The Trias enters England on the south coast, between Torbay and

Exmouth. At the little watering-place of Budleigh Salterton there is a

bed of quartzite pebbles in the Trias 100 feet thick which is worthy

of study in connection with the great numbers of similar pebbles that

occur in the same strata round Birmingham. In West Somerset and Devon,

the Triassic strata are 3,500 feet in thickness. Their subdivisions

cannot be correlated with those of the Midlands, for they appear to

have been deposited in a separate basin, of which the Mendips, &c.,

still mark the northern boundary.

Crossing into Gloucestershire, we find the vale of the Severn composed

of Triassic marls, and thence northwards the “red rocks” broaden till

they form the plains of Cheshire and South Lancashire on the west,

and extend eastward to Warwick, Leicester, and Derby. From this great

central plain of our island a long strip of Triassic sandstones and

marls runs northwards, forming the Vale of Trent and the Vale of York,

until finally it reaches the coast between Redcar and Hartlepool. Along

the main line of outcrop--from the Malvern Hills to the mouth of the

Tees--the Triassic strata incline gently, or dip, to the south-east, at

from two to five degrees.

Of the two great divisions of the Trias, the lower (Bunter) is mainly

sandy; while the upper (Keuper) is chiefly a stiff marl or clay. One

result of this is that while the outcrop of the former is usually

barren, forming much heath or waste land, as Sherwood Forest, the

Keuper marls produce a rich soil, well fitted for the plough.

Owing to the soft nature of the strata, valleys are usually hollowed

out in the Lower and Upper Mottled Sandstones, while the Keuper marls

form an undulating plain. On the other hand the harder nature of the

Bunter pebble bed, and the Lower Keuper Sandstone, causes these two

rocks to form escarpments or lines of hills, parallel to each other;

the abrupt face generally looking west or north-west, while the gentle

slope is to the east or south-east, agreeing with the average dip.

THE LOWER RED AND MOTTLED SANDSTONE.--Round Bridgenorth this division

rests unconformably on Permian strata, and is about 650 feet thick. It

is a homogeneous sandstone, of reddish-brown, yellow, and bright red

colours, entirely devoid of pebbles. As we follow this stratum to the

east it decreases in thickness, being only 200 feet near Stourbridge.

East of the South Staffordshire field, the Lower Mottled Sandstone is

entirely absent, and the Bunter pebble beds repose directly upon the

Permian rocks. Geologists desirous of examining the “Lower Mottled”

should visit Kinver Edge, west of Stourbridge, where this rock is well

seen underlying the Bunter conglomerate. Its upper portion has here

been hardened by calcareous matter, and projects beyond the pebble

beds above. Caves, or “rock-houses,” have been excavated in the Edge,

and in a detached mass of sandstone called the Holy Austen Rock. The

Lower Mottled Sandstone is again visible on Whittington Common, between

Kinver and Stourbridge. It is everywhere quite unfossiliferous. “False

bedding” is especially characteristic of this division, but it is

common in all the Midland Triassic sandstones.

THE BUNTER CONGLOMERATE OR PEBBLE-BED occupies the surface of the

Birmingham area, along a line running from south-west to north-east.

It extends from Worcester, by Bridgnorth, Stourbridge, Cannock

Chase, and Sutton Park to Lichfield. At all these places it is seen

as a remarkable mass of rounded pebbles--mostly yellow, brown, or

liver-coloured quartzites--and attains a thickness of 300 feet at

Cannock Chase. West of Stourbridge the Conglomerate forms the “Ridge,”

and caps Kinver Edge, dipping east or south-east at from five to eight

degrees. Thence it is traceable northward by Upper Penn and Bushbury to

Cannock Chase, where it forms a wide undulating heathy moorland, six

miles in breadth from Bednall on the west to Rugeley on the east, and

is exposed in many gravel pits and other excavations. The Staffordshire

Coalfield lies like a great wedge between the Trias on its western and

eastern sides. Crossing over from Stourbridge, we again find the Bunter

Conglomerate or Pebble-beds extending between Harborne and Smethwick,

and thence it runs northward in a broad band across the western suburbs

of Birmingham, by Winson Green, Handsworth, Perry Barr, and Perry, to

Sutton Park (where its outcrop is 3½ miles wide), and on to Aldridge,

Wreford, Hopwas Wood, and Lichfield Racecourse. All along this line

the Pebble-beds rest on Permian marls, and their thickness at Barr

Beacon is about 400 feet. Good sections of the pebble-beds are rare on

the south-west or west of Birmingham, but in the north-west they are

well seen in a quarry south of Great Barr Station, and in one or two

sections near the Beacon. At Sutton, exposures along the new railway

lines to Lichfield and to Walsall have been numerous and good, and the

Quarry in the Park, close to Blackroot Pool, gives a vertical section

of thirty feet. Each section shows a mass of well-rounded hard pebbles,

which have been so pressed together during the earth-movements that

have taken place since their deposition that many are cracked, while

all bear white indentations. The Bunter Conglomerate contains no

fossils of contemporaneous age, but many species of shells have been

obtained from the hard, rounded lumps of rock of which it is composed.

These fossils being of necessity of the age of the rock-fragments in

which they are included, they furnish a clue to the sources from which

the pebble-beds were derived. The following list of these derivative

fossils will give some idea of the results which have already been

obtained:--

ORDOVICIAN (in quartzite pebbles).--(_Arenig Beds._) _Lingula

Lesueurii._ (This interesting brachiopod shell has not yet been

found in its parent rock in England, though it is not uncommon

in the _Gres Armoricain_ of Brittany, a quartzite on the same

horizon as the Stiper stones); various lamellibranchs such as

_Modiolopsis_, _Palaearca_, and _Lyrodesma_ occur.

(_Caradoc and Bala Beds._)--Seven or eight species of

brachiopods, of which the commonest is _Orthis Budleighensis_;

a crinoid (_Glyptocrinus basalis_), &c.

(_May Hill Sandstone._)--Lumps of coarse sandstone, identical

lithologically with the rock which flanks the Lickey Hills,

occur commonly; they contain numerous casts of _Stricklandinia

lirata_, &c.

DEVONIAN.--Nine or ten species of brachiopods (especially

_Spirifera Verneuilii_). Remains of trilobites, such as

_Phacops_ and _Homalonotus_ are not unfrequent.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE.--Mr. Molyneux enumerates twenty-two species

of mountain limestone fossils--brachiopods, corals, crinoids,

&c.--which he obtained from the Bunter pebble-beds of Trentham.

Near Birmingham, fragments of partly decomposed chert, in which

the stems of crinoids are beautifully shown, are common in the

same strata.

THE UPPER RED AND MOTTLED SANDSTONE.--Stourbridge stands on the bright

red sands of this division, which extend northward through Kingswinford

to Trysall and Tettenhall. South of Birmingham we find the same strata

at Harborne Heath and Mill--there is a good exposure underneath the

drift in Flavel’s brick pit at “California”--from which point we can

trace the “Upper Mottled” across the western part of Birmingham, by

Rotton Park Reservoir and the Botanical Gardens; the beautiful soft red

sandstone forming a strip about a mile in width between Spring Hill,

Hockley Brook, Aston Villa, and Birchfields on the west, to the foot of

Snow Hill, and Aston Park on the east. In the cemetery adjoining the

Great Western Station at Hockley, there is a grand section, forty feet

in height, where the incoherent sand is largely worked for moulding and

foundry purposes. It is also exposed in and round Aston Park.

THE LOWER KEUPER SANDSTONE.--The lower member of the Keuper is the most

consolidated part of the Triassic formation, being best known as a

tolerably hard sandstone, white or pink in colour, which often yields

good building stone.

The “basement beds” of the Keuper are certain coarse sandstones and

chocolate coloured marls seen in a pit at “California,” near Harborne.

Above these come massively-bedded sandstones, of which there is a good

exposure in the now disused quarry at Weoley Castle.

Commencing at Edgbaston, we can trace the Lower Keuper Sandstone

by the Five Ways, and across the central highest part of Birmingham

to Nechells, Gravelly Hill, and Erdington. Its lower boundary line,

where it reposes on the Bunter, may be indicated by a line drawn

from the junction of Monument Road with Hagley Road to the bottom of

Snow Hill, and thence to Aston Station. From this point it extends

eastward, for from one mile (Edgbaston) to half-a-mile (Aston). The

ridge on which stands the Town Hall, St. Philip’s Church, &c., (475

feet above sea-level) is formed by the Lower Keuper Sandstone, and

deep excavations for foundations in the centre of the town, frequently

disclose the thin-bedded, dull-coloured, pinkish sandstones (known

to workmen as “skerry”) which constitute the upper portion of this

rock. Its thickness under Birmingham may be estimated at 200 feet. The

average dip is from three to five degrees south-east. Similar beds are

exposed in the cutting at Bromsgrove Railway Station, and it was from a

quarry here (now closed) that the remarkable fossil fish was obtained,

which was described by Sir Philip Egerton as _Dipteronotus cyphus_.

From quarries at Coton End, Guy’s Cliff, Cubbington and Blakedown Hill,

near Warwick, bones and teeth of four species of the _Labyrinthodon_

have been obtained, and foot-prints of the same creature have been

found in the Lower Keuper Sandstone in many localities.

THE KEUPER RED MARL is the uppermost member of the Trias. Near

Birmingham it is abruptly separated from the Lower Keuper Sandstone

by a line of _fault_, which can be traced from Selly Oak northwards

to the junction of the Rea with the Tame. East of this line of fault,

the red marls extend for ten or twelve miles forming an undulating

fertile plain, on which stand Moseley, Smallheath, and Castle

Bromwich, Coleshill and Whitacre. The thickness of the Keuper Marls is

considerable. A boring in Smallheath Park was made to a depth of 440

feet entirely in such strata; but quite lately another boring at King’s

Heath has been continued to a depth of 700 feet. Gypsum is plentiful in

the red marls, occurring in white fibrous layers, but not of sufficient

thickness to be of any value in this district. At Droitwich (eighteen

miles south-west of Birmingham) the Keuper Marls contain a thick bed of

rock salt, which yields an inexhaustible supply of _brine_.

_The Upper Keuper Sandstone_ is a thin band of sandstone, not exceeding

thirty feet in thickness, which occurs irregularly in the upper part

of the Keuper Marls. It is well exposed at the entrance to the canal

tunnel at Shrewley Common, and in a small quarry at Rowington (thirteen

miles south-east of Birmingham), and also crops out on the hill sides

at many points in South Warwickshire. From this thin stratum, the

Rev. P. B. Brodie, F.G.S., has obtained a fossil fish (_Palæoniscus

superstes_), and the crustacean (_Estheria minuta_). Specimens of these

may be seen in the Warwick Museum, which contains the finest collection

of Triassic fossils possessed by any provincial museum.

HOW THE TRIASSIC ROCKS WERE FORMED.--According to the writer’s views,

the area now occupied by central England, alternated in condition

during the Carboniferous epoch, between a low plain and a shallow

sea. In the Permian period, land conditions prevailed, except in the

North and North Midland Counties, where a brackish sea somewhat like

the Baltic, it may be--occupied a shallow depression. In Triassic

times this central sea appears to have been completely cut off from

the open ocean, and to have formed a large inland lake, comparable

to the Caspian or the Dead Sea of our own day. The southern boundary

of this inland sea was formed by a ridge of old rocks which extended

from Charnwood by Hartshill and the Lickey to the Wrekin and Malvern

Hills. In the basin north of this axial ridge, all the subdivisions

of the Bunter and the Keuper were in turn deposited; and the cliffs

and reefs of the Palæozoic rocks of which this coastline was composed,

yielded large contributions to the pebble-beds, sands and marls, which

constitute the Trias. According to a theory originally advanced by

Professor Hull, and ably supported by Professor Bonney, the pebbles of

the Bunter were mainly derived from the Paleozoic Rocks of the N.W.

and N.E., some being possibly furnished by the ancient strata of N.W.

Scotland.

The waters of the Triassic sea were so overcharged with salts of iron,

that every grain of sand was encrusted, before its deposition, with a

pellicle of peroxide of iron: of chloride of sodium (common salt) and

sulphate of sodium (gypsum), there was also an excess, so that much was

deposited on the sea-floor, producing beds of rock-salt and of gypsum,

of considerable thickness. The presence of these mineral substances in

the water was prejudicial to life, so that--as in the Dead Sea, and in

Lake Utah to-day--few living creatures could inhabit the Triassic sea,

and fossils are consequently of extreme rarity in strata of this age.

_The Trias as a source of Water Supply._--The Triassic strata are

so porous, that they absorb a large proportion of the rain which

falls upon them, and they consequently form an underground reservoir

which, when tapped by wells or boreholes, is capable of yielding an

almost inexhaustible supply of good, though somewhat hard water. In

this way Birmingham receives three-fourths of its water from three

deep wells--two on the north-east of the town, at Aston and at Perry

respectively, and one on the south-west, near Selly Oak. These wells

extend to depths of 400 feet, passing through the Upper Mottled

Sandstone, and piercing the pebble beds, and the average supply of

water from each is three million gallons per day. The hardness varies

from nine to fifteen degrees. There are many other deep wells in and

round the West of Birmingham, and at Stourbridge, Wolverhampton, etc.,

which derive their water from the same source.

Liassic and Rhætic.

BY REV. P. B. BRODIE, M.A., F.G.S.

The Lias occupies a large area in the south and east of the Birmingham

District, and consists for the most part of the middle and lower

divisions. The highest position of the Lias is seen on the south and

south-eastern division of Warwickshire, the middle Lias forms the hills

projecting in spurs to the north-west, and the lower division extending

in the same direction, at a lower level, up to the southern edge of the

Trias.

UPPER LIAS.--The Upper Lias is chiefly represented by a thin bed of

clay, with some characteristic fossils. It occurs on the hills of Fenny

Compton and elsewhere, and there is evidence to show that it formerly

capped the range of the Edge Hills adjacent, occupying its natural

position above the marlstone, or Middle Lias, of which they are mainly

composed. From Fenny Compton to Harbury, a good descending section may

be obtained from the marlstone (rock bed), through the underlying clays

and marly beds, through the “Lima Beds” and White Lias, to the New Red

Marls at Harbury.

MARLSTONE OR MIDDLE LIAS.--The Marlstone (rock bed) is largely

quarried on the Avon and Burton Dassett Hills. It forms a good

building stone, more or less indurated, of a green or yellow brown

colour, sometimes ferruginous. It forms a conspicuous range of hills

of moderate height of which Edge Hill is the highest, from which it

strikes southward towards Oxfordshire. The plain below is occupied

by the underlying division of the Lower Lias. In this county the

marlstone contains very few fossils, and those chiefly brachiopodous

shells belonging to the genus _Terebratula_. In most cases elsewhere

the Marlstone proper, or highest zone, is very fossiliferous, and

abounds in marine shells, which are usually well preserved. The sandy

beds immediately below are rarely exposed, but crop out in a lane near

Bitham House, where as usual they contain many fossils. The inferior

clays and marls are not visible except in some brick pits near Fenny

Compton and along the line of railway. These are very full of fossils

in the zone of _Ammonites Jamiesoni_ and _Ibex_, here nearly one

hundred feet thick, and especially at one horizon in a coarse, hard,

stony band which contains numerous corals towards the upper part of the

cutting, near the station.

LOWER LIAS.--For the most part this formation spreads over the

portion of the country on the north-east, east, south-east, south

and south-west of Warwick. A remarkably fine section is exposed in

the railway cutting near Harbury Station. This portion of the series

is also largely quarried at Rugby, and in other places south and

south-east of Stratford. The strata consist of beds of blue clay

or shale interstratified with beds of blue rubbly and argillaceous

limestone, much quarried for hydraulic lime. One good section of the

lime-yielding beds occurs at Messrs. Greaves and Lakin’s Quarries at

Stockton and Harbury. The lowest zones of the Lias are largely quarried

at Wilmcote, and may be seen at the remarkable outlier of Brown’s Wood,

near Henley-in-Arden, and at another (Copt Heath), near Knowle. These

two last are of special interest, because they shew the lowest beds of

the Lias (in connection with and passing into the Rhætics,) resting

immediately upon the New Red Marls. The thickness of the Lower Lias in

the county is above 600 feet; but only the inferior zones of _Ammonites

angulatus_ and _A. planorbis_ are laid open to any great extent. The

best sections of the _Lima_ beds (_A. angulatus_ zone) occur in the

railway cutting at Harbury, Stockton lime quarries, and the extensive

quarries at Newbold near Rugby. Fossils are not very numerous, but

the following occur:--_Gryphea incurva_, _Rhynchonella variabilis_,

_Ammonites angulatus_, _Pecten_, various species, _Lima gigantea_,

and bones and teeth of _Plesiosaurus_ and _Ichthyosaurus_. Fish are

comparatively rare, two or three only were found at Harbury and a very

few near Rugby.

The higher ground round Wilmcote and Binton is also capped by

these Lima beds; but the district is more or less affected by small

faults, so that certain beds in one contiguous quarry are absent in

another. The lower limestones (insect beds) are largely worked in this

locality, and are of much economical value. With the exception of

remains of insects and fragments of plants, the fossils are entirely

marine, _Ammonites planorbis_ and _A. Johnstoni_, being abundant

and characteristic. Crustacea belonging to the genera _Astacus_ and

_Eryon_, the latter of great size are not unfrequently met with.

Small fishes, _Pholidophorus Stricklandi_, and the larger _Dapedium_

and _Tetragonolepis_ more rarely occur. A fine example of the latter

is preserved in the Warwick Museum. The large _Enaliosaurians_ are

well represented by some fine specimens of _Ichthyosaurus_ and

_Plesiosaurus_; the _P. megacephalus_ in the Museum at Warwick being

nearly entire, measuring 14 feet 4 inches in length. Large masses

of driftwood and a few fronds of ferns are sometimes met with. But

perhaps the most interesting and remarkable fossils are the insects.

Twenty-four families and genera were determined more than twenty years

ago, since which time many important additions have been made. The

_Coleoptera_ and _Neuroptera_ are most numerous. Small beetles are

not unfrequently found entire. Among these may be noted the families

_Buprestidæ_, _Elateridæ_, _Carabidæ_, and others.

There are also remains of _Orthoptera_, _Homoptera_, _Libellulidæ_, and

some _Diptera_. Many of the _Neuroptera_ were evidently of gigantic

proportions, but most of the insects were of small size, and like the

associated plants, are indicative of a temperate climate. They are most

nearly allied to forms which now inhabit North America. There are few

extinct or unknown genera among them.

RHÆTIC SERIES.--The highest beds referred to this series consist of

certain hard, fine grained limestones, which, from their ordinary white

colour, have been termed _White Lias_. They occupy a considerable

area south and south-east of Warwick. They constitute a purely local

deposit, and are confined for the most part to this county and

Somersetshire. They are often close-grained and hard limestones, and

make a useful building material and a good lime. Their colour is mostly

white, with a yellow tinge, and occasionally pink and grey. Some

geologists consider these beds to belong to the “Rhætic Series,” others

to the passage beds between the Lias and the latter, while others still

class them with the Lias.

The undisputed Rhætic rocks lie between the White Lias and the

Triassic Marls. In Warwickshire they are rarely exposed, and then much

reduced in bulk, compared with their development in Gloucester and

Glamorgan. They may be seen to a limited extent below the White Lias

in the railway cutting at Harbury, where a band of yellowish sandstone

contains the small bivalved crustacean, _Estheria minuta_; and also at

the small outlier of Brown’s Wood, and at Stooper’s Wood, near Wooton

Wawen, where this sandstone occurs with inferior shelly limestones and

sandy bands, containing the usual Rhætic fossils, _e.g._, _Cardium

Rhæticum_, _Avicula contorta_, _Pleurophorus elongatus_, _Pecten

valoniensis_, and _Schizodus cloacinus_. The nearest exposure of the

Rhætic to Birmingham occurs round the fringe of an outlier of Lower

Lias resting on the Upper Red Marl near the village of Knowle. This

outlier is about a mile and a half long, by half a mile broad. Its

highest beds at Copt Heath contain _Ammonites planorbis_. The beds

referred to the Rhætic include a stratum of yellow micaceous sandstone

full of _Schizodus cloacinus_, which, though usually in the form

of casts, is sharp and well defined. The bone bed, though no where

exposed, is probably present in its normal position. A fine section,

with numerous characteristic Rhætic fossils was exposed on the railway

cutting at Summer Hill, between Stratford and Alcester. Rhætic black

shales were passed through at Snitterfield, in making a tunnel in

connection with the new reservoir for Stratford.

Glacial and Post Tertiary Deposits.

BY H. W. CROSSKEY, LL.D., F.G.S.

Post Tertiary Deposits are scattered profusely over the district

of which Birmingham is the centre, and present many problems of

too complicated a character to be discussed in the pages of this

guide. It must suffice to indicate a few of their chief exposures

and characteristics. The term “_Boulder Clay_” is used in this note

to denote a clay shown to be connected with the Glacial epoch, by

containing a greater or less number of erratic blocks; and in the

employment of the term, no theory regarding the method of formation of

the deposit will be implied.

The Post Tertiary deposits of the district may be arranged in the

following general order:--

I.--Lower boulder clays.

II.--Middle glacial clays, sands, and gravels.

III.--Upper boulder clays.

IV.--Post glacial clay, sands, and gravels.

The most complete section that has been found is at “California,” near

Harborne.

Resting upon the Bunter Sandstone, about 480 feet above the sea level,

is a _Lower boulder clay_, containing erratic boulders of slate,

felsite, quartzite, intermixed with blocks and stones of local origin.

Many of the erratics are angular, and some (especially the slates) are

finely striated. The whole deposit is unstratified and compact, and the

boulders are roughly pressed together, in every variety of position,

without any orderly arrangement. This boulder clay is succeeded by the

_Middle Sands and Gravels_ which are irregularly stratified and show

false bedding. Fragments of coal occur among the pebbles. The sands

and gravels dip rapidly to the S.W., and pass under an Upper boulder

clay. _The Upper Boulder Clay_ consists of a compact mass of clay with

erratics scattered through it; but the erratics are neither so abundant

nor so confusedly pressed together as in the lower bed. Granite has

been found, although rarely, associated with the travelled felsites and

quartzites, together with a few flints; and local stones and blocks

are also mixed up with the clay--the clay itself however largely

preponderating and being available for brick making.

The series is capped by a mixture of clay, sand, and gravel in

varying proportions, which fills many hollows that have been washed

out of the upper clay; and must be regarded as Post Glacial. Taking

the general divisions indicated by the California section, attention

may be directed to the following illustrative facts and sections.

Glacial striæ upon the surface of the rock have been noticed at Weoley

Hill Quarry close to California. The removal of a mass of clay, sand,

and gravel exposed a distinctly striated surface of hardened Bunter

Sandstone. The polished surface dips towards the south west, in which

direction the principal striæ run, although there are several cross

striæ. The complete section shews (_a_) striated and polished Bunter

(altitude 520 feet above sea level); (_b_) thin bed of marl; (_c_)

sands and gravels (Middle Glacial); (_d_) clay (Upper Boulder Clay).

A very large number of well-marked and finely smoothed and polished

grooves occur upon the blocks of native rock which are strewn over

the irregularly shaped mass of basalt constituting Rowley Hill,

Worcestershire. Isolated grooved blocks rest upon the surface of

the hill, having been carried by external force into their present

position; but there is also, at Rowley Hall Quarry, a kind of platform,

capping the solid mass of basalt, which is almost entirely composed of

blocks with smoothed and grooved surfaces, stiffly imbedded in clay.

The question has been raised whether, since the basalt readily

develops joints, these grooves may not be rudimentary joints, or

whether disintegration may not have taken place along certain lines

which have gradually become grooves. I entertain no doubt, however,

of their glacial origin. No other explanation than that the grooves

were the work of moving ice can account, I think, for their excellent

polish, their frequent parallelism, their adaptation to the hollows and

protuberances of the blocks they cross, and their predominant trend

from north-east to south-west. The absence of erratics from the boulder

clay in which the grooved basaltic blocks are embedded is evidence of

local ice action at Rowley Hill. It is notable also that angular blocks

of basalt from Rowley Hill have been found in Birmingham, blocks which

must have travelled at least six miles.

It is often difficult to decide the precise age of the boulder clays

of the district; and whether any individual bed is referred to the

upper or the lower series is more dependent upon the glacial theories

that may be adopted than upon any observations that can be made in

the field. A _Boulder Clay_, of a typical kind, has been exposed at

a brickyard, at the bottom of Oak Street, Wolverhampton. This clay

contains an extraordinary number and variety of erratic blocks, without

question from the Lake District and south of Scotland, a few flints,

together with pebbles from the Bunter beds. One of the sides of a

boulder of felsite, measuring 11 × 3 × 3ft., is flat and smooth, and

covered with parallel striæ. The sands and gravels rising in small

hillocks near the Cemetery, and slightly covering the clay of the

pit, are probably Middle glacial. A boulder clay, formerly exposed

at Icknield Street, Birmingham, while presenting the same physical

characteristics as the Wolverhampton clay, differed from it widely in

the nature of the embedded erratic blocks. Instead of having travelled

from the Lake District or Scotland, a large proportion were derived

from rocks that occur _in situ_ at the Berwyn and Arenig Hills. The

condition of the New Red Sandstone ridge, against which this boulder

clay rested, was remarkable. The sandstone rock was broken up, and

large fragments of it were lifted out of their position and thrust into

the middle of the drift.

The changes of level which occurred during the glacial epoch are shown

by the deposits at Frankley Hill. In the clays and sands cut through by

the Halesowen Railway only a few erratics (felsites) were found; but on

the summit of the section they are abundant and of large size (_e.g._,

4 × 4 × 2ft.) Professor Bonney, who has examined them, feels certain

they must have come from Wales, having seen nothing like them in the

Lake District. Their height is nearly 800ft. above the sea level. Were

these erratics brought by land ice, the alteration in the physical

geography of the country must have been enormous to have enabled a

glacier to have moved downwards over this point; were they dropped from

icebergs, the land must have been depressed to the extent of at least

900ft., to form a sea in which the bergs could have floated.

Turning to the _Middle Glacial Clays, Sands, and Gravels_, these may

be seen more or less developed in almost every section cut through

undulating ground; and they are occasionally twisted and contorted. In

the immediate neighbourhood of Birmingham they are not fossiliferous.

At Ketley, near Wellington (Shropshire) however, fossiliferous sands

and gravels occur, which I am inclined (provisionally) to assign to

this period. They rest upon a bed containing erratic blocks of granite,

and other rocks of northern origin; and I collected from them 13

species of mollusca. Only one species was peculiarly northern (_astarte

borealis_) but all in the group have an arctic range of habitat. The

elevation of these beds is about 357 feet above the sea.

At Fox Hall Field, New Lodge, Lilleshall (Shropshire) in a pit worked

for sand, 463 feet above the sea, Mr. Woodward discovered 21 species

of mollusca, three--viz., _Dentalium abyssorum_, _Natica affinis_, and

_Astarte borealis_--being characteristically arctic and extinct in

British waters.

_The Upper Boulder Clay_ is worked for bricks in many localities.

It is distinguished from the Lower Boulder Clay, by having erractic

blocks sparsely scattered through it. It is often very compact and

tenacious. No fossils have as yet been found in it; unless indeed a

clay derived from a drain in a street at Wolverhampton, in which I

detected fragments of _Tellina balthica_, the spine of an _Echinus_,

_Polymorphina lactea_, and _Polystomella crispa_, may be assigned to

this division of the epoch.

The extraordinary _dispersion of erratic blocks_ over the surface

of the ground remains to be noticed, and constitutes one of the most

remarkable phenomena in local glacial geology. I distinguish the

boulders resting on the surface of the ground from those embedded in

the clay beds, although it is of course possible and probable that the

clay has been largely denuded, and the boulders have thus been left

exposed. Many of these erratic blocks may therefore belong to the Lower

Boulder Clay; while others may have fallen from the icebergs which

during the proved subsidence of the land must have floated over the

“Midland” sea, and have been deposited in the Upper boulder clay, while

it was in process of accumulation.

How far the dispersion of erratics over the Midlands may be referred to

the ice sheet of some geologists, or to the icebergs of the Archipelago

period in the history of Great Britain, must, at present, be regarded

as an open question.

The Midland erratics have undoubtedly travelled from three distinct

regions, viz., (1) from Wales, (2) the western part of the Lake

district, and (3) Kirkcudbrightshire. Boulders from the more easterly

part of the Lake district, such as the Snap granite boulders, so

abundantly spread over Yorkshire, have not been found in this

neighbourhood.

The peculiar distribution of the Midland erratics is noteworthy.

Commencing at Bushbury Hill (a little to the north of Wolverhampton,

on the table land facing towards the N.W.) the Lake rocks and the

Scotch rocks--Criffell granites and Eskdale granites--are largely

intermingled. Journeying westwards, a stream of boulders from Wales

crosses the northern streams. On and around the Clent Hills (1023 feet)

south west of Birmingham, Welsh felsites are the only boulders to be

found. Birmingham itself being in the rear of the higher part of the

table land on which it stands, is in a kind of protected district, so

far as the northern stream of boulders is concerned, and the erratics

in its immediate vicinity are chiefly Welsh felsites; a few fragments

however of granite are occasionally found.

POST GLACIAL BEDS.--The most complete section of post glacial beds

in this locality was obtained during excavations made at Shustoke,

near Birmingham; when a bed of black peat, containing the remains of

_Elephas antiquus_, _Cervus elephas_, and _Bos primigenius_, with

hazel nuts and fragments of wood, was discovered 7ft. 6in. beneath the

surface. The section was as follows:--

Soil 1ft. 0in.

Sandy marl 1ft. 8in.

Yellow clay (stiff) 3ft. 8in.

Blue clay (stiff) 1ft. 2in.

Black peat 1ft. 10in.

“Ballast” gravel and sand 3ft. 0in.

Sandstone and marl.

The fossils found in the peat have been placed in the Geological

Museum of the Mason College.

PETROGRAPHY.

Notes on the Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks of the Birmingham District.

BY S. ALLPORT, F.G.S.

The space available for some account of the crystalline rocks being

strictly limited, it would be useless to attempt anything more than

a brief general description of the most important and interesting

varieties. Fortunately there is abundance of material, for Birmingham,

as a central point, affords unusual facilities for the study of this

branch of petrology. Although the rocks here described appear to be

scattered over a rather wide area, it will be found that every locality

mentioned may not only be easily reached from one of the railway

stations, but that a good series of specimens may be collected and the

return journey made within the same day.

THE MALVERN HILLS.--It was clearly shown by Dr. Holl, in 1865, (Quar.

Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxi.) that the central portion or axis of this

chain of hills consists of a great series of true crystalline schists,

among which the prevailing types are hornblendic and micaceous gneiss,

hornblende-schist, mica-schist, and a quartzo-felspathic rock, all of

which are more or less distinctly foliated. There is, however, great

variety in the relative proportions of the constituents; in many

places either the hornblende or the mica are nearly, or even quite

absent; the felspar and quartz then form the mass of the rock. In

the quarries on the east side of the North Hill, beautiful examples

of hornblende and felspar rock are abundant; they contain more or

less quartz, with a little mica, and occasionally pass by insensible

gradations from a well-marked gneissic structure into a coarsely

crystalline mass in which foliation is no longer apparent. These

latter are, however, exceptional cases, and there can, I think, be

no doubt that we have here, in the Midlands, a considerable exposure

of the oldest type of foliated crystalline schists, or as they are

now frequently called Pre-Cambrian or Archæan rocks. The rocks of the

North Hill are probably the oldest; they have been much disturbed, and

are generally the most coarsely crystalline of the series. The more

basic portions have suffered a considerable amount of alteration; the

secondary constituents, chlorite and epidote, become abundant, and

occasionally the hornblende has been completely replaced by the latter

mineral; the rock then becomes an epidote schist of a pale-yellowish

colour. In Swinyards Hill there is a micaceous gneiss with garnets,

and in Raggedstone Hill there are interesting varieties of contorted

mica-schist containing a large proportion of quartz. Dykes of intrusive

rocks occur in nearly all the hills, but become far more numerous

towards the north; they are very uniform in appearance, and are

probably altered dolerites or diorites; very few specimens have been

examined, and they belong to the former group. In the North Hill there

are some masses of true diorite, but their relation to the hornblendic

gneisses with which they are associated has not been clearly

established.

MOUNT SORREL GRANITE.--The granite is of two varieties, red and

grey, the difference being due to the fact, that in the red masses,

the partially decomposed felspar has been coloured by ferric oxide.

The rock is a hornblendic granite, the constituents being quartz,

felspar, biotite, hornblende and titanite, with magnetite and a little

apatite. The felspars are orthoclase and plagioclase; the former is

much decomposed, while the plagioclase frequently remains clear, and

exhibits well its twin striation. Biotite was originally abundant,

but is very frequently replaced by a clear green substance, which

is strongly dichroic, the two colours being grass-green, and clear

yellow. The hornblende has been greatly decomposed; clear crystals

are, however, not uncommon, and exhibit the usual optical characters

of the mineral. The products of alteration are chlorite and epidote.

The titanite appears in reddish-brown grains, but is not very abundant.

In 1879, the writer discovered the junction of the granite with the

sedimentary rocks, and proved that the former was intrusive (Geol.

Mag. dec. ii., Vol. vi., p. 181). The junction occurs in Brazil

Wood, where there is a small quarry, in which granite veins may be

seen to penetrate the strata in various directions; a large mass of

granite is also within a few yards. Some of the phenomena of _contact

metamorphism_ may here be readily studied, the granite having converted

the slate into a crystalline micaceous schist, quite similar in

character to those produced under like conditions round the granite in

Cornwall and elsewhere. Small garnets occur in the altered slates, and

also in the granite close to the junction.

THE CHARNWOOD SYENITES.--The Syenites and other igneous rocks of

Charnwood, have been described by Messrs. Hill and Bonney (Quar. Jour.

Geol. Soc. Vol. xxxiv., p. 199.) The original constituents are felspar,

hornblende, quartz, apatite, ilmenite, magnetite and titanite. The

felspar is of two kinds, orthoclase and plagioclase, the former is very

turbid and decomposed, while the plagioclase is clear, and retains its

usual optical characters. The curious intercrystallization of quartz

and felspar, known as _micropegmatite_, is common in the masses of

syenite near Groby; the best examples, however, have been found by the

writer in the Markfield rock, where it appears to form a ground-mass in

which the larger crystals of orthoclase and plagioclase are enclosed.

A small portion of the hornblende is still characteristic, but the

greater portion appears in various stages of decomposition; the

alteration products being chlorite and epidote. Titanite is by no means

rare, and occurs in well formed twin crystals.

DIORITES OF ATHERSTONE AND NUNEATON.--A careful examination of many

specimens collected by the writer from the various masses marked in

the map 63 S.W. of the Geological Survey shows clearly that they are

diorites, the characteristic constituents being hornblende and a

triclinic felspar; these minerals, together with magnetite and apatite

are invariably present, and in addition, a little orthoclase is seldom

absent. The best specimen examined is from a quarry near Marston Jabet;

it is a fine-grained rock, similar to a basalt in external appearance,

but contains numerous crystals of hornblende and plagioclase which

are generally quite unaltered. The clear brown crystals of hornblende

are unusually well developed, and afford excellent opportunities of

examining their crystallographic and optical characters. There are also

present many grains of magnetite, and a few needles of apatite. The

only product of alteration is a little calcite in the spaces between

the crystals. Other specimens from the same quarry will perhaps give

a better idea of the general character of the rocks of the district,

and they possess a special interest, as they afford unusually good

examples of successive stages of alteration. In one specimen the

constituents are well preserved, the plagioclase is clear and exhibits

its characteristic twin striation; the hornblende is, for the most

part, unaltered, but is much fissured, and occasionally contains so

many cavities that the crystals are little more than skeletons. A

ground-mass in which the constituents were set has been highly altered,

and now consists of a fine granular substance, partly serpentinous,

with here and there a little calcite. A second example is quite

similar in texture to the last; the felspar, still recognisable as

triclinic, has been partially converted into a grey turbid substance.

The hornblende occurs in various stages of alteration; some crystals

are but slightly attacked, while others are to a considerable extent

replaced by a pale green serpentinous substance. The alteration has

followed the cleavage-lines and fractures, while the numerous cavities

just mentioned are also filled by the same substance. In a single slice

there may be seen almost every degree of change from a slight marginal

erosion to a mere skeleton of the original. Of the latter, however,

some little is always left; and whether the alteration be little or

great, the crystalline forms are perfectly preserved. In a third

specimen the alteration has proceeded still further, the whole of the

hornblende crystals having been completely converted into pale green

pseudomorphs; they were originally large and well developed, and their

forms are still perfectly sharp and distinct. The felspar is here quite

turbid and opaque, and the interstitial ground-mass is represented by

calcite.

