by presenting Scriptures

to them in a form as intelligible and as instructive as may be

practicable. This plan involves some re-arrangements and omissions,

before which we have not hesitated, inasmuch as our proposed work will

not claim to be the Bible, but an introduction to it. That we may

avoid imposing our own interpretation upon Holy Writ, it will be our

endeavor to make Scripture serve as the commentary on Scripture. In

the treatment of the Prophets of the Old Testament and the Epistles of

the New Testament, it will not be practicable entirely to avoid

comment, but no attempt will be made to pronounce upon doctrinal

questions."

The first volume is divided into four parts: