CHAPTER VII.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

“Whose arrows are sharp, and all their bows bent, their horses’ hoofs

shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a whirlwind.”--ISA.

v. 28.

In reviewing, so far as our materials permit, the manners and customs of

the Assyrians, it will be convenient to consider separately their

warlike and their peaceful usages. The sculptures furnish very full

illustration of the former, while on the latter they throw light far

more sparingly.

The Assyrians fought in chariots, on horseback, and on foot. Like most

ancient nations, as the Egyptians, the Greeks in the heroic times, the

Canaanites, the Syrians, the Jews and Israelites, the Persians, the

Gauls, the Britons, and many others, the Assyrians preferred the chariot

as most honorable, and probably as most safe. The king invariably went

out to war in a chariot, and always fought from it, excepting at the

siege of a town, when he occasionally dismounted and shot his arrows on

foot. The chief state-officers and other personages of high rank

followed the same practice. Inferior persons served either as cavalry or

as foot-soldiers.

The Assyrian war-chariot is thought to have been made of wood. Like the

Greek and the Egyptian, it appears to have been mounted from behind

where it was completely open, or closed only by means of a shield, which

(as it seems) could be hung across the aperture. It was completely

panelled at the sides, and often highly ornamented, as will be seen from

the various illustrations given in this chapter. The wheels were two in

number, and were placed far back, at or very near the extreme end of the

body, so that the weight pressed considerably upon the pole, as was the

case also in Egypt. They had remarkably broad felloes, thin and delicate

spokes, and small or moderate sized axels. [PLATE LXXXIX. Fig. 2], and

[PLATE XC., Figs. 1, 2.] The number of the spokes was either six or

eight. The felloes appear to have been formed of three distinct circles

of wood, the middle one being the thinnest, and the outer one far the

thickest of the three. Sometimes these circles were fastened together

externally by bands of mental, hatchet-shaped. In one or two instances

we find the outermost circle divided by cross-bars, as if it had been

composed of four different pieces. Occasionally there is a fourth

circle, which seems to represent a metal tire outside the felloe,

whereby it was guarded from injury. This tire is either plain or

ornamented.

[Illustration: PLATE 90]

The wheels were attached to an axletree, about which they revolved, in

the usual manner. The body was placed directly upon the axletree and

upon the pole, without the intervention of any springs. The pole started

from the middle of the axle-tree, and, passing below the floor of the

body in a horizontal direction, thence commonly curved upwards till it

had risen to about half the height of the body, when it was again

horizontal for awhile, once more curving upwards at the end. It usually

terminated in an ornament, which was sometimes the head of an animal--a

bull, a horse, or a duck--sometimes a more elaborate and complicated

work of art. [PLATE XC., Fig. 3.] Now and then the pole continued level

with the bottom of the body till it had reached its full projection, and

then rose suddenly to the height of the top of the chariot. It was often

strengthened by one or more thin bars, probably of metal; which united

it to the upper part of the chariot-front.

Chariots were drawn either by two or three, never by four, horses. They

seem to have had but a single pole. Where three horses were used, one

must therefore have been attached merely by a rope or thong, like the

side horses of the Greeks, and, can scarcely have been of much service

for drawing the vehicle. He seems rightly regarded as a supernumerary,

intended to take the place of one of the others, should either be

disabled by a wound or accident. It is not easy to determine from the

sculptures how the two draught horses were attached to the pole. Where

chariots are represented without horses, we find indeed that they have

always a cross-bar or yoke; but where horses are represented in the act

of drawing a chariot, the cross-bar commonly disappears altogether. It

would seem that the Assyrian artists, despairing of their ability to

represent the yoke properly when it was presented to the eye end-wise,

preferred, for the most part, suppressing it wholly to rendering it in

an unsatisfactory manner. Probably a yoke did really in every case pass

over the shoulders of the two draught horses, and was fastened by straps

to the collar which is always seen round their necks.

These yokes, or cross-bars, were of various kinds. Sometimes they appear

to have consisted of a mere slight circular bar, probably of metal,

which passed through the pole; sometimes of a thicker spar, through

which the pole itself passed. In this latter case the extremities were

occasionally adorned with heads of animals. [PLATE XCI., Fig. 1.] The

most common kind of yoke exhibits a double curve, so as to resemble a

species of bow unstrung. [PLATE XCI., Fig. 2.] Now and then a specimen

is found very curiously complicated, being formed of a bar curved

strongly at either end, and exhibiting along its course four other

distinct curvatures having opposite to there apertures resembling eyes,

with an upper and a lower eyelid. [PLATE XCI., Fig. 3.] It has been

suggested that this yoke belonged to a four-horse chariot, and that to

each of the four eyes (_a a a a_) there was a steed attached; but, as no

representation of a four-horse chariot has been found, this suggestion

must be regarded as inadmissible. The probability seems to be that this

yoke, like the others, was for two horses, on whose necks it rested at

the points marked _b b_, the apertures (_c c c c_) lying thus on either

side of the animals’ necks, and furnishing the means whereby the he was

fastened to the collar. It is just possible that we have in the

sculptures of the later period a representation of the extremities

(_d d_) of this kind of yoke, since in them a curious curve appears

sometimes on the necks of chariot-horses, just above the upper end of

the collar.

[Illustration: PLATE 91]

Assyrian chariots are exceedingly short: but, apparently, they must have

been of a considerable width. They contain two persons at the least; and

this number is often increased to three, and sometimes even to four.

[PLATE XCI. Fig. 4.] The warrior who fights from a chariot is

necessarily attended by his charioteer; and where he is a king, or a

personage of high importance, he is accompanied by a second attendant,

who in battle-scenes always bears a shield, with which he guards the

person of his master. Sometimes, though rarely, four persons are seen in

a chariot--the king or chief, the charioteer, and two guards, who

protect the monarch on either side with circular shields or targes. The

charioteer is always stationed by the side of the warrior, not as

frequently with the Greeks, behind him. The guards stand behind, and,

owing to the shortness of the chariot, must have experienced some

difficulty in keeping their places. They are evidently forced to lean

back-wards from want of room, and would probably have often fallen out,

had they not grasped with one hand a rope or strap firmly fixed to the

front of the vehicle.

There are two principal types of chariots in the Assyrian sculptures,

which may be distinguished as the earlier and the later. The earlier are

comparatively low and short. The wheels are six-spoked, and of small

diameter. The body is plain, or only ornamented by a border, and is

rounded in front, like the Egyptian and the classical chariots. [PLATE

XCII., Fig 1.] Two quivers are suspended diagonally at the side of the

body, while a rest for a spear, commonly fashioned into the shape of a

human head, occupies the upper corner at the back. From the front of the

body to the further end of the pole, which is generally patterned and

terminates in the head and neck of a ball or a duck, extends an

ornamented structure, thought to have been of linen or silk stitched

upon a framework of wood, which is very conspicuous in the

representation. A shield commonly hangs behind these chariots, perhaps

closing the entrance; and a standard is sometimes fixed in them towards

the front, connected with the end of the pole by a rope or bar.

[Illustration: PLATE 92]

The later chariots are loftier and altogether larger than the earlier.

The wheel is eight spoked, and reaches as high as the shoulders of the

horses, which implies a diameter of about five feet. [PLATE XCII., Fig.

2. ] The body rises a foot or rather more, above this; and the riders

thus from their elevated position command the whole battle-field. The

body is not rounded, but made square in front: it has no quivers

attached to it externally, but has, instead, a projection at one or both

of the corners which seems to have served as an arrow-case. This

projection is commonly patterned, as is in many cases the entire body of

the chariot, though sometimes the ornamentation is confined to an

elegant but somewhat scanty border. The poles are plain, not patterned,

sometimes, however, terminating in the head of a horse; there is no

ornamental framework connecting them with the chariot, but in its stead

we see a thin bar, attached to which, either above or below, there is in

most instances a loop, whereto we may suppose that the reins were

occasionally fastened. No shield is suspended behind these chariots; but

we sometimes observe an embroidered drapery hanging over the back, in a

way which would seem to imply that they were closed behind, at any rate

by a cross-bar.

The trappings of the chariot-horses belonging to the two periods are not

very different. They consist principally of a headstall, a collar, a

breast-ornament, and a sort of huge tassel pendent at the horse’s side.

The headstall was formed commonly of three straps: one was attached to

the bit at either end, and passed behind the ears over the neck;

another, which was joined to this above, encircled the smallest part of

the neck; while a third, crossing the first at right angles, was carried

round the forehead and the cheek bones. At the point where the first and

second joined, or a little in front of this, rose frequently a waving

plume, or a crest composed of three huge tassels, one above another;

while at the intersection of the second and third was placed a rosette

or other suitable ornament. The first strap was divided where it

approached the bit into two or three smaller straps, which were attached

to the bit in different places. A fourth strap sometimes passed across

the nose from the point where the first strap subdivided. All the straps

were frequently patterned; the bit was sometimes shaped into an animal

form and streamers occasional floated from the nodding plume or crest

which crowned the heads of the war-steeds.

The collar is ordinarily represented as a mere broad band passing round

the neck, not of the withers (as with ourselves). but considerably

higher up, almost midway between the withers and the cheek-bone.

Sometimes it is of uniform width while often it narrows greatly as it

approaches the back of the neck. It is generally patterned, and appears

to have been a mere flat leathern band. It is impossible to say in what

exact way the pole was attached to it, though in the later sculptures we

have elaborate representations of the fastening. The earlier sculptures

seem to append to the collar one or more patterned straps, which,

passing round the horse’s belly immediately behind the fore legs, served

to keep it in place, while at the same time they were probably regarded

as ornamental; but under the later kings these belly Lands were either

reduced to a single strap, or else dispensed with altogether.

The breast-ornament consists commonly of a fringe, more or less

complicated. The simplest form, which is that of the most ancient times,

exhibits a patterned strap with a single row of long tassels pendent

from it, as in the annexed representation. At a later date we find a

double and even a triple row of tassels.

The pendent side-ornament is a very conspicuous portion of the

trappings. It is attached to the collar either by a long straight strap

or by a circular band which falls on either side of the neck. The upper

extremity is often shaped into the form of an animal’s head, below which

comes most commonly a circle or disk, ornamented with a rosette, a

Maltese cross, a winged bull, or other sacred emblem, while below the

circle hang huge tassels in a single row or smaller ones arranged in

several rows. In the sculptures of Sargon at Khorsabad, the tassels of

both the breast and side ornaments were colored, the tints being in most

cases alternately red and blue.

Occasionally the chariot-horses were covered from the ears almost to the

tail with rich cloths, magnificently embroidered over their whole

surface.’ [PLATE XCIII., Fig. 2.] These cloths encircled the neck, which

they closely fitted, and, falling on either side of the body, were then

kept in place by means of a broad strap round the rump and a girth under

the belly.

[Illustration: PLATE 93]

A simpler style of clothing chariot-horses is found towards the close of

the later period, where we observe, below the collar, a sort of triple

breastplate, and over the rest of the body a plain cloth, square cut,

with flaps descending at the arms and quarters, which is secured in its

place by three narrow straps fastened on externally. The earlier kind of

clothing has the appearance of being for ornament but this looks as if

it was meant solely for protection.

Besides the trappings already noticed, the Assyrian chariot-horses had

frequently strings of beads suspended round their necks, between the

ears and the collar; they had also, not unfrequently, tassels or bells

attached to different parts of the headstall [PLATE XCIII., Fig. 3], and

finally they had, in the later period most commonly, a curious ornament

upon the forehead, which covered almost the whole space between the ears

and the eyes, and was composed of a number of minute bosses, colored,

like the tassels of the breast ornament, alternately red and blue.

Each horse appears to have been driven by two reins--one attached to

either end of the bit in the ordinary manner, and each passed through a

ring or loop in the harness, whereby the rein was kept down and a

stronger purchase secured to the driver. The shape of the bit within the

mouth, if we may judge by the single instance of an actual bit which

remains to us, bore a near resemblance to the modern snaffle. [PLATE

XCIV., Fig. 1.] Externally the bit was large, and in most cases

clumsy--a sort of cross-bar extending across the whole side of the

horse’s face, commonly resembling a double axe-head, or a hammer.

Occasionally the shape was varied, the hatchet or hammer being replaced

by forms similar to those annexed, or by the figure of a horse at full

gallop. The rein seems, in the early times, to have been attached about

midway in the cross-bar, while afterwards it became usual to attach it

near the lower end. This latter arrangement was probably found to

increase the power of the driver.

[Illustration: PLATE 94]

The use of the bearing-rein, which prevailed in Egypt, was unknown to

the Assyrians, or disapproved by them. The driving-reins were separate,

not stitched or buckled together, and were held in the two hands

separately. The right hand grasped the reins, whatever their number,

which were attached at the horses’ right cheeks, while the left hand

performed the same office with the remaining reins. The charioteer urged

his horses onward with a powerful whip, having a short handle, and a

thick plaited or twisted lash, attached like the lash of a modern

horsewhip, sometimes with, sometimes without, a loop, and often

subdivided at the end into two or three tails. [PLATE XCIV., Fig. 4.]

Chariot-horses were trained to three paces, a walk, a trot, and a

gallop. In battle-pieces they are commonly represented at full speed, in

marches trotting, in processions walking in a stately manner. Their

manes were frequently hogged, though more commonly they lay on the neck,

falling (apparently) upon either side indifferently. Occasionally a

portion only was hogged, while the greater part remained in its natural

condition. The tail was uncut, and generally almost swept the ground,

but was confined by a string or ribbon tied tightly around it about

midway. Sometimes, more especially in the later sculptures, the lower

half of the tail is plaited and tied up into a loop or bunch [PLATE

XCIV., Fig. 5], according to the fashion which prevails in the present

day through most parts of Turkey and Persia.

The warrior who fought from a chariot was sometimes merely dressed in a

tunic, confined at the waist by a belt; sometimes, however, he wore a

coat of mail, very like the Egyptian, consisting of a sort of shirt

covered with small plates or scales of metal. This shirt reached at

least as low as the knees, beneath which the chariot itself was

sufficient protection. It had short sleeves, which covered the shoulder

and upper part of the arm, but left the elbow and fore-arm quite

undefended. The chief weapon of the warrior was the bow, which is always

seen in his hands, usually with the arrow upon the string; he wears,

besides, a short sword, suspended at his left side by a strap, and he

has commonly a spear within his reach; but we never see him using

either of these weapons. He either discharges his arrows against the foe

from the standing-board of his chariot, or, commanding the charioteer to

halt, descends, and, advancing a few steps before his horses’ heads,

takes a surer and more deadly aim from _terra firma_. In this case his

attendant defends him from missiles by extending in front of him a

shield, which he holds in his left hand, while at the same time he makes

ready to repel any close assailant by means of a spear or sword grasped

firmly in his right. The warrior’s face and arms are always bare;

sometimes the entire head is undefended, though more commonly it has the

protection of a helmet. This, however, is without a visor, and does not

often so much as cover the ears. In some few instances only is it

furnished with flaps or lappets, which, where they exist, seem to be

made of metal scales, and, falling over the shoulders, entirely conceal

the ears, the back of the head, the neck, and even the chin.

The position occupied by chariots in the military system of Assyria is

indicated in several passages of Scripture, and distinctly noticed by

many of the classical writers. When Isaiah began to warn his countrymen

of the ‘miseries in store for them at the hands of the new enemy which

first attacked Judea in his day, he described them as a people “whose

arrows were sharp, and all their bows bent, whose horses’ hoofs should

be counted like flint, and their wheels like a whirlwind.” When in after

days he was commissioned to raise their drooping courage by assuring

them that they would escape Sennacherib, who had angered God by his

pride, he noticed, as one special provocation of Jehovah, that monarch’s

confidence in the multitude of his chariots. Nahum again, having to

denounce the approaching downfall of the haughty nation, declares that

God is “against her, and will burn her chariots in the smoke.” In the

fabulous account which Ctesias gave of the origin of Assyrian greatness,

the war-chariots of Ninus were represented as amounting to nearly eleven

thousand, while those of his wife and successor, Semiramis, were

estimated at the extravagant number of a hundred thousand. Ctesias

further stated that the Assyrian chariots, even at this early period,

were armed with scythes, a statement contradicted by Xenophon, who

ascribes this invention to the Persians, and one which receives no

confirmation from the monuments. Amid all this exaggeration and

inventiveness, one may still trace a knowledge of the fact that

war-chariots were highly esteemed by the Assyrians from a very ancient

date, while from other notices we may gather that they continued to be

reckoned an important arm of the military service to the very end of the

empire.

Next to the war-chariots of the Assyrians we must place their cavalry,

which seems to have been of scarcely less importance in their wars.

Ctesias, who amid all his exaggerations shows glimpses of some real

knowledge of the ancient condition of the Assyrian people, makes the

number of the horsemen in their armies always greatly exceed that of the

chariots. The writer of the book of Judith gives Holofernes 12,000

horse-archers, and Ezekiel seems to speak of all the “desirable young

men” as “horsemen riding upon horses.” The sculptures show on the whole

a considerable excess of cavalry over chariots, though the preponderance

is not uniformly exhibited throughout the different periods.

During the time of the Upper dynasty, cavalry appears to have been but

little used. Tiglath-Pileser I. in the whole of his long Inscription has

not a single mention of them, though he speaks of his chariots

continually. In the sculptures of Asshur-izir-pal, the father of the

Black-Obelisk king, while chariots abound, horsemen occur only in rare

instances. Afterwards, under Sargon and Sennacherib, we notice a great

change in this respect. The chariot comes to be almost confined to the

king, while horsemen are frequent in the battle scenes.

In the first period the horses’ trappings consisted of a head-stall, a

collar, and one or more strings of beads. The head-stall was somewhat

heavy, closely resembling that of the chariot-horses of the time,

representations of which have been already given. It had the same heavy

axe-shaped bit, the same arrangement of straps, and nearly the same

ornamentation. The only marked difference was the omission of the crest

or plume, with its occasional accompaniment of streamers. The collar was

very peculiar. It consisted of a broad flap, probably of leather, shaped

almost like a half-moon, which was placed on the neck about half way

between the ears and the withers, and thence depended over the breast,

where it was broadened out and ornamented by large drooping tassels.

Occasionally the collar was plain, but more often it was elaborately

patterned. Sometimes pomegranates hung from it, alternating with the

tassels.

The cavalry soldiers of this period ride without any saddle. Their legs

and feet are bare, and their seat is very remarkable. Instead of

allowing their legs to hang naturally down the horses’ sides, they draw

them up till their knees are on a level with their chargers’ backs, the

object (apparently) being to obtain a firm seat by pressing the base of

the horse’s neck between the two knees. The naked legs seem to indicate

that it was found necessary to obtain the fullest and freest play of the

muscles to escape the inconveniences of a fall.

The chief weapon of the cavalry at this time is the bow. Sword and

shield indeed are worn, but in no instance do we see them used. Cavalry

soldiers are either archers or mere attendants who are without weapons

of offence. One of these latter accompanies each horse-archer in battle,

for the purpose of holding and guiding his steed while he discharges his

arrows. The attendant wears a skull cap and a plain tunic, the archer

has an embroidered tunic, a belt to which his sword is attached, and one

of the ordinary pointed helmets.

In the second period the cavalry consists in part of archers, in part of

spearmen. Unarmed attendants are no longer found, both spearmen and

archers appearing to be able to manage their own horses. Saddles have

now come into common use: they consist of a simple cloth, or flap of

leather, which is either cut square, or shaped somewhat like the

saddle-cloths of our own cavalry. A single girth beneath the belly is

their ordinary fastening; but sometimes they are further secured by

means of a strap or band passed round the breast, and a few instances

occur of a second strap passed round the quarters. The breast-strap is

generally of a highly ornamented character. The headstall of this period

is not unlike the earlier one, from which it differs chiefly in having a

crest, and also a forehead ornament composed of a number of small

bosses. It has likewise commonly a strap across the nose, but none under

the cheek-bones. It is often richly ornamented, particularly with

rosettes, bells, and tassels.

The old pendent collar is replaced by one encircling the neck about

halfway up, or is sometimes dispensed with altogether. Where it occurs,

it is generally of uniform width, and is ornamented with rosettes or

tassels. No conjecture has been formed of any use which either form of

collar could serve; and the probability is that they were intended

solely for ornament.

[Illustration: PLATE 95]

A great change is observable in the sculptures of the second period with

respect to the dress of the riders. [PLATE XCV., Fig. 1.] The cavalry

soldier is now completely clothed, with the exception of his two arms,

which are bare from a little below the shoulder. He wears most commonly

a tunic which fits him closely about the body, but below the waist

expands into a loose kilt or petticoat, very much longer behind than in

front, which is sometimes patterned, and always terminates in a fringe.

Round his waist he has a broad belt; and another, of inferior width,

from which a sword hangs, passes over his left shoulder. His legs are

encased in a close-fitting pantaloon or trouser, over which he wears a

laced boot or greave, which generally reaches nearly to the knee, though

sometimes it only covers about half the calf. [PLATE XCV., Fig. 2.] This

costume, which is first found in the time of Sargon, and continues to

the reign of Asshur-bani-pal, Esarhaddon’s son, may probably be regarded

as the regular cavalry uniform under the monarchs of the Lower Empire.

In Sennacherib’s reign there is found in conjunction with it another

costume, which is unknown to the earlier sculptures. This consists of a

dress closely fitting the whole body, composed apparently of a coat of

mail, leather or felt breeches, and a high greave or jack boot. [PLATE

XCVI., Fig. 1.] The wearers of this costume are spearmen or archers

indifferently. The former carry a long weapon, which has generally a

rather small head, and is grasped low down the shaft. The bow of the

latter is either round-arched or angular, and seems to be not more than

four feet in length; the arrows measure less than three feet, and are

slung in a quiver at the archer’s back. Both spearmen and archers

commonly carry swords, which are hung on the left side, in a diagonal,

and sometimes nearly in a horizontal position. In some few cases the

spearman is also an archer, and carries his bow on his right arm,

apparently as a reserve in case he should break or lose his spear.

[Illustration: PLATE 96]

The seat of the horseman is far more graceful in the second than in the

first period his limbs appear to move freely, and his mastery over his

horse is such that he needs no attendant. The spearman holds the bridle

in his left hand; the archer boldly lays it upon the neck of his steed,

who is trained either to continue his charge, or to stand firm while a

steady aim is taken. [PLATE XCV., Fig. 3.]