_Purley Park, near Atherstone._--The rock here contains, in addition to

the usual brown hornblende, many crystals and grains of clear yellowish

augite, and several pseudomorphs after olivine. The augite crystals

exhibit the usual forms, some being twins. The pseudomorphs after

olivine are quite similar to others observed in certain highly altered

dolerites, they consist of calcite or calcite and viridite; they are

numerous, and are generally larger than the crystals of augite or

hornblende.

_Quarry close to Atherstone._--This rock also contains both augite

and hornblende; and lastly, in the railway cutting at Chilvers Coton,

several interesting varieties of diorite may be found.

THE RHYOLITES OF THE WREKIN NEAR WELLINGTON, SHROPSHIRE.--In the

large quarry in Lawrence Hill, at the north end of the Wrekin, and

at Lea Rock on the Shrewsbury Road, are to be found some of the

most beautiful varieties of ancient volcanic glassy rocks hitherto

discovered in Britain. The rocks in their present condition do not

look like glass, owing to a process of devitrification, which they

have evidently undergone. There can, however, be no room for doubt

as to their original vitreous condition, for they exhibit, under the

microscope, certain peculiar perlitic and spherulitic varieties of

structure, associated with characteristic forms of microliths, which

are found only in the pitchstone and obsidian varieties of volcanic

glass. In the quarry in Lawrence Hill, thick beds of volcanic ashes and

agglomerates are to be seen dipping towards the north at a high angle,

and an examination of this hill and the Wrekin shows that they both

consist of a series of stratified ashes alternating with several flows

of rhyolite. One of the ash beds contains numerous spheroidal blocks

of thoroughly characteristic varieties of glassy rocks; they have not

yet been described, but it may here be stated that, in addition to

many typical varieties of known rhyolites, there are also included

among them some of the rarer glassy kinds described by Zirkel in his

Petrography of the 40th Parallel. Beautiful examples of the spherulitic

and perlitic varieties may be found at Lea Rock, and have been

described by the writer in the Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. Vol. xxxiii., p.

449. It has been shown by Dr. Callaway, that all these rhyolites are

of Pre-Cambrian age; we have here, therefore, the clearest proof that,

during very early geological periods volcanic action was of the same

kind, and produced the same results, as in more recent times.

SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE.--The igneous rocks of the South Staffordshire

coalfield belong to the basic series, and are, without exception,

dolerites or basalts, the latter being merely a fine grained variety of

the former. They have been intruded among the coal measures and shales,

and are frequently found in an excellent state of preservation. The

original mineral constituents are crystals, or crystalline grains of

triclinic felspar, augite, olivine, magnetite, ilmenite, and apatite.

These minerals are very frequently quite unaltered, with the exception

of the olivine, which is often partly converted into serpentine; this

is the pale green substance seen along the cracks, and around the sides

of the grains; generally, however, the decomposition has been continued

until the formation of complete serpentinous pseudomorphs after olivine

has been the result. The Hailstone Hill, near Rowley Church, is the

best locality for varieties in texture and composition, as also for

contemporaneous veins. In the large quarry there is a very coarsely

crystalline variety containing large flat plates of ilmenite, and here

also may be found some light-coloured veins in which orthoclase is

the predominant felspar. The writer has also found in the same quarry

vessicular and amygdaloidal varieties of the rock. It need scarcely be

mentioned that, minute details of structure and composition can only be

studied in thin slices under the microscope. Rocks of similar character

to the above occur in the following localities:--Pouk Hill, near

Walsall; Titterston Clee Hill (sheet 55, N.W.), Knowl Hill, near Kinlet

(sheet 55, N.E.), and Swinnerton Park, eight miles N.E. of Stafford.

For fuller descriptions of these rocks, see Allport, Quart. Jour. Geol.

Soc., Vol. xxx., p. 529.

Mining Statistics of the South Staffordshire Coalfield.

By PROFESSOR W. E. BENTON, A.R.S.M., F.G.S.

MINERALS WORKED.--The principal minerals worked within the limits of

the South Staffordshire Coalfield are coal, ironstone, and fireclay

from the Carboniferous formations, and limestone from the underlying

Silurian rocks.

THE COAL is bituminous, non-caking, and much of it contains a high

percentage of water and oxygen. Some of the seams produce excellent

house-coal, others manufacturing and steam coal.

THE IRONSTONE is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, occurring as

nodules in the roofs of the coal seams, or as thin beds within them.

THE FIRECLAY, particularly in the neighbourhood of Stourbridge, has a

high refractory power.

QUANTITY OF MINERALS RAISED.--The annual produce of minerals during the

last twenty years has remained without any considerable alteration. The

Government Mineral Statistics for 1885 are not yet published, but in

1884 the quantities of minerals raised in South Staffordshire Coalfield

were:--Coal, 9,688,047 tons; ironstone, 116,951 tons; fireclay, 205,320

tons; limestone (no statistics given). The respective values of these

minerals at the mines were estimated at:--coal, £2,785,313; ironstone,

£62,974; fireclay, £42,781.

The total number of persons employed at the mines during the same

period was 23,782.

DESTINATION OF THE MINERALS.--The greater part of the coal is

consumed in the district for house purposes, for steam raising, for

the manufacture of bricks, pottery, glass, salt, &c. The remainder is

carried out of the coalfield into the south and south-western districts

of England by the London and North Western, Great Western, and Midland

Railway Companies, for house and steam purposes. The gas coals and

coke used in the Birmingham district are not the product of the South

Staffordshire Coalmeasures, but are brought principally from North

Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and Yorkshire.

The whole of the ironstone raised is smelted within the district, in

addition to large quantities of iron ore (hydrated oxide) brought from

the Northampton and North Staffordshire mines. The manufacture of pig

iron has within the last decade decreased to such an extent that less

than one-third of the existing furnaces of South Staffordshire are at

present in blast.

The quantity of pig produced in the coalfield in 1884, was 356,873

tons; in the reduction of which 810,936 tons of coal (including coal

converted into coke) were used, or about 45½ cwts. of coal to one ton

of pig iron. The whole of the pig iron is retained in the district. The

finished iron trade retains its importance, more than one-third of the

existing puddling furnaces and rolling mills in Great Britain occur

within the limits of the South Staffordshire Coalfield.

The finished iron is produced from local pig iron, and from pig iron

brought from Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and North Staffordshire. The

steel production in South Staffordshire is gradually increasing. The

processes adopted are those known as the Bessemer, Gilchrist and open

hearth.

The South Staffordshire fireclay is worked principally in the

neighbourhood of Brettle Lane and Stourbridge, and is employed in the

production of firebricks, gas retorts, pottery, etc. Much also is

conveyed into other districts in a raw condition for pottery purposes.

The Silurian limestone is worked partly in open work in the

neighbourhood of Dudley, and partly by ordinary underground mining

operations at the Wren’s Nest, Sedgley, and at Walsall.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE MINING OF SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE.--There

are several noteworthy features in the mining of South Staffordshire.

A stranger is especially impressed with the large number of separate

collieries in working (about 600) in proportion to the quantity

of mineral raised. This peculiarity is due essentially to the

insignificant depth at which the minerals occur below the surface

(indeed, at Foxyard, near Tipton, coal has long been quarried in an

outcrop of the 10 yard seam). This “Shallow Mining” has passed its

meridian. The future mining of the district is forecast by those

remarkable operations on the “red ground,” forming the eastern side

of the coalfield. The most recently opened seam in the red ground is

at Hampstead, three miles north of Birmingham, where coal mining is

carried on below the Permian and Triassic, at a depth of more than 600

yards.

Another feature of the mining is the unique South Staffordshire mode of

getting coal in the ten yard seam, called “Square Work.” This method

has met with much condemnation from strangers, but after trial of

other methods, it still dominates. A further and most strongly marked

peculiarity of the South Staffordshire area is the tendency of some of

the Black Country coals to spontaneous ignition. Much coal has thus in

times past been sacrificed; but a better acquaintance with the causes

of this phenomenon has led to measures which have reduced and which

must still further reduce this sacrifice of wealth.

MINES’ DRAINAGE.--In the Tipton and Old Hill districts many of the

coal mines are water-logged. In 1873 a Parliamentary Commission however

was appointed to drain this area, and was empowered to levy rates to

defray the drainage expenses. The drainage area under the direction

of this Mines’ Drainage Commission is 50 square miles. The principal

pumping stations are the Moat, the Stoneheath Station, and the Bradley

Station. The Bradley pumping engines (a quarter of a mile from Moxley

on the Great Western Railway) are of the compound type having 52-inch

and 90-inch steam cylinders. These engines, with a 10 feet stroke,

and six strokes per minute, work two 27-inch plunger pumps, and raise

from a depth of 126 yards more than 4,000,000 gallons of water per 24

hours. As a result of this gallant effort to recover these water-logged

minerals, the number of pumping stations has been gradually reduced in

the Tipton district from 77 in 1873 to 10 in 1885, and the quantity

of water from 23,000,000 to 10,000,000 of gallons daily. To meet the

inevitable expenses, a rate of 9d. per statute ton is levied on all

coals, slack, and ironstone; 3d. per statute ton on all fireclay

and limestone, and 1d. per statute ton for surface drainage on all

minerals, raised in the Tipton district. In the Old Hill district a

much lower mines’-drainage rate is collected.

LITERATURE.

BOOKS, PAPERS AND MAPS BEARING UPON THE GEOLOGY OF THE BIRMINGHAM

DISTRICT.

_Fundamental Gneissic and Volcanic Rocks._

Phillips, Prof., “On the Geology of the Malvern and Abberley Hills.”

Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vol. ii., 1848.

Holl, Dr. H. B., “On the Geology and Structure of the Malvern Hills.”

Quart. Journal Geol. Soc., Vol. xxi., p. 72.

Callaway, Dr. C., “On a second Pre-Cambrian Group in the Malvern

Hills.” Q. J. G. S., 1880, Nov. 1880.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, LL.D., and Rev. W. Hill, M.A. “On the

Pre-Carboniferous Rocks of Charnwood Forest.” Q. J. G. S., 1877, p.

754, &c.

Allport. S., “Ancient Devitrified Pitchstones and Perlites from Lower

Silurian District of Shropshire.” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1877, p.

439.

Callaway, Dr. Chas., “The Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Shropshire.” Quart.

Jour. Geol. Soc. 1879, p. 643; ibid, 1882, p. 120.

_Cambrian Formations._

Prof. Phillips, “Geology of Malvern and Abberley Hills.” See above.

Holl, Dr. H., “Geology and Structure of the Malvern Hills.” See above.

Callaway, Dr. C., “On a new Area of Upper Cambrian Rocks in South

Shropshire.” Q. J. G. S., 1877. p. 652.

T. S. Houghton., M.A., F.G.S. “Note on the Age of the Quartzite of the

Lickey.” Proceedings Birmingham Philosophical Society, 1881-2, p. 206.

Prof. C. Lapworth, “On the Discovery of Cambrian Rocks in the

neighbourhood of Birmingham;” ibid, p. 234. See also Geological

Magazine, 1882, p. 563; ibid, July, 1886.

W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S., “On the Pre-Carboniferous Floor of the

Midlands.” Midland Naturalist, 1855, p. 38.

_Silurian Rocks._

Sir R. J. Murchison, “Silurian System,” p. 408, and 480.

J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S. “The Geology of the South Staffordshire

Coalfield.” 2nd Ed., p. 145 et seq.

_Carboniferous Rocks._

Sir R. J. Murchison, “Silurian System,” p. 463.

J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S. “The Geology of the South Staffordshire

Coalfields.” 2nd Edition; see also Jukes, “On the Geological Structure

of South Staffordshire Coalfield.” Birmingham and Midland and Hardware

District, 1866, p. 1.

Howell, H., F.G.S., &c. “The Geology of the Warwickshire Coalfield.”

Mem. Geol. Survey, 1859.

_Permian and Triassic Rocks._

Hull, Prof., M.A., F.R.S. “Triassic and Permian Rocks of the Midlands.”

Memoirs Geol. Survey.

Sir And. Ramsay, F.R.S., “On the occurrence of Angular boulders in the

Permian Breccia of Shropshire and Worcestershire.” Quart. Jour. Geol.

Soc., 1855, p. 185.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, “Upper Keuper Sandstone of Warwickshire.” Journ.

Geol. Soc., Vol. xii., p. 374.

Prof. L. C. Miall, “Labyrinthodonts from the Keuper Sandstone, in the

Warwick Museum.” Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxx., p. 417.

W. J. Harrison, “On the Quartzite Pebbles contained in the Triassic

Strata of England, and on their Derivation from an Ancient Land Barrier

in Central England.” Proc. Birmingham Phil. Soc., Vol. iii., p. 157.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, “On the Pebbles in the Bunter Beds.” Geol. Mag. for

1880, p. 404.

Thos. Davidson, “Brachiopoda of the Budleigh-Salterton Pebble Bed.” Q.

J. G. S., Vol. xxvi., p. 70. 1870.

_Liassic and Rhætic Rocks._

Rev. P. B. Brodie, “Lias Outliers at Knowle and Wooton Wawen.” Journ.

Geol. Soc., Vol. xxi., p. 159. 1865.

R. F. Tomes, “Corals of the Lias.” Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxxiv., p.

179. 1878.

W. J. Harrison, “The Rhætic Section at Dunhampstead, near Droitwich.”

Proc. Dudley Geol. Soc., Vol. iii., p. 115.

_Glacial and Post Tertiary Formations._

“The Direction and Limits of Dispersion, etc., of the Erratic Blocks

of the West of England and East of Wales,” by D. Mackintosh, F.G.S.

Quarterly Journal Geological Society, Vol. xxxv., p. 425.

“The Correlation of the Drift Deposits of the N.W. of England, with

those of the Midland and Eastern Counties,” by D. Mackintosh, ibid,

Vol. xxxvi., p. 178.

“Post Tertiary Beds of the Midland District,” by H. W. Crosskey, LL.D.,

and C. J. Woodward. Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History

Society, 1873, p. 43.

“On a Section of Glacial Drift, recently exposed in Icknield Street,

Birmingham.” By H. W. Crosskey. Proceedings of Philosophical Society of

Birmingham. Vol. iii. p. 209.

“The Grooved Blocks and Boulder Clays of Rowley Hill.” By H. W.

Crosskey. Ibid, Vol. iii., p. 459; and Vol. iv., p. 69.

“Reports of the Committee of the British Association on the

Distribution, etc., of Erratic Blocks; drawn up by H. W. Crosskey.”

1873-1885.

“The Geological Section along the West Suburban Railway from Birmingham

to King’s Norton.” By F. W. Martin. Proceedings of Philosophical

Society of Birmingham, Vol. iv., p. 257.

_Petrography._

S. Allport, F.G.S., “Diorites of E. Warwickshire Coalfield.” Q. J. G. S.

S. Allport, F.G.S., “Carboniferous Dolerites.” Q. J. G. S., xxx., p.

529.

S. Allport, F.G.S., “Vitreous Rocks of the Wrekin,” ibid, xxxiii., 449.

See also the Papers by Professor Phillips, Dr. Holl, and Dr. C.

Callaway, Rev. Professor Bonney and Rev. T. Hill, cited above.

T. H. Waller, B.Sc., “Observations on the Structure of the Rowley Rag.”

Midland Naturalist, 1885, p. 261.

_Maps of Birmingham District._

Published by H.M. Geological Survey.

62--S.E. Birmingham.

62--N.W. Penkridge.

63--N.W. Market Bosworth.

53--N.W. Coventry.

54--N.W. Droitwich.

62--S.W. Dudley.

62--N.E. Lichfield.

63--S.W. Nuneaton.

54--N.E. Henley-in-Arden.

* * * * *

NOTE.--The main outlines and colors of the formations &c., in the

accompanying Geological Sketch-Map correspond with those of the above

mentioned one inch Survey Maps of the District.

PART IV.

ZOOLOGY.

UNDER THE GENERAL EDITORSHIP OF W. R. HUGHES, F.L.S.

INTRODUCTION.

It is believed that this is the first attempt to give a connected

account of the Zoology of the neighbourhood of Birmingham, although the

Botany of the District has long attracted diligent and enthusiastic

workers. The subject, however, has not been neglected, and past and

present members of the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical

Society, and other naturalists, have from time to time made public, in

the _Midland Naturalist_ and elsewhere, their observations on the more

important classes of the animal kingdom. Some of the classes in the

sub-kingdoms, PROTOZOA, CŒLENTERATA, VERMES, and ARTHROPODA (it is to

be regretted) have been almost entirely neglected.

The limited amount of space allotted to Zoology in the present volume

and the limited amount of time at the disposal of the contributors

have prevented the presentation of complete lists in all the divisions

selected, although the Editor believes that the various papers now

submitted furnish--so far as they go--a very fair, if not an exhaustive

account of our local fauna. It would have been desirable to have

discussed, more fully than is done by the various contributors, the

question of the Geographical distribution of animals in the district,

but this question, for the reasons above stated, must be left until

another occasion. The division of the MICROSCOPIC FAUNA has been made

somewhat arbitrarily, in order to meet local circumstances. It is hoped

that at some future time these papers may be extended, and become the

foundation for a complete record of the Zoology of the district.

Without any invidious comparison, the Editor may say that, in the

domain of local zoology, by far the most systematic study has been

that devoted during many years by Mr. Thomas Bolton, F.R.M.S., to the

microscopic fauna of the neighbourhood. The number of new species which

this able and industrious naturalist has added to science, probably

equals if not exceeds that of the discoveries recorded in any other

part of England during the time Mr. Bolton has been an observer.

Moreover, his novel and successful method of disseminating these

organisms among microscopists, has contributed largely to scientific

knowledge, not only in England, but on the Continent, and even in

America.

Although not coming within the category of the local fauna, very fine

collections of the classes ECHINODERMATA and CRUSTACEA have been made

by Mr. G. Sherriff Tye, of Richmond Road, Handsworth, who will be happy

to show the same to members of the British Association. His excellent

collection of MOLLUSCA, many of which are noticed in this volume, will

also be on view.

The Entomological collection made by Mr. W. G. Blatch--the work of a

lifetime--many specimens of which are referred to in this volume, will

similarly be on view, on application to Mr. Blatch, at Green Lane,

Small Heath. It is right to state that this naturalist has added very

many new species to the fauna of the district. The Coleoptera occurring

in the Midlands will be exhibited by Mr. Blatch in Bingley Hall.

The collection of local fishes taken by members of the Birmingham and

Midland Piscatorial Association (established in 1879) of which Mr.

James Gregory is Honorary Secretary, contains some very handsome and

well-mounted specimens which may ordinarily be seen in the Society’s

Room, at the Grand Hotel, on application to Mr. Field, the proprietor.

The collection for the present forms part of the Exhibition in Bingley

Hall. It should be mentioned that this Association has done good work

in stocking the River Trent with about 35,000 Trout fry (_Salmo fario_)

during the last few years.

The Editor offers no apology for mentioning the exceptionally fine

Ornithological collection of Mr. R. W. Chase, President of the

Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. The collection

comprises, in sequence, the eggs, and the birds in various stages

of growth towards maturity. The specimens are mounted so as to show

instructively the surroundings of the various birds as seen in their

natural habitats. Mr. Chase will be happy to show his collection to

members of the British Association, on application at his residence,

Southfield, 7, Edgbaston Road, Edgbaston.

Although Birmingham is nearly the central part of England, and thus

farthest removed from the sea, it may not be uninteresting to state

that some attention has been given to Marine Zoology, the Birmingham

Natural History and Microscopical Society having several times made

excursions to parts of the coast for the purpose of dredging specimens.

The PENNATULIDA, dredged by the Society, at Oban, in 1881, were

described by Professor A. Milnes Marshall, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., and

Mr. W. P. Marshall, M.I.C.E., in a Report, with illustrations by the

authors, published in the “Midland Naturalist” for 1882, which gained

the Darwin Gold Medal, awarded by the Midland Union of Natural History

Societies, at the sixth annual meeting, held at Tamworth, in 1883. The

specimens may be seen in the annexe of the Exhibition, at Bingley Hall.

The limit of radius of about twenty miles round Birmingham, including

parts of the counties of Warwick, Worcester, and Stafford, chosen

by the botanists who have contributed to the present work, has been

generally accepted by the zoologists except in the division of the

MOLLUSCA, which is mainly confined to a radius of twelve miles, as

fixed by local Conchologists several years ago. Some latitude has

however been allowed, to meet exceptional cases, necessitated by the

wider range of animals as compared with that of plants.

The thanks of the Editor are due to the various local contributors,

and especially to Mr. E. de Hamel, late President of the Tamworth

Natural History Society, for his kind co-operation in furnishing the

chapter on Mammals and Reptiles. In strict order of classification,

the division of Reptiles should have followed that of Birds, but

for convenience in the present arrangement it has not been thought

desirable to separate this chapter.

CHAPTER I.

Mammals and Reptiles.

BY E. DE HAMEL.

I.--MAMMALS.

The district around Birmingham is admirably suited for our native

animals, abounding as it does with fertile and well-watered valleys,

wild moorlands, and extensive woods; on the other hand, its large

population renders the prolonged existence of individual and striking

rarities well-nigh impossible.

The value of the matter contained in this chapter has been much

enhanced by the personal observations of many of the best Midland

naturalists.

CHEIROPTERA.

Adopting the late Professor Bell’s classification of British

quadrupeds and reptiles, the Bats come first under consideration; and

out of the fourteen species described by him, no fewer than nine are

to be found in this district. The Noctule or Great Bat, _Scotophilus

noctula_, is the largest of our British species, and is characterised

by its lofty flight. There is a colony of these Bats in the roof of

Cliff Hall, near Kingsbury, and another in a hollow of a lime tree in

the Moat House Avenue, Tamworth. The Hairy-armed Bat, _S. Leisleri_,

which has a zig-zag flight, occurs on the Warwickshire Avon. The

Common Bat, or Flittermouse, _S. pipistrellus_, is often seen flying

near buildings in broad daylight, and secretes itself in crevices.

The Reddish-grey Bat, _Vespertilio nattereri_, is found in roofs of

churches and similar buildings. Daubenton’s Bat, _V. Daubentonii_,

flies close to the surface of water, and has been seen flying both at

mid-day and dusk over the River Anker at Tamworth, and is abundant

at Stratford-on-Avon; it hides in trees and buildings. The Whiskered

Bat, _V. mystacinus_, frequents the sheltered side of high hedges, and

secretes itself in any convenient chink. The Long-eared Bat, _Plecotus

auritus_, possesses ears nearly as long as its head and body combined,

and is generally distributed; it collects in clusters under tiled roofs

and in church towers. The Barbastelle Bat, _Barbastellus Daubentonii_,

is not uncommon in Warwickshire; it flutters lazily round moving

objects, and hides in crevices. The last local species is the Lesser

Horse-shoe Bat, _Rhinolophus hipposideros_, which is gregarious, and

haunts roofs of houses; it is easily distinguished by its curious nasal

appendage.

INSECTIVORA.

The Hedgehog, _Erinaceus Europæus_, common everywhere, hibernates in

a nest of leaves. The Mole, _Talpa Europæa_; abundant, pied and light

coloured varieties plentiful. The Common Shrew, _Sorex vulgaris_,

often, found dead on pathways. The Water Shrew, _S. fodiens_, is

more rare, but has been found near Tamworth, at Great Barr, and in

the Birmingham Botanical Gardens. The Lesser Shrew, _S. pygmæus_, is

omitted, as it is now generally considered to be but a variety of _S.

fodiens_.

CARNIVORA.

The Badger or Brock, _Meles taxus_, whilst rare, is very equally

distributed over the district. On April 14th, 1877, one was obtained

in the Foxhole Hill, in Bentley Big wood, near Atherstone; a female

and three young ones were taken alive in the spring of 1884, in a

wood, near Croxall; there are some more badgers in the same wood this

year, 1886. In March, 1885, a single one was captured at Bentley,

near Redditch; the keeper at Beaudesert reports that they are still

plentiful on Cannock Chase. The Otter, _Lutra vulgaris_, like the

Badger, though rare, still frequently occurs in the Midlands,

especially on the rivers Anker, Tame, and Trent, and their tributaries;

as well as the Warwickshire Avon. On the Tame, a few years since, a

female Otter and brood of young ones was seen several times swimming

near an osier bed in the Cliff meadows; another was shot when crossing

the river at the back of Broad Island, near Tamworth; two young ones

were killed in a hay field, close by Hopwas Wood; and a large Otter was

found in a brook at Wigginton, a mile from the river, and destroyed

after a desperate encounter; still another was seen trotting along the

banks of the Tame, close by the town of Tamworth; while the largest

Otter known to have been taken in the river Avon was captured on the

first of June, 1886, at its junction with the river Arrow; it weighed

28lbs. The Weasel, _Mustela vulgaris_, and the Stoat, _M. erminea_,

are both plentiful. The Polecat or Fitchet, _M. putorius_, is becoming

decidedly rare, only three having been recorded in the district during

the last few years; the first of these occurred at Alvecote Wood, the

second at Hints, in the neighbourhood of Tamworth, and the third at

Merivale, near Atherstone. The Pine Marten, _Martes abietum_, although

believed now to be absolutely extinct in the Midlands, used to be found

in Needwood Forest, and a specimen taken many years ago near Rugeley is

now in the possession of Mr. R. W. Chase. The Fox, _Vulpes vulgaris_,

being strictly preserved, is sufficiently abundant.