In the sculptures of the son and successor of Esarhaddon, the horses of

the cavalry carry not unfrequently, in addition to the ordinary saddle

or pad, a large cloth nearly similar to that worn sometimes by

chariot-horses, of which a representation has been already given. It is

cut square with two drooping lappets, and covers the greater part of the

body. Occasionally it is united to a sort of breastplate which protects

the neck, descending about halfway clown the chest. The material may be

supposed to have been thick felt or leather, either of which would have

been a considerable protection against weapons.

While the cavalry and the chariots were regarded as the most important

portions of the military force, and were the favorite services with the

rich and powerful, there is still abundant reason to believe that

Assyrian armies, like most others, consisted mainly of foot. Ctesias

gives Minis 1,700,000 footmen to 210,000 horsemen, and 10,600 chariots.

Xenophon contrasts the multitude of the Assyrian infantry with the

comparatively scanty numbers of the other two services: Herodotus makes

the Assyrians serve in the army of Xerxes on foot only. The author of

the book of Judith assigns to Holofernes an infantry force ten times as

numerous as his cavalry.--The Assyrian monuments entirely bear out the

general truth involved in all these assertions, showing us, as they do,

at least ten Assyrian warriors on foot for each one mounted on

horseback, and at least a hundred for each one who rides in a chariot.

However terrible to the foes of the Assyrians may have been the shock of

their chariots and the impetuosity of their horsemen, it was probably to

the solidity of the infantry, to their valor, equipment, and discipline,

that the empire was mainly indebted for its long series of victories.

In the time of the earliest sculptures, all the Assyrian foot-soldiers

seem to have worn nearly the same costume. This consisted of a short

tunic, not quite reaching to the knees, confined round the waist by a

broad belt, fringed, and generally opening in front, together with a

pointed helmet, probably of metal. The arms, legs, neck, and even the

feet, were ordinarily bare, although these last had sometimes the

protection of a very simple sandal. [PLATE XCVI., Fig. 2.] Swordsmen

used a small straight sword or dagger which they wore at their left side

in an ornamented sheath, and a shield which was either convex and

probably of metal, or oblong-square and composed of wickerwork. [PLATE

XCVI., Fig. 2.] Spearmen had shields of a similar shape and

construction, and carried in their right hands a short pike or javelin,

certainly not exceeding five feet in length. [PLATE XCVI., Fig. 4.]

Sometimes, but not always, they carried, besides the pike, a short

sword. Archers had rounded bows about four feet in length, and arrows a

little more than three feet long. Their quivers, which were often highly

ornamented, hung at their backs, either over the right or over the left

shoulder. [PLATE XCVI., Fig. 4.] They had swords suspended at their left

sides by a cross-belt, and often carried maces, probably of bronze or

iron, which bore a rosette or other ornament at one end, and a ring or

strap at the other. The tunics of archers were sometimes elaborately

embroidered; and on the whole they seem to have been regarded as the

flower of the foot-soldiery. Generally they are represented in pairs,

the two being in most cases armed and equipped alike; but, occasionally,

one of the pair acts as guard while the other takes his aim. In this

case both kneel on one knee, and the guard, advancing his long wicker

shield, protects both himself and his comrade from missiles, while he

has at the same time his sword drawn to repel all hand-to-hand

assailants. [PLATE XCVII., Fig. 1.]

[Illustration: PLATE 97]

In the early part of the second period, which synchronizes with the

reign of Sargon, the difference in the costumes of the foot-soldiers

becomes much more marked. The Assyrian infantry now consists of two

great classes, archers and spear-men. The archers are either light-armed

or heavy-armed, and of the latter there are two clearly distinct

varieties. The light-armed have no helmet, but wear on their heads a

mere fillet or band, which is either plain or patterned. [PLATE XCVI.,

Fig. 3.] Except for a cross-belt which supports the quiver, they are

wholly naked to the middle. Their only garment is a tunic of the

scantiest dimensions, beginning at the waist, round which it is fastened

by a broad belt or girdle, and descending little more than half-way down

the thigh. In its make it sometimes closely resembles the tunic of the

first period, but more often it has the peculiar pendent ornament which

has been compared to the scotch phillibeg, and which will be here given

that name. It is often patterned with squares and gradines. The

light-armed archer has usually bare feet; occasionally, however, he

wears the slight sandal of this period, which is little more than a cap

for the heel held in place by two or three strings passed across the

instep. There is nothing remarkable in his arms, which resemble those of

the preceding period: but it may be observed that, while shooting, he

frequently holds two arrows in his right hand besides that which is upon

the string. He shoots either kneeling or standing, generally the latter.

His ordinary position is in the van of battle, though sometimes a

portion of the heavy-armed troops precede him. He has no shield, and is

not protected by an attendant, thus running more risk than any of the

rest of the army.

The more simply equipped of the heavy archers are clothed in a coat of

mail, which reaches from their neck to their middle, and partially

covers the arms. Below this they wear a fringed tunic reaching to the

knees, and confined at the waist by a broad belt of the ordinary

character. Their feet have in most instances the protection of a sandal,

and they wear on their heads the common or pointed helmet. They usually

discharge their arrows kneeling on the left knee, with the right foot

advanced before them. Daring this operation they are protected by an

attendant, who is sometimes dressed like themselves, sometimes merely

clad a tunic, without a coat of mail. Like them, he wears a pointed

helmet; and while in one hand he carries a spear, with the other he

holds forward a shield, which is either of a round form--apparently, of

metal embossed with figures--or oblong-square in shape, and evidently

made of wickerwork. Archers of this class are the least common, and

scarcely ever occur unless in combination with some of the class which

has the heaviest equipment.

The principal characteristic of the third or most heavily armed class of

archers is the long robe, richly fringed, which descends nearly to their

feet, thus completely protecting all the lower part of their person.

[PLATE XCVII., Fig. 2.] Above this they wear a coat of mail exactly

resembling that of archers of the intermediate class, which is sometimes

crossed by a belt ornamented with crossbars. Their head is covered by

the usual pointed helmet, and their feet are always, or nearly always,

protected by sandals. They are occasionally represented without either

sword or quiver, but more usually they have a short sword at their left

side, which appears to have been passed through their coat of mail,

between the armor plates, and in a few instances they have also quivers

at their backs. Where these are lacking, they generally either carry two

extra arrows in their right hand, or have the same number borne for them

by an attendant. They are never seen unattended: sometimes they have

one, sometimes two attendants, who accompany them, and guard them from

attack. One of these almost always bears the long wicker shield, called

by the Greeks [yeppov] which he rests firmly upon the ground in front of

himself and comrade. The other, where there is a second, stands a little

in the rear, and guards the archer’s head with a round shield or targe.

Both attendants are dressed in a short tunic, a phillibeg, a belt, and a

pointed helmet. Generally they wear also a coat of mail and sandals,

like those of the archer. They carry swords at their left sides, and the

principal attendant, except when he bears the archer’s arrows, guards

him from attack by holding in advance a short spear. The archers of this

class never kneel, but always discharge their arrows standing. They seem

to be regarded as the most important of the foot-soldiers, their

services being more particularly valuable in the siege of fortified

places.

The spearmen of this period are scarcely better armed than the second or

intermediate class of archers. Except in very rare instances they have

no coat of mail, and their tunic, which is either plain or covered with

small squares, barely reaches to the knee. The most noticeable point

about them is their helmet, which is never the common pointed or conical

one, but is always surmounted by a crest of one kind or another. [PLATE

XCVII.. Fig. 3.] Another very frequent peculiarity is the arrangement of

their cross-belts, which meet on the back and breast, and are ornamented

at the points of junction with a circular disk, probably of metal. The

shield of the spearman is also circular, and is formed generally, if not

always--of wickerwork, with (occasionally) a central boss of wood or

metal. [PLATE XCVII., Fig. 4.] In most cases their legs are wholly bare;

but sometimes they have sandals, while in one or two instances they wear

a low boot or greave laced in front, and resembling that of the cavalry.