RODENTIA.

The Squirrel, _Sciurus vulgaris_, is thinly distributed, and may

occasionally be seen in most of the large woods, as for instance, those

in Sutton, Hagley, and Arbury Parks, where the dreys are built on the

forked branches of the trees. The Dormouse, _Myoxus avellanarius_,

is also rare, but is occasionally met with by hedgers, when dressing

fences. As it is semi-gregarious, when one is found more may be

expected. The nest is built of grass, compact, globular, about five

inches in diameter, with the entrance near the base. A nest was taken

at Cofton Reservoir, near Barnt Green, in April, 1885. The Harvest

Mouse, _Mus minutus_, is the smallest of our quadrupeds, building a

small round and firm nest among the ears of corn, or stems of reeds. It

is generally distributed, and has been taken near Stratford-on-Avon,

Merivale and Atherstone. The long-tailed Field Mouse, _M. sylvaticus_,

is plentiful, and often turned up by the spade or plough. The Common

Mouse, _M. musculus_, abundant in buildings. The Black Rat, _M.

rattus_, although rare, is still to be found in small colonies,

generally in the cellars of large towns, where it is comparatively

secure from the attacks of its greatest enemy and destroyer, the Brown

Rat. A single recent example has been taken within the last six months

at New Parks, near Leicester, and is now in the possession of Mr. F.

T. Mott. The rarity of the occurrence justifies this record, although

the locality is outside the radius agreed upon. The Brown Rat, _M.

decumanus_ is abundant in both buildings and hedgerows. The Water Vole,

_Arvicola amphibius_, better known as the Water Rat, is common on all

the streams of the Midlands. The common Field-Vole, _A. agrestis_, is

plentiful in the meadows, where their nests are frequently exposed by

the mowers. The Red Field or Bank-Vole, _A. glareolus_, is much more

rare and distinguished from the last species, by its rich chestnut fur;

several of these were taken at Belvoir Castle, in July, 1885. The Hare,

_Lepus timidus_, and the Rabbit, _L. cuniculus_, have been greatly

reduced in numbers since the passing of the Hares and Rabbits Bill in

1881.

RUMINANTIA.

The Red Deer, _Cervus elaphus_, as recently as 1800, roamed wild over

Cannock Chase and Needwood Forest, but is now confined to the areas of

the large parks, such as Gopsall and Beaudesert. The Fallow Deer, _C.

dama_, formerly existed in thousands on Cannock Chase, and is now the

chief ornament of the parks. The Roe Deer, _Capreolus caprea_, was also

common, but has become extinct. The Wild Cattle, _Bos taurus_, under

the fostering care of the Lords Ferrars, at Chartley, near Stafford,

still constitute the greatest curiosity among the Midland mammals.

Garner, in his history of Staffordshire, relates that these animals at

one time roamed free over Needwood Forest, and how, in the thirteenth

century, William de Ferrariis enclosed a thousand acres of high-lying

moorland, the turf of which is in the same condition now as then, and

within this enclosure the animals are maintained in their pristine

purity. At the present time this herd consists of about thirty head,

comprising three bulls, the oldest aged nine years, a magnificent

beast, with deep chest, black muzzle and ears, black-tipped,

wide-spreading horns, and forefeet also flecked with black, the

prevailing colour being a rich creamy white. So sensitive are these

cattle, as the result of their high breeding, that calves unduly

handled are forsaken by their mothers; and older beasts, if subjected

to forcible restraint, will often, as the keeper put it to the writer,

“just wag their tails and die.” When the calves are with them the cows

are dangerous to approach.

PACHYDERMATA.

Before leaving the local mammals, the celebrated red breed of Tamworth

Pigs, _Sus scrofa_, deserves mention as one of the best, most useful,

and healthy of the many well-known kinds; but there is no reason to

suppose that it, any more than the others, can claim descent from the

reputed Wild Pigs of Needwood.

II.--REPTILES.

SAURIA.

The Sand Lizard, _Lacerta agilis_, occurs in Leicestershire and

Worcestershire, and is to be met with on Cannock Chase and similar

localities. The Viviparous Lizard, _Zootoca vivipara_, is found in

Sutton Park, is smaller and more active than the Sand Lizard, and

differs from that species inasmuch as the young are born alive.

SAUROPHIDIA.

The Blindworm, _Anguis fragilis_, is not infrequent, specimens have

been obtained at Sutton Park, Merivale, Baddesley Ensor, Beaudesert,

the Forest of Wyre and Habberley Valley, near Kidderminster.

OPHIDIA.

The Ringed Snake, _Natrix torquata_, is seldom seen in the

neighbourhood of Tamworth--although on one occasion the occupants of a

boat on the river Anker saw one of these snakes glide down the bank and

swim towards them--it is common in Merivale Park, occasionally found in

Sutton Park, and near Dudley. The Viper or Adder, _Pelias berus_, our

only poisonous reptile, is locally common, but generally rare; a large

number were killed in Sutton Park during the summer of 1884; it is

plentiful on Chartley Moss, Cannock Chase, and in the Forest of Wyre.

The Viper is shorter and thicker than the Common Snake, and easily

distinguished by the V shaped marking on the head.

ANOURA.

The Common Frog, _Rana temporaria_, is very abundant, and may be

seen in hundreds in the ditches during March. The Common Toad, _Bufo

vulgaris_, is also generally distributed.

URODELA.

The Common Warty-Newt, _Triton cristatus_, may be found in ponds

throughout the district. The Smooth-Newt, _Lissotriton punctatus_, is a

habitant of every clear horsepond, where it can be seen either basking

on the bottom, or rising to the surface for air; this species often

leaves the water, and hides under stones.

CHAPTER II.

Birds.

BY R. W. CHASE.

The district surrounding Birmingham does not present any striking

or special feature to the ornithologist; but owing to its varied

character, comprising as it does hill and dale, with considerable

stretches of moorland and a plentiful supply of water, in rivers,

reservoirs and pools, it forms haunts particularly attractive to birds.

The number of local species recorded is large, consisting of about

sixty residents, forty-two migrants, and eighty occasional and rare

visitors; making a total of one hundred and eighty-two species.

The large number of marine or littoral species occurring so far inland

is an interesting fact to be noted, and from the records of such

species as the Curlew Sandpiper, Turnstone, Ring Dotterel, Common and

Arctic Terns, much valuable information might be brought to bear upon

some of the knotty problems of migration. It is principally during

autumn that such species are noticed, and invariably the examples

obtained are immature, or birds of the year.

The classification and synonymy used in this brief summary is in

accordance with the fourth edition of “Yarrell’s British Birds.”

ACCIPITRES.

FALCONIDÆ.--Golden Eagle, _Aquila chrysaetus_, has occurred at

Needwood. White-tailed Eagle, _Haliætus albicilla_, has occurred at

Cannock Chase. Osprey, _Pandion haliætus_, very rare; has occurred

at Witton, and near Lichfield. Peregrine Falcon, _Falco peregrinus_,

rare visitor; one shot at Olton, near Solihull, in December 1880; it

has also occurred at Packington, Water Orton, and Polesworth, near

Tamworth. Hobby, _F. subbuteo_, frequently taken by the birdcatchers

in their nets. It has bred in Warwickshire. Merlin, _F. æsalon_,

not common; more frequently observed in the autumn. Kestrel, _F.

tinnunculus_, common and generally distributed. Sparrow Hawk,

_Accipiter nisus_, common. Kite, _Milvus ictinus_, has occurred at

Polesworth, near Tamworth. Common Buzzard, _Buteo vulgaris_, an

occasional visitor; has occurred at Alcester and Sutton Coldfield.

Rough-legged Buzzard, _B. lagopus_, very rare; twice obtained in the

neighbourhood of Coleshill. Honey Buzzard, _Pernis apivorus_, very

rare; has occurred at Stoneleigh. Hen Harrier, _Circus cyaneus_, a rare

visitor; has occurred at Alcester. Marsh Harrier, _C. æruginosus_, very

rare; has been obtained at Elford, near Tamworth.

STRIGIDÆ.--Tawny Owl, _Strix aluco_, fairly common in wooded districts.

Long-eared Owl, _Asio otus_, fairly abundant and breeds here.

Short-eared Owl, _A. accipitrinus_, an autumn migrant. Barn Owl, _Aluco

flammeus_, abundant.

PASSERES.

LANIIDÆ.--Great Grey Shrike, _Lanius excubitor_, frequently occurs

during autumn and winter; it has been taken at Wylde Green, November

14th, 1871, and at Rubery Hill, October 31st, 1881. Red-backed Shrike,

_L. collurio_, generally distributed and breeds here.

MUSCICAPIDÆ.--Spotted Flycatcher, _Muscicapa grisola_, a common summer

visitor. Pied Flycatcher, _M. atricapilla_, rare.

ORIOLIDÆ.--Golden Oriole, _Oriolus galbula_, one was obtained at

Barton, near Tamworth.--“Zoologist,” 1871, p. 2639.

CINCLIDÆ.--Dipper, _Cinclus aquaticus_, very rare in the district; one

was shot at Handsworth, January 12th, 1882.

TURDIDÆ.--Missel Thrush, _Turdus viscivorus_, common and breeds

here. Song Thrush, _T. musicus_, common. Redwing, _T. iliacus_,

winter visitor. Fieldfare, _T. pilaris_, winter visitor. Blackbird,

_T. merula_, abundant everywhere and increasing. Ring Ouzel, _T.

torquatus_, not common, has occurred at Wylde Green and Gravelly Hill.

SYLVIIDÆ.--Hedge sparrow, _Accentor modularis_, abundant. Redbreast,

_Erithacus rubecula_, common and resident. Nightingale, _Daulias

luscinia_, not very plentiful throughout the district, but to be

found fairly numerous in favoured localities, and breeds here.

Bluethroat, _Ruticilla suecica_, very rare; once occurred near

Birmingham, (“Yarrell’s British Birds,” Vol. i., p. 322). Redstart, _R.

phœnicurus_, common summer visitor. Stonechat, _Saxicola rubicola_,

and Whinchat, _S. rubetra_, are to be met with in suitable localities.

Wheatear, _S. œnanthe_, common in spring; generally arrives about the

middle of March, Reed Warbler, _Acrocephalus streperus_, a summer

visitor and breeds here. Sedge Warbler, _A. schœnobænus_, plentiful

throughout the district. Grasshopper Warbler, _A. nævius_, far from

common; has occurred at Barnt Green, Alcester, Sutton, Tamworth; breeds

here sparingly. Whitethroat, _Sylvia rufa_, abundant in summer. Lesser

Whitethroat, _S. curruca_, not so abundant as the previous species.

Garden Warbler, _S. salicaria_, common summer migrant. Blackcap,

_S. atricapilla_, locally distributed. Wood Wren, _Phylloscopus

sibilatrix_, common during summer, especially in the neighbourhood

of Selly Oak. Willow Wren, _P. trochilus_, abundant. Chiffchaff, _P.

collybita_, one of the earliest summer migrants. Golden-crested Wren,

_Regulus cristatus_, frequently breeds here.

TROGLODYTIDÆ.--Wren, _Troglodytes parvulus_, abundant.

CERTHIIDÆ.--Tree Creeper, _Certhia familiaris_, common; especially in

Sutton Park.

SITTIDÆ.--Nuthatch, _Sittia cæsia_, generally to be met with where old

trees abound. Aston, Edgbaston, and Sutton Coldfield are localities

where it has been observed.

PARIDÆ.--Titmouse, _Parus_. This genus is well represented, those

species which occur being plentiful.

AMPELIDÆ.--Waxwing, _Ampelis garrulus_, rare; has occurred at

irregular intervals; one shot in the grounds of Aston Hall, by a

gamekeeper of James Watt, Esq., about the year 1845, and another at

Rednal, Jan. 30, 1882.

MOTACILLIDÆ.--Pied Wagtail, _Motacilla lugubris_, common. Grey Wagtail,

_M. sulphurea_, has been observed several times in full summer plumage,

and probably breeds in the district. Yellow Wagtail, _M. raii_, regular

summer migrant. Tree Pipit, _Anthus trivialis_, not rare, but local.

Meadow Pipit, _A. pratensis_, common.

ALAUDIDÆ.--Sky Lark, _Alauda arvensis_, resident and common. Wood Lark,

_A. arborea_, rare.

EMBERIZIDÆ.--Snow bunting, _Plectrophanes nivalis_, rare; has occurred

at Harborne. Reed Bunting, _Emberiza schœniclus_, generally to be met

with in suitable localities. Yellow Bunting, _E. citrinella_, abundant.

Bunting, _E. miliaria_, frequent.

FRINGILLIDÆ.--Chaffinch, _Fringilla cœlebs_, common. Brambling, _F.

montifringilla_, occasionally occurs in the winter. Tree sparrow,

_Passer montanus_, very local in distribution. House Sparrow, _P.

domesticus_, abundant everywhere. Hawfinch, _Coccothraustes vulgaris_,

more plentiful than formerly; now breeds regularly in the district.

Greenfinch, _C. chloris_, common. Goldfinch, _Carduelis elegans_,

scarce. Siskin, _C. spinus_, occasionally occurs in the winter.

Lesser Redpoll, _Linota rufescens_, common and resident. Linnet,

_L. cannabina_, common and resident. Bullfinch, _Pyrrhula europæa_,

generally distributed throughout the district. Crossbill, _Loxia

curvirostra_, rare; a pair were shot in Aston Park about 1845; it has

also occurred at Solihull and Wylde Green.

STURNIDÆ.--Starling, _Sturnus vulgaris_, abundant and resident.

CORVIDÆ.--Crow, _Corvus corone_, not rare. Grey crow, _C. cornix_,

mostly noticed during winter; the nest of this species was taken in

Sutton Park, May, 1883. Rook, _C. frugilegus_, abundant and increasing.

Jackdaw, _C. monedula_, common. Magpie, _Pica rustica_, common in

localities not strictly preserved. Jay, _Garrulus glandarius_, common

in large woods.

HIRUNDINIDÆ.--Swallow, _Hirundo rustica_. Martin, _Chelidon urbica_,

and the Sand Martin, _Cotyle riparia_, are all common summer visitors.

PICARIÆ.

CYPSELIDÆ.--Swift, _Cypselus apus_, summer visitor, rather local.

CAPRIMULGIDÆ.--Night-jar, _Caprimulgus europæus_, generally

distributed; frequenting woods adjoining heaths; especially plentiful

in Sutton Park.

CUCULIDÆ.--Cuckoo, _Cuculus canorus_, summer migrant.

UPUPIDÆ.--Hoopoe, _Upupa epops_, an accidental visitor; has been shot

at Witton, Quinton, Oscott, and Baddesley near Tamworth.

ALCEDINIDÆ.--Kingfisher, _Alcedo ispida_, fairly numerous; to be met

with on most of the rivers and brooks.

PICIDÆ.--Green Woodpecker, _Gecinus viridis_, not common, but breeds.

Greater spotted Woodpecker, _Dendrocopus major_, scarce. Lesser spotted

Woodpecker, _D. minor_, often obtained, but by no means common.

Wryneck, _Jynx torquilla_, summer migrant, rather local in distribution.

COLUMBÆ.

COLUMBIDÆ.--Ring Dove, _Columba palumbus_, common. Stock Dove,

_C. œnas_, not numerous, but often met with. Turtle Dove, _Turtur

communis_, occurs in considerable numbers and breeds here.

PTEROCLETES.

PTEROCLIDÆ.--Pallas’ Sand Grouse, _Syrrhaptes paradoxus_, very

rare; has occurred in Staffordshire; also at Swinfen near Tamworth.

(“Zoologist,” 1873, p. 3,801).

GALLINÆ.

TETRAONIDÆ.--Black grouse, _Tetrao urogallus_, formerly common, now

nearly extinct; a brace shot in Sutton Park, October, 1871. Red grouse,

_Lagopus scoticus_, very rare.

PHASIANIDÆ.--Pheasant, _Phasianus colchicus_, common in preserves.

Partridge, _Perdix cinerea_, common. Red-legged partridge, _Caccabis

rufa_, occasionally met with; has been shot at Ladbrook, and Great

Barr. Quail, _Coturnix communis_, rare; has been obtained near Tamworth.

FULICARIÆ.

RALLIDÆ.--Land Rail, _Crex pratensis_, common summer migrant. Spotted

Crake, _Porzana maruetta_, occurs more frequently in autumn; the nest

has been taken in Sutton Park. Water rail, _Rallus aquaticus_, more

rare than formerly. Moor Hen, _Gallinula chloropus_, common. Common

Coot, _Fulica atra_ not rare.

ALECTORIDES.

OTIDIDÆ.--Little Bustard, _Otis tetrax_, once at Thickthorn, near

Tamworth.

LIMICOLÆ.

CHARADRIIDÆ.--Cream-coloured Courser, _Cursorius gallicus_, has been

obtained at Yoxall. Dotterel, _Eudromias morinellus_, very rare; has

occurred at Cannock Chase 1875, and at Perry Barr, 1882. Ringed Plover,

_Ægialitis hiaticula_, rare; occasionally met with in autumn. Golden

Plover, _Charadrius pluvialis_, rare. Lapwing, _Vanellus vulgaris_,

common and resident. Turnstone, _Strepsilas interpres_, very rare.

Oyster-catcher, _Hæmatopus ostralegus_, has been obtained at Yoxall.

SCOLOPACIDÆ.--Red-necked Phalarope, _Phalaropus hyperboreus_, has

occurred once at Tamworth. Woodcock, _Scolopax rusticula_, rare. Great

Snipe, _Gallinago major_, one obtained at Polesworth and another is

said to have been seen in Sutton Park(?). Common Snipe, _G. cœlestis_,

winter visitor; breeds here in small numbers. Jack Snipe, _G.

gallinula_, winter visitor; not numerous. Dunlin, _Tringa alpina_, very

rare; has occurred at Small Heath. Curlew Sandpiper, _T. subarquata_,

rare; a small flock seen in the neighbourhood of Barnt Green in

September, 1885. Ruff, _Machetes pugnax_, very rare; once occurred at

Sutton Coldfield. Bartram’s Sandpiper, _Bartramia longicauda_, once

near Warwick, on October 31st, 1851 (Zool. pp. 3,330, 3,388, 4,254).

Common Sandpiper, _Totanus hypoleucus_, summer visitor; it is probable

this species breeds in the district. Wood Sandpiper, _T. glareola_,

very rare, once occurred at the Sewage Farm. Green Sandpiper, _T.

ochropus_, has occurred at Packington, near Tamworth. Redshank, _T.

calidris_, rare; has occurred at the Sewage Farms; also at Sutton

Coldfield and near Tamworth. Greenshank, _T. canescens_, occasional

visitor in autumn; has occurred at Castle Bromwich. Curlew, _Numenius

arquata_, rare; has occurred at Great Barr and Polesworth.

GAVIÆ.

LARIDÆ.--Black Tern, _Hydrochelidon nigra_, often occurs in spring

and autumn. Sandwich Tern, _Sterna cantiaca_, occasional visitor; more

frequently observed towards autumn. Common Tern, _Sterna fluviatilis_,

often observed during spring and autumn migration; chiefly birds of

the year during the latter period. Arctic Tern, _S. macrura_, the

same remarks apply to this species as to _S. fluviatilis_. Sabine’s

Gull, _Xema sabinii_, once occurred near Coleshill, in October, 1883.

Black-headed Gull, _Larus ridibundus_, not rare; frequently met with

during spring on some of the large reservoirs. Lesser Black-backed

Gull, _Larus fuscus_, rare; has been shot at Bromsgrove and Handsworth.

Great Black-backed Gull, _L. marinus_, once occurred at Shustoke,

September 20th, 1874. Large Gulls are often observed passing over,

which probably belong to this species. Common Gull, _L. canus_, rare,

has been shot near Alcester. Kittiwake Gull, _Rissa tridactyla_, rare;

occasionally seen during winter. Pomatorhine Skua, _Stercorarius

pomatorhinus_, very rare; considering the unusual number of Skuas

that appeared during the autumn of 1879, it is rather surprising that

more examples were not noticed in this district, very few being shot.

Buffon’s Skua, _S. parasiticus_; an immature bird was shot on Lichfield

Racecourse in October 1874.

TUBINARES.

PROCELLARIIDÆ.--Manx Shearwater, _Puffinus anglorum_; an immature bird

was picked up exhausted in the Chandos road in this town, September

5th, 1880. Forked-tailed Petrel, _Cymochorea leucorrhoa_, very rare.

One picked up September 4th, 1883, dead in a yard, in Guildford

street in this town, and subsequently recorded in the local papers as

_Procellaria pelagica_. Stormy Petrel, _P. pelagica_, has occurred too

many times to particularize each instance.

PYGOPODES.

ALCIDÆ.--Little Auk, _Mergulus alle_, very rare; several instances

are on record of its occurrence in the district, one was obtained in

November, 1863. Puffin, _Fratercula arctica_; one picked up in Broad

street in this town, in an exhausted condition, 1884.

COLYMBIDÆ.--Great Northern Diver, _Colymbus glacialis_, very rare; one

was obtained at Tipton, January 8th, 1877.

PODICIPEDIDÆ.--Great crested Grebe, _Podiceps cristatus_, generally

distributed throughout the district, and far from rare; breeds

regularly at Sutton Coldfield, Little Aston, and Barnt Green.

Sclavonian Grebe, _P. auritus_; one shot at Sutton Coldfield, in

December, 1868. Little Grebe, _P. fluviatilis_, not rare; breeds

sparingly in suitable localities; small flocks or families are often

observed during the autumn and winter, especially on the river Tame.

STEGANOPODES.

PELECANIDÆ.--Common Cormorant, _Phalacrocorax carbo_, a rare occasional

visitor. Shag, _P. graculus_, very rare; has occurred twice in the

neighbourhood of King’s Norton, also near Tamworth. The Gannet, _Sula

bassana_, one taken exhausted in a field of potatoes near Tamworth.

HERODIONES.

ARDEIDÆ.--Common Heron, _Ardea cinerea_, generally to be met with.

There are several Heronries in the county of Warwick. Little Egret,

_Ardea garzetta_, said to have been obtained at Sutton Coldfield,

many years ago. Night heron, _Nycticorax griseus_, one obtained

near Alcester. Common Bittern, _Botaurus stellaris_, more rare than

formerly; a great many examples have been obtained from time to time,

especially in the neighbourhood of Sutton Coldfield.

ODONTOGLOSSÆ.

PHŒNICOPTERIDÆ.--Flamingo, _Phœnicopterus roseus_; one stated to have

been shot in the neighbourhood of Wolverhampton, but probably an

escaped bird.

ANSERES.

ANATIDÆ.--Brent Goose, _Bernicla brenta_, scarce; two shot at King’s

Norton, October 24th, 1882, during stormy weather; has also been

obtained near Tamworth. Flocks of geese are often observed passing

overhead, but of course it is impossible to determine to what species

they belong. Canada Goose, _B. canadensis_, has been shot several times

in the district, whether escaped specimens or not, it is difficult to

say, as this species is often kept in a semi-wild state. Mute Swan,

_Cygnus olor_, is to be found upon many large pools and ornamental

waters; breeds here plentifully. Polish Swan, _C. immutabilis_, once

occurred at Earlswood reservoir. Ruddy Sheld-Duck, _Tadorna casarca_,

has been shot at Nechells, also at Yardley Wood; probably escaped

birds. Common Sheld-Duck, _T. cornuta_, rare visitor. A magnificent

male was shot at Hawkesbury, near Coventry, in 1881. Mallard, _Anas

boscas_, plentiful on some pools; breeds throughout the district.

Gadwall, _A. strepera_, very rare; one shot near Lichfield in December,

1873. Shoveller, _Spatula clypeata_, formerly bred in Staffordshire,

but very scarce of late years; one shot at Sutton Coldfield, in 1867.

Teal, _Querquedula crecca_, sparingly met with, a few pairs breed in

the district; the nest has several times been taken in Sutton Park.