[PLATE XCVII.. Fig. 4.] The spear with which they are armed varies in

length, from about four to six feet. [PLATE XCVIII.. Fig. 1.] It is

grasped near the lower extremity, at which a weight was sometimes

attached, in order the better to preserve the balance. Besides this

weapon they have the ordinary short sword. The spear-men play an

important part in the Assyrian wars, particularly at sieges, where they

always form the strength of the storming party.

[Illustration: PLATE 98]

Some important changes seen to have been made under Sennacherib in the

equipment and organization of the infantry force. These consisted

chiefly in the establishment of a greater number of distinct corps

differently armed, and in an improved equipment of the more important of

them. Sennacherib appears to have been the first to institute a corps of

slingers, who at any rate make their earliest appearance in his

sculptures. They were kind of soldier well-known to the Egyptians and

Sennacherib’s acquaintance with the Egyptian warfare may have led to

their introduction among the troops of Assyria. The slinger in most

countries where his services were employed was lightly clad, and

reckoned almost as a supernumerary. It is remarkable that in Assyria he

is, at first, completely armed according to Assyrian ideas of

completeness, having a helmet, a coat of mail to the waist, a tunic to

the knees, a close-fitting trouser, and a short boot or greave. The

weapon which distinguishes him appears to have consisted of two pieces

of rope or string, attached to a short leathern strap which received the

stone. [PLATE XCVIII., Fig. 4.] Previous to making his throw, the

slinger seems to have whirled the weapon round his head two or three

times, in order to obtain on increased impetus--a practice which was

also known to the Egyptians and the Romans. With regard to ammunition,

it does not clearly appear how the Assyrian slinger was supplied. He has

no bag like the Hebrew slinger, no _sinus_ like the Roman. Frequently we

see him simply provided with a single extra stone, which he carries in

his left hand. Sometimes, besides this reserve, he has a small heap of

stones at his feet; but whether he has collected them from the field, or

has brought them with him and deposited them where they lie, is not

apparent.

Sennacherib’s archers fall into four classes, two of which may be called

heavy-armed and two light-armed. None of them exactly resemble the

archers of Sargon. The most heavily equipped wears a tunic, a coat of

mail reaching to the waist, a pointed helmet, a close-fitting trouser,

and a short boot or greave. [PLATE XCVIII., Fig. 1.] He is accompanied

by an attendant (or sometimes by two attendants) similarly attired, and

fights behind a large wicker shield or _gerrhon_. A modification of this

costume is worn by the second class, the archers of which have bare

legs, a tunic which seems to open at the side, and a phillibeg. They

fight without the protection of a shield, generally in pairs, who shoot

together. [PLATE XCVIII., Fig. 3.]

The better equipped of the light-armed archers of this period have a

costume which is very striking. Their head-dress consists of a broad

fillet, elaborately patterned, from which there often depends on either

side of the head a large lappet, also richly ornamented, generally of an

oblong-square shape, and terminating in a fringe. [PLATE XCVIII., Fig.

2.] Below this they wear a closely fitting tunic, as short as that worn

by the light-armed archers of Sargon, sometimes patterned, like that,

with squares and gradines, sometimes absolutely plain. The upper part of

this tunic is crossed by two belts of very unusual breadth, which pass

respectively over the right and the left shoulder. There is also a third

broad belt round the waist; and both this and the transverse belts are

adorned with elegant patterns. The phillibeg depends from the girdle,

and is seen in its full extent, hanging either in front or on the right

side. The arms are naked from the shoulder, and the legs from

considerably above the knee, the feet alone being protected by a scanty

sandal. The ordinary short sword is worn at the side, and a quiver is

carried at the back; the latter is sometimes kept in place by means of a

horizontal strap which passes over it and round the body. [PLATE XCIX.,

Fig. 2.]

[Illustration: PLATE 99]

The archers of the lightest equipment wear nothing but a fillet, with or

without lappets, upon the head, and a striped tunic, longer behind than

in front, which extends from the neck to the knees, and is confined at

the waist by a girdle. [PLATE XCIX., Fig. 1.] Their arms, legs, and feet

are bare, they have seldom any sword, and their quiver seems to be

suspended only by a single horizontal strap, like that represented in

[PLATE XCIX., Fig. 2.] They do not appear very often upon the monuments:

when seen, they are interspersed among archers and soldiers of other

classes.

Sennacherib’s foot spearmen are of two classes only. The better armed

have pointed helmets, with lappets protecting the ears, a coat of mail

descending to the waist and also covering all the upper part of the

arms, a tunic opening at the side, a phillibeg, close-fitting trousers,

and greaves of the ordinary character. [PLATE XCIX., Fig. 3.] They carry

a large convex shield, apparently of metal, which covers them almost

from head to foot, and a spear somewhat less than their own height.

Commonly they have a short sword at their right side. Their shield is

often ornamented with rows of bosses towards the centre and around the

edge. It is ordinarily carried in front; but when the warrior is merely

upon the march, he often bears it slung at his back, as in the

accompanying representation. There is reason to suspect that the

spearmen of this description constituted the royal bodyguard. They are

comparatively few in number, and are usually seen in close proximity to

the monarch, or in positions which imply trust, as in the care of

prisoners and of the spoil. They never make the attacks in sieges, and

are rarely observed to be engaged in battle. Where several of them are

seen together, it is almost always in attendance upon the king whom they

constantly precede upon his journeys.

The inferior spearmen of Sennacherib are armed nearly like those of

Sargon. They have crested helmets, plain tunics confined at the waist by

a broad girdle, cross-belts ornamented with circular disks where they

meet in the centre of the breast, and, most commonly, round wicker

shields. The chief points wherein they differ from Sargon’s spearmen is

the following: they usually (though not universally) wear trousers and

greaves; they have sleeves to their tunics, winch descend nearly to the

elbow; and they carry sometimes, instead of the round shield, a long

convex one arched at the top. [PLATE XCIX., fig. 4.] Where they have not

this defence, but the far commoner targe, it is always of larger

dimensions than the targe of Sargon, and is generally surrounded by a

rim. [PLATE XCIX., Fig. 4.] Sometimes it appears to be of metal: but

more often it is of wickerwork, either of the plain construction common

in Sargon’s time, or of one considerably more elaborate.

Among the foot soldiers of Sennacherib we seem to find a corps of

pioneers. They wear the same dress as the better equipped of the

spearmen, but carry in their hands, instead of a spear, a doubled-headed

axe or hatchet, wherewith they clear the ground for the passage and

movements of the army. They work in pairs, one pulling at the tree by

its branches while the other attacks the stem with his weapon.

After Sennacherib’s time we find but few alterations in the equipment of

the foot soldiers. Esarhaddon has left us no sculptures, and in those of

his son and successor, Asshur-bani pal, the costumes of Sennacherib are

for the most part reproduced almost exactly. The chief difference is

that there are not at this time quite so many varieties of equipment,

both archers and spearmen being alike divided into two classes only,

light armed and heavy-armed. The light-armed archers correspond to

Sennacherib’s bowmen of the third class. They have the fillet, the plain

tunic, the cross-belts, the broad girdle, and the phillibeg. They differ

only in having no lappets over the ears and no sandals. The heavy-armed

archers resemble the first class of Sennacherib exactly, except that

they are not seen shooting from behind the _gerrhon_.

In the case of the spearmen, the only novelty consists in the shields.

The spearmen of the heavier equipment, though sometimes they carry the

old convex oval shield, more often have one which is made straight at

the bottom, and rounded only at top. [PLATE C., Fig. 1. ] The spearmen

of the lighter equipment have likewise commonly a shield of this shape,

but it is of wicker work instead of metal, like that borne occasionally

by the light-armed spearmen of Sennacherib.

[Illustration: PLATE 100]

Besides spearmen and archers, we see among the foot soldiers of

Asshur-bani-pal, slingers, mace-bearers, and men armed with battle axes.

For the slingers Sennacherib’s heavy equipment has been discarded; and

they wear nothing but a plain tunic, with a girdle and cross-belts.

[PLATE C., Fig. 2.] The mace-bearers and men with axes have the exact

dress of Asshur-bani-pal’s heavy-armed spearmen, and may possibly be

spearmen who have broken or lost their weapons. It makes, however,

against this view, that they have no shields, which spearmen always

carry. Perhaps, therefore, we must conclude that towards the close of

the empire, besides spearmen, slingers, and archers, there were distinct

corps of mace-bearers and axe-bearers.

The arms used by the Assyrians have been mentioned, and to a certain

extent described, in the foregoing remarks upon the various classes of

their soldiers. Some further details may, however, be now added on their

character and on the variety observable in them.

The common Assyrian pointed helmet has been sufficiently described

already, and has received abundant illustration both in the present and

in former chapters. It was at first regarded as Scythic in character;

but Mr. Layard long ago observed that the resemblance which it bears to

the Scythian cap is too slight to prove any connection. That cap

appears, whether we follow the foreign, or the native representations of

it, to have been of felt, whereas the Assyrian pointed helmet was made

of metal: it was much taller than the Assyrian head-dress, and it was

less upright. [PLATE C, Fig. 3.]

The pointed helmet admitted of but few varieties. In its simplest form

it was a plain conical casque, with one or two rings round the base, and

generally with a half-disk in front directly over the forehead. [PLATE

C. Fig. 4.] Sometimes, however, there was appended to it a falling

curtain covered with metal scales, whereby the chin, neck, ears, and

back of the head were protected. More often it had, in lieu of this

effectual but cumbrous guard, a mere lappet or cheek-piece, consisting

of a plate of metal, attached to the rim, which descended over the ears

in the form of a half-oval or semicircle. If we may judge by the remains

actually found, the chief material of the helmet was iron; copper was

used only for the rings and the half-disk in front, which were inlaid

into the harder metal.

As if to compensate themselves for the uniformity to which they

submitted in this instance, the Assyrians indulged in a variety of

crested helmets. [PLATE. C., Fig. 5.] We cannot positively say that they

invented the crest; but they certainly dealt with it in the free spirit

which is usually seen where a custom is of home growth and not a foreign

importation. They used either a plain metal crest, or one surmounted by

tuffs of hair; and they either simply curved the crest forwards over the

front of the helmet, or extended it and carried it back-wards also. In

this latter case they generally made the curve a complete semicircle,

while occasionally they were content with a small segment, less even

than a quarter of a circle. They also varied considerably the shape of

the lappet over the ear, and the depth of the helmet behind and before

the lappet.

[Illustration: PLATE 101]

Assyrian coats of mail were of three sizes, and of two different

constructions. In the earlier times they were worn long, descending

either to the feet or to the knees; and at this period they seem to have

been composed simply of successive rows of similar iron scales sewn on

to a shirt of linen or felt. [PLATE CI., Fig. 1.] Under the later

monarchs the coat of mail reached no lower than the waist, and it was

composed of alternate bands of dissimilar arrangement and perhaps of

different material. Mr. Layard suggests that at this time the scales,

which were larger than before, were “fastened to bands of iron or

copper.” But it is perhaps more probable that scales of the old

character alternated in rows with scales of a new shape and smaller

dimensions. [PLATE CI., Fig. 2.] The old scales were oblong, squared at

one end and rounded at the other, very much resembling the Egyptian.

They were from two to three inches, or more, in length, and were placed

side by side, so that their greater length corresponded with the height

of the wearer. The new scales seem to have been not more than an inch

long; they appear to have been pointed at one end, and to have been laid

horizontally, each a little overlapping its fellow. It was probably

found that this construction, while possessing quite as much strength as

the other, was more favorable to facility of movement.

Remains of armor belonging to the second period have been discovered in

the Assyrian ruins. The scales are frequently embossed over their whole

surface with groups of figures and fanciful ornaments. The small scales

of the first period have no such elaborate ornamentation, being simply

embossed in the centre with a single straight line, which is of copper

inlaid into the iron.

The Assyrian coat of mail, like the Egyptian, had commonly a short

sleeve, extending about half way down to the elbow. [PLATE CI.. Fig. 1.]

This was either composed of scales set similarly to those of the rest of

the cuirass, or of two, three, or more rows placed at right angles to

the others. The greater part of the arm was left without any protection.

A remarkable variety existed in the form and construction of the

Assyrian shields. The most imposing kind is that which has been termed

the _gerrhon_, from its apparent resemblance to the Persian shield

mentioned under that name by Herodotus. [PLATE CI.. Fig. 1.] This was a

structure in wickerwork, which equalled or exceeded the warrior in

height, and which was broad enough to give shelter to two or even three

men. In shape it was either an oblong square, or such a square with a

projection at top, which stood out at right angles to the body of the

shield; or, lastly, and most usually, it curved inwards from a certain

height, gradually narrowing at the same time, and finally ending in a

point. Of course a shield of this vast size, even although formed of a

light material, was too heavy to be very readily carried upon the arm.

The plan adopted was to rest it upon the ground, on which it was

generally held steady by a warrior armed with sword or spear, while his

comrade, whose weapon was the bow, discharged his arrows from behind its

shelter. Its proper place was in sieges, where the roof-like structure

at the top was especially useful in warding off the stones and other

missiles which the besieged threw down upon their assailants. We

sometimes see it employed by single soldiers, who lean the point against

the wall of the place, and, ensconcing themselves beneath the penthouse

thus improvised, proceed to carry on the most critical operations of the

siege in almost complete security.

Modifications of this shield, reducing it to a smaller and more portable

size, were common in the earlier times, when among the shields most

usually borne we find one of wicker-work oblong-square in shape, and

either perfectly fiat, or else curving slightly inwards both at top and

at bottom. This shield was commonly about half the height of a man, or a

little more; it was often used as a protection for two, but must have

been scanty for that purpose.

Round shields were commoner in Assyria than any others. They were used

by most of those who fought in chariots, by the early monarchs’ personal

attendants, by the cross-belted spear-men, and by many of the spearmen

who guarded archers. In the most ancient times they seem to have been

universally made of solid metal, and consequently they were small,

perhaps not often exceeding two feet, or two feet and a half, in

diameter. They were managed by means of a very simple handle, placed in

the middle of the shield at the back, and fastened to it by studs or

nails, which was not passed over the arm but grasped by the hand. The

rim was bent inwards, so as to form a deep groove all round the edge.

The material of which these shields were composed was in some cases

certainly bronze; in others it may have been iron: in a few silver, or

even gold. Some metal shields were perfectly plain; others exhibited a

number of concentric rings, others again were inlaid or embossed with

tasteful and elaborate patterns.

[Illustration: PLATE 102]

Among the later Assyrians the round metal shield seems to have been

almost entirely disused, its place being supplied by a wicker buckler of

the same shape, with a rim round the edge made of solid wood or of

metal, and sometimes with a boss in the centre. [PLATE CII., Fig. 1.]

The weight of the metal shield must have been considerable; and this

both limited their size and made it difficult to move them with

rapidity. With the change of material we perceive a decided increase of

magnitude, the diameter of the wicker buckler being often fully half the

warrior’s height, or not much short of three feet.

Convex shields, generally of an oblong form, were also in common use

during the later period, and one kind is found in the very earliest

sculptures. This is of small dimensions and of a clumsy make. Its curve

is slight, and it is generally ornamented with a perpendicular row of

spikes or teeth, in the centre of which we often see the head of a lion.

[PLATE CII., Fig. 2.]

The convex shields of later date were very much larger than these.

[PLATE CIII., Fig. 3.] They were sometimes square at bottom and rounded

at top, in which case they were either made of wickerwork, or

(apparently) of metal. These latter had generally a boss in the centre,

and both this and the edge of the shield were often ornamented with a

row of rosettes or rings. Shields of this shape were from four to five

feet in height, and protected the warrior from the head to the knee. On

a march they were often worn upon the back, like the convex shield of

the Egyptians, which they greatly resembled.

[Illustration: PLATE 103]

The more ordinary convex shield was of an oval form, like the convex

shield of the Greeks, but larger, and with a more prominent centre.

[PLATE CIII., Fig. 1.] In its greater diameter it must often have

exceeded five feet, though no doubt sometimes it was smaller. It was

generally ornamented with narrow bands round the edge and round the boss

at the centre, the space between the bands being frequently patterned

with ring; or otherwise. Like the other form of convex shield, it could

be slung at the back, and was so carried on marches, on crossing rivers,

and other similar occasions.

The offensive arms certainly used by the Assyrians were the bow, the

spear, the sword, the mace, the sling, the axe or hatchet, and the

dagger. They may also have occasionally made use of the javelin, which

is sometimes seen among the arrows of a quiver. But the actual

employment of this weapon in war has not yet been found upon the

bas-reliefs. If faithfully represented, it must have been very

short,--scarcely, if at all, exceeding three feet. [PLATE CIII., Fig.

2.]

Assyrian bows were of two kinds, curved and angular. Compared with the

Egyptian, and with the bows used by the archers of the middle ages, they

were short, the greatest length of the strung bow being about four feet.

They seem to have been made of a single piece of wood, which in the

angular bow was nearly of the same thickness throughout, but in the

curved one tapered gradually towards the two extremities. At either end

was a small knob or button, in the later times often carved into the

representation of a duck’s head. [PLATE CIII, Fig. 3.] Close above this

was a notch or groove, whereby the string was held in place. The mode of

stringing was one still frequently practised in the East. The bowman

stooped, and placing his right knee against the middle of the bow on its

inner side, pressed it downwards, at the same time drawing the two ends

of the bow upwards with his two hands. [PLATE CIII, Fig. 4.] A comrade

stood by, and, when the ends were brought sufficiently near, slipped the

string over the knob into the groove, where it necessarily remained. The

bend of the bow, thus strung, was slight. When full drawn, however, it

took the shape of a half-moon, which shows that it must have possessed

great elasticity. [PLATE CIV., Fig. 4.] The bow was known to be full

drawn when the head of the arrow touched the archer’s left hand.

[Illustration: PLATE 104]

The Assyrian angular bow was of smaller size than the curved one. It was

not often carried unless as a reserve by those who also possessed the

larger and better weapon. [PLATE CIV., Fig. 5.]

Bows were but seldom unstrung. When not in use, they were carried

strung, the archer either holding them by the middle with his left hand,

or putting his arm through them, and letting them rest upon his

shoulders, or finally carrying them at his back in a bow case. [PLATE

CIV., Fig. I. ] The bow-case was a portion of the quiver, as frequently

with the Greeks, and held only the lower half of the bow, the upper

portion projecting from it.

Quivers were carried by foot and horse archers at their backs, in a

diagonal position, so that the arrows could readily be drawn from them

over the right shoulder. They were commonly slung in this position by a

strap of their own, attached to two rings, one near the top and the

other near the bottom of the quiver, which the archer slipped over his

left arm and his head. Sometimes, however, this strap seems to have been

wanting, and the quiver was either thrust through one of the

cross-belts, or attached by a strap which passed horizontally round the

body a little above the girdle. [PLATE CIV.,Fig. 2.] The archers who

rode in chariots carried their quivers at the chariot’s side, in the

manner which has been already described and illustrated.

The ornamentation of quivers was generally elaborate. [PLATE CIV., Fig.

3.] Rosettes and bands constituted their most usual adornment; but

sometimes these gave place to designs of a more artistic character, as

wild bulls, griffins, and other mythic figures. Several examples of a

rich type have been already given in the representations of chariots,

but none exhibit this peculiarity. One further specimen of a chariot

quiver is therefore appended, which is among the most tasteful hitherto

discovered. [PLATE CIV., Fig. 3. ]

The quivers of the foot and horse archers were less richly adorned than

those of the bowmen who rode in chariots, but still they were in almost

every case more or less patterned. The rosette and the band here too

constituted the chief resource of the artist, who, however, often

introduced with good effect other well-known ornaments, as the

guilloche, the boss and cross, the zigzag, etc.

Sometimes the quiver had an ornamented rod attached to it, which

projected beyond the arrows and terminated in a pomegranate blossom or

other similar carving. [PLATE CV. Fig. 1]. To this rod was attached the

rings which received the quiver strap, a triple tassel hanging from them

at the point of attachment. The strap was probably of leather, and

appears to have been twisted or plaited.

[Illustration: PLATE 105]

It is uncertain whether the material of the quivers was wood or metal.

As, however, no remains of quivers have been discovered in any of the

ruins, while helmets, shields, diggers, spear-heads, and arrow-heads

have been found in tolerable abundance, we may perhaps assume that they

were of the more fragile substance, which would account for their

destruction. In this case their ornamentation may have been either by

carving or painting, the bosses and rosettes being perhaps in some cases

of metal, mother-of-pearl, or ivory. Ornaments of this kind were

discovered by hundreds at Nimrud in a chamber which contained arms of

many descriptions. Quivers have in some cases a curious rounded head,

which seems to have been a lid or cap used for covering the arrows. They

have also, occasionally, instead of this, a kind of bag at their top,

which falls backwards, and is ornamented with tassels. [PLATE CV., Fig.

2.] Both these constructions, however, are exceptional, a very large

majority of the quivers being open, and having the feathered ends of the

arrows projecting from them.

There is nothing remarkable in the Assyrian arrows except their perfect

finish and completeness in all that constitutes the excellence of such a

weapon. The shaft was thin and straight, and was probably of reed, or of

some light and tough wood. The head was of metal, either of bronze or

iron, and was generally diamond-shaped, like a miniature spear-head.

[PLATE CV., Fig. 4. ] It was flattish, and for greater strength had

commonly a strongly raised line down the centre. The lower end was

hollowed, and the shaft was inserted into it. The notching and

feathering of the shaft were carefully attended to. It is doubtful

whether three feathers were used, as by ourselves and by the Egyptians,

or two only as by many nations. The fact that we never see more than

two feathers upon the monuments cannot be considered decisive, since the

Assyrian artists, from their small knowledge of perspective, would have

been unable to represent all three feathers. So far as we can judge from

the representations, it would seem that the feathers were glued to the

wood exactly as they are with ourselves. The notch was somewhat large,

projecting beyond the line of the shaft--a construction rendered

necessary by the thickness of the bowstring., which was seldom less than

of the arrow it-self. [PLATE CV., Fig. 5.]

The mode of drawing the bow was peculiar. It was drawn neither to the

ear, nor to the breast, but to the shoulder. In the older sculptures the

hand that draws it is represented in a curiously cramped and unnatural

position, which can scarcely be supposed to be true to nature. But in

the later bas-reliefs greater accuracy seems to have been attained, and

there we probably see the exact mode in which the shooting was actually

managed. The arrow was taken below the feathers by the thumb and

forefinger of the right hand, the forefinger bent down upon it in the

way represented in the accompanying illustration, and the notch being

then placed upon the string, the arrow was drawn backwards by the thumb

and forefinger only, the remaining three fingers taking no part in the

operation. [PLATE CVI., Fig. 1.] The bow was grasped by the left hand

between the fingers and the muscle of the thumb, the thumb itself being

raised, and the arrow made to pass between it and the bow, by which it

was kept in place and prevented from slipping. The arrow was then drawn

till the cold metal head touched the forefinger of the left hand, upon

which the right hand quitted its hold, and the shaft sped on its way. To

save the left arm from being bruised or cut by the bowstring, a guard,

often simply yet effectively ornamented, was placed upon it, at one end

passing round the thumb and at the other round the arm a little above

the elbow. [PLATE CVI., Fig. 2.]

[Illustration: PLATE 106]

The Assyrians had two kinds of spears, one a comparatively short weapon,

varying from five to six feet in length, with which they armed a

portion of their foot soldiers, the other a weapon nine or ten feet

long, which was carried by most of their cavalry. The shaft seems in

both cases to have been of wood, and the head was certainly of metal,

either bronze or iron. [PLATE CVI., Fig. 3.] It was most usually

diamond-shaped, but sometimes the side angles were rounded off, and the

contour became that of an elongated pear. [PLATE CVI., Fig. 4.] In other

instances, the jambs of the spear-head were exceedingly short, and the

point long and tapering. The upper end of the shaft was sometimes

weighted, and it was often carved into some ornamental form, as a

fir-cone or a pomegranate blossom, while in the earlier times it was

further occasionally adorned with streamers. [PLATE CVI., Fig. 4.] The

spear of the Assyrians seems never to have been thrown, like that of the

Greeks, but was only used to thrust with, as a pike.

The common sword of the Assyrians was a short straight weapon, like the

sword of the Egyptians, or the _acinaces_ of the Persians. It was worn

at the left side, generally slung by a belt of its own which was passed

over the right shoulder, but sometimes thrust through the girdle or

(apparently) through the armor. It had a short rounded handle, more or

less ornamented [PLATE CVII.. Fig. 1], but without any cross-bar or

guard, and a short blade which tapered gradually from the handle to the

point. The swordsman commonly thrust with his weapon, but he could cut

with it likewise, for it was with this arm that the Assyrian warrior was

wont to decapitate his fallen enemy. The sheath of the sword was almost

always tastefully designed, and sometimes possessed artistic excellence

of a high order. [PLATE CVII., Fig. 3.] The favorite terminal ornament

consisted of two lions clasping one another, with their heads averted

and their mouths agape. Above this, patterns in excellent taste usually

adorned the scabbard, which moreover exhibited occasionally groups of

figures, sacred trees, and other mythological objects.

[Illustration: PLATE 107]

Instead of the short sword, the earlier warriors had a weapon of a

considerable length. This was invariably slung at the side by a

cross-belt passing over the shoulder. In its ornamentation it closely

resembled the later short sword, but its hilt was longer and more

tasteful.

One or two instances occur where the sword of an Assyrian warrior is

represented as curved slightly. The sheath in these cases is plain, and

terminates in a button. [PLATE CVII, Fig. 5.]

The Assyrian mace was a short thin weapon, and must either have been

made of a very tough wood, or--and this is more probable of metal.

[PLATE CVIII., Fig. 7.] It had an ornamented head, which was sometimes

very beautifully modelled and generally a strap or string at the lower

end, by which it could be grasped with greater firmness. Foot archers

frequently carried it in battle, especially those who were in close

attendance upon the king’s person. It seems, however, not to have been

often used as a warlike weapon until the time of the latest sculptures,

when we see it wielded, generally with both hands, by a certain number

of the combatants. In peace it was very commonly borne by the royal

attendants, and it seems also to have been among the weapons used by the

monarch himself, for whom it is constantly carried by one of those who

wait most closely upon his person. [PLATE., CVIII., Fig. I.]

[Illustration: PLATE 108]

The battle-axe was a weapon but rarely employed by the Assyrians. It is

only in the very latest sculptures and in a very few instances that we

find axes represented as used by the warriors for any other purpose

besides the felling of trees. Where they are seen in use against the

enemy, the handle is short, the head somewhat large, and the weapon

wielded with one hand. Battle-axes had heads of two kinds. [PLATE

CVIII., Fig. 1.] Some were made with two blades, like the _bipennis_ of

the Romans. and the _labra_ of the Lydians and Carians; others more

nearly resembled the weapons used by our own knights in the middle ages,

having a single blade, and a mere ornamental point on the other side of

the haft.

The dagger was worn by the Assyrian kings at almost all times in their

girdles, and was further often assigned to the mythic winged beings,

hawk headed or human-headed, which occur so frequently in the

sculptures; but it seems to have been very seldom carried by subjects.

It had commonly a straight handle, slightly concave, and very richly

chased, exhibiting the usual Assyrian patterns, rosettes, chevrons,

guilloches, pine-cones, and the like. [PLATE CVII., Fig. 6.] Sometimes,

however, it was still more artistically shaped, being cast into the form

of a horse’s head and neck. In this case there was occasionally a chain

attached at one end to the horse’s chin, and at the other to the bottom

of his neck, which, passing outside the hand, would give it a firmer

hold on the weapon. The sheaths of daggers seem generally to have been

plain, or nearly so, but occasionally they terminated in the head of an

animal, from whose mouth depended a tassel. [PLATE CVIII., Fig. 2.]

Though the Assyrian troops were not marshalled by the aid of standards,

like the Roman and the Egyptian, yet still a kind of standard is

occasionally to be recognized in the bas-reliefs. This consists of a

pole of no great height, fixed upright at the front of a chariot,

between the charioteer and the warrior, and carrying at the top a

circular frame, within which are artistic representations of gods or

sacred animals. Two bulls, back to back, either trotting or running at

speed, are a favorite device. Above there sometimes stands a figure in a

horned cap, shooting his arrows against the enemy. Occasionally only one

bull is represented, and the archer shoots standing upon the bull’s

back. Below the circular framework are minor ornaments, as lions’ and

bulls’ heads, or streamers adorned with tassels. [PLATE CVIII., Fig. 2.]

We do not obtain much information from the monuments with respect to the

military organization or the the tactics of the Assyrians. It is clear,

however, that they had advanced beyond the first period in military

matters, when men fight in a confused mass of mingled horse, foot, and

chariots, heavy-armed and light-armed spear-men, archers, and stingers,

each standing and moving as mere chance may determine. It is even

certain that they had advanced beyond the second period, when the

phalanx order of battle is adopted, the confused mass being replaced by

a single serried body presenting its best armed troops to the enemy, and

keeping in the rear, to add their weight to the charge, the weaker and

more imperfectly protected. It was not really left for Cyaxares the Mede

to be the first to organize an Asiatic army--to divide the troops into

companies and form distinct bodies of the spearmen, the archers, and the

cavalry. The Assyrian troops were organized in this way, at least from

the time of Sennacherib, on whose sculptures we find, in the first

place, bodies of cavalry on the march unaccompanied by infantry;

secondly, engagements where cavalry only are acting against the enemy;

thirdly, long lines of spearmen on foot marching in double file, and

sometimes divided into companies; and, fourthly, archers drawn up

together, but similarly divided into companies, each distinguished by

its own uniform. We also meet with a corps of pioneers, wearing a

uniform and armed only with a hatchet, and with bodies of slingers, who

are all armed and clothed alike. If, in the battles and the sieges of

this time, the troops seem to be to a great extent confused together, we

may account for it partly by the inability of the Assyrian artists to

represent bodies of troops in perspective, partly by their not aiming at

an actual, but rather at a typical representation of events, and