Widgeon, _Mareca penelope_, winter visitor; often seen in large

flocks upon the reservoirs and pools during severe weather. Scaup,

_Fuligula marila_, has occurred once at Wichnor near Tamworth. Pochard,

_F. ferina_, rare; has been shot near Tamworth. Tufted Duck, _F.

cristata_, very rare; a male was shot in Aston Park many years ago,

by a gamekeeper of James Watt, Esq. Golden Eye, _Clangula glaucion_,

one shot near Tamworth. Goosander, _Mergus merganser_, an accidental

visitor in winter; specimens obtained are generally either immature

birds or females. Red-breasted Merganser, _M. serrator_, very scarce;

only young birds have been obtained. Smew, _M. albellus_, very rare.

A female was shot on the canal at Selly Oak, about fifteen years ago.

Another example of this species was obtained at Elford, near Tamworth.

CHAPTER III.

Fishes and Mollusca.

BY G. SHERRIFF TYE.

I.--FISHES.

The waters within easy reach of Birmingham afford to those interested

in the Natural History of Fishes excellent opportunities for study, and

are much resorted to by anglers. To those who do not incline to the

study of fish or fishing, it will probably be a matter of surprise to

know the abundance and excellence of the individuals, and the variety

of species occurring within an hour’s walk of the centre of our town.

Of the river Tame, a well-known angler states: “In my opinion this is

a remarkable little river; in three and a half miles it contains in

abundance at least ten species of fish, viz., trout, pike, chub, tench,

perch, roach, rudd, dace, gudgeon, minnow, all of which, except the

pike, attain to a size equal to any in rivers or pools within a hundred

miles of Birmingham.” Large fish are not so common now as formerly, but

probably this river will recover, and attain its wonted excellence,

when the “Black Country” sewerage works are completed.

The river Cole is a fine trout stream. The river Blythe, Coleshill,

is an excellent stream, especially for eels. The river Trent with

its tributaries, the Anker, Tame, and Mease, is celebrated for many

species of fish, and is a great resort of anglers. Earlswood and the

Corporation reservoirs, the pools at Sutton Coldfield, Great Barr Park,

King’s Norton, Barnt Green, and many others are all well stocked with

fish, and will render fine examples to all who seek them.

The writer’s thanks are cordially rendered to members of the

Birmingham Piscatorial Association and to other gentlemen for valuable

information, kindly given, respecting the localities and habitats of

Fishes. The weights of the largest specimens recorded, have all been

verified by the anglers who have taken them.

The classification adopted in this paper is that of “Yarrell’s British

Fishes,” second edition, 1841.

The number of local species recorded is thirty-three.

ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Perch, _Perca fluviatilis_, accommodates itself to either river or

pool, the former producing the cleanest and handsomest fish. It has

been taken of fine size, 4½ lbs., Rotton Park Reservoir; 3½ lbs.,

Tardebigg; 3 lbs., Rotton Park Reservoir; 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. from Old

Soho Pool, now the site of a Railway Wharf.

Ruffe, _Acerina vulgaris_, not uncommon, river Trent, Alrewas. The

writer has taken a number from a pool near Wednesbury.

Miller’s Thumb, _Cottus gobio_, is to be met with in most of our little

rivulets, lurking under stones.

The Rough-tailed three-spined Stickleback, _Gasterosteus trachurus_;

ubiquitous. The males in the breeding season are resplendent in

scarlet and green, and fight for supremacy. It is remarkable with

what ease individuals accommodate themselves to sea water. The

Smooth-tailed Stickleback, _G. leiurus_; the Short-spined Stickleback,

_G. brachycentus_; the Four-spined Stickleback, _G. spinulosus_ and

the Ten-spined Stickleback, _G. pungitius_; although not so common as

_G. trachurus_, are all found in ditches communicating with the river

Anker, at Tamworth.

ABDOMINAL MALACOPTERYGII.

Carp, _Cyprinus carpio_. The writer has had one of large size from

Plants Brook Reservoir, 7½ lbs., and has seen a larger one in the pool.

The largest recorded was from Sandwell Pool, 12 lbs.

Crucian Carp, _C. carassius_, is not uncommon; the writer has seen

numbers of them taken from small cattle pits on a farm in Warwickshire.

It is a pretty and hardy species in an aquarium.

Gold Carp, _C. auratus_, the well known “gold-fish,” used to breed in a

pool at West Bromwich, into which warm water from an engine flowed, but

it is not found there now.

Barbel, _Barbus vulgaris_, is found in abundance in the River Trent,

but in general size not to be compared with those taken in the Thames.

River Trent, 7½ lbs. and 8 lbs.

Gudgeon, _Gobio fluviatilis_, in streams fairly common, also in canals,

but rare in pools. Earlswood Reservoir.

Tench, _Tinca vulgaris_, not uncommon; of large size at Handsworth,

Sutton Coldfield, and near Barnt Green, in pools; plentiful at the

latter place, rivers Tame, Anker, &c.; 3 lbs. Edgbaston Pool. It is one

of the easiest fishes to keep in confinement. A golden variety of this

species is bred in the private pools of gentlemen in this country, it

is said to have been introduced from Germany. Fine specimens were to be

seen at the recent Fisheries Exhibition in London.

Bream, _Abramis brama_, in the larger rivers. When this species

assembles, after an overnight’s baiting, it may often be taken in great

numbers. 5 lbs. River Trent. The writer has known a few hours’ fishing

in a Warwickshire stream to yield sufficient fine fishes of this

species to fill a hamper as much as a couple of men could carry.

Roach, _Leuciscus rutilus_, occurs very commonly and of large size; old

Soho Pool, 3 lbs. weight, a truly noble fish; Sharpley Reservoir, 2 lbs.

Dace, _Leuciscus vulgaris_, River Trent, 14 ozs.

Chub, _Leuciscus cephalus_, River Tame, 5½ lbs. 5 lbs. and many

approaching that weight.

Rudd or Red-eye, _Leuciscus erythropthalmus_. In the River Tame.

Bleak, _Leuciscus alburnus_. In streams and in Earlswood Reservoir. A

friend remarks, “I have taken this species in Earlswood Reservoir, and

Gudgeon also, the only instance I have met with where these two river

fish have occurred in a pool.” They were probably bred from escaped

bait.

Minnow, _Leuciscus phoxinus_, common in many streams.

Loach, _Cobitis barbatula_, is found in streamlets in many places. The

writer has taken it at Handsworth. It is said to be delicate food.

The Spined-Loach, _Botia tænia_, is rarer than the preceding. It has

been taken in the Rivers Anker and Tame at Tamworth.

Pike, _Esox lucius_, is found in large pools and rivers. 26 lbs.; 25

lbs. 6 oz., Earlswood Reservoir; 23 lbs., Middleton Pool; 22 lbs. 6

oz., Pebble Mill Pool; 12 and 13 lbs., Sutton Park. The writer could

relate many instances of the voracity of the Pike, and incidents of

sport,--one must suffice. A Pike was hooked near some floodgates in the

Tame, and on taking out the hook he found that it had gone through a

Water-Shrew, which the fish had just taken, and still held in its mouth.

Salmon, the king of British fishes, _Salmo salar_, comes legitimately

within our radius of twenty miles. It has been taken from the Eel traps

in the River Tame at Tamworth; in the River Trent at Yoxall; and in

the River Severn at Bewdley. At the last mentioned place a specimen

weighing 40 lbs. has been captured.

Common Trout, _S. fario_, Bourne Brook, Fazeley, 7 lbs.; River Tame, 5½

lbs., 4 lbs. several, and many below that weight; River Trent, 4 lbs. 2

ozs.; River Cole, Packington.

Lochleven Trout, _S. Levenensis_. In April, 1884, the Water Department

of the Corporation of Birmingham stocked their new reservoir (90 acres)

at Shustoke with 3,000 of this fish. The reservoir at Witton was

stocked with 2,000 fish at the same time. They were yearlings, about

3 inches long, and are now (August, 1886) from 2 lbs. to 3¼ lbs. in

weight. These reservoirs will therefore in a few years be good places

for this species of Trout.

Grayling, _Thymallus vulgaris_, River Trent, Shenstone, 2 lbs.;

Alrewas, 17 ozs.; Bourne Brook, Fazeley.

SUBBRACHIAL MALACOPTERYGII.

The Burbot, _Lota vulgaris_, the only British species of the family of

the Gadidæ that lives permanently in fresh water, is found in the River

Anker at Tamworth, the largest fish recorded being 5 lbs.; 3 lbs. 2 ozs.

APODAL MALACOPTERYGII.

The Sharp-nosed Eel, _Anguilla acutirostris_, and the Broad-nosed Eel,

_Anguilla latirostris_. In rivers and pools generally. Fine specimens

of _A. acutirostris_ are taken in the River Blythe, some weighing 4

lbs. each. The third species of Eel mentioned by Yarrell, the Snig,

_A. mediorostris_, occurs with the two others in the Worcestershire

Avon, and doubtless finds its way into the Arrow and other tributary

streams. It differs from the two preceding species, being much smaller,

individuals rarely exceeding half a pound each; and in its habit of

roving and feeding by day. It is of superior flavour to its congeners.

The Snig may easily be distinguished by the first five cervical

vertebræ, which are smooth and free from spinous processes, always

present in the sharp-nosed and broad-nosed Eels.

CHONDROPTERYGII.

Lampern or river Lamprey, _Petromyzon fluviatilis_. In the River Trent,

and also the Tame and in streamlets, Sutton Park, &c.

II.--MOLLUSCA.

The district around Birmingham is an excellent field for terrestrial

and fluviatile Mollusca. Within a circle of twelve miles radius, which

includes a portion of the Counties of Warwick, Stafford, and Worcester,

can be found fifty per cent. of the species and varieties enumerated

in Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys’ “British Conchology.” No special quality of

soil or geological condition is required for the existence of Molluscs;

whatever the nature of the ground may be, some species or other will

reward the searcher. The number of terrestrial species is usually

the greatest where limestone is present; indeed some species do not

seem able to maintain their existence away from it, _e.g._, _Helix

ericetorum_, _H. virgata_, _H. arbustorum_, and _Cyclostoma elegans_.

The still beautiful grounds of Dudley Castle were once “happy hunting

grounds” for the collectors of Mollusca, but the smoke of a thousand

fires has cast a baleful influence over the locality. The dead shells

of species, once abundant, are conclusive evidence that the Molluscan

fauna do not now enjoy a congenial atmosphere in that neighbourhood.

_Helix arbustorum_, may, notwithstanding, still be found there, its

nearest proximity to Birmingham.

Among the noticeable species of the district may be mentioned

_Testacella Haliotidea_, found in the garden of a florist at Redditch;

_Succinea virescens_, (Morelet) = _S. putris_ var. _vitrea_ (Jeffreys),

which the writer has taken near Plants Brook Reservoir; _Zonites

glaber_, found near Solihull; _Helix Cantiana_,[62] Henley-in-Arden;

_H. virgata_, Grafton, near Alcester; _Balia perversa_, Fenny Compton,

Northamptonshire. The three last named species are outside the twelve

miles radius.

CONCHIFERA.

The Midlands are rich in fluviatile forms, nearly all the known British

species occur. Those worth noting among the Sphæriidæ are--_Sphærium

corneum_, var. _Scaldiana_, Acock’s Green; _S. corneum_, var.

_flavescens_, Plants Brook; _S. rivicola_ and _S. ovale_, Acock’s

Green and Rushall Canal. _S. lacustre_ is not uncommon, and is found

abundantly in a pond at Handsworth.

The Pisidia are well represented, four out of our five species

occurring. It is curious that the large form _Pisidium amnicum_ has not

hitherto been taken in the district. The writer took _P. roseum_[63]

from several ponds at Meriden in 1885-6.

The Unionidæ are extremely plentiful, and the two species _Unio

tumidus_ and _U. pictorum_ attain to an immense size. In the

writer’s cabinet are examples of _U. pictorum_ of the following

dimensions--2¹⁄₁₆ in. × 5¹⁄₁₆, 2¹⁄₁₆ in. × 5¼, 2³⁄₁₆ in. × 5¼, some of

them weighing nearly 4 ounces avoirdupois; and of _U. tumidus_, 2⁵⁄₁₆

in. × 4¾, 2⅜ in. × 4⅞, 2¾ in. × 5, the weight of some examples reaching

nearly 6 ounces avoirdupois. These are probably the finest shells of

their kind ever taken anywhere. _Anodonta cygnea_ is common, and its

varieties _incrassata_, _Zellensis_, _pallida_, and _rostrata_ occur.

_A. anatina_, and the varieties _radiata_ and _ventricosa_ are found;

handsome shells of the latter occur at Barr Park and in the river

Blythe at Coleshill. _Dreissena polymorpha_ is commonly distributed.

GASTEROPODA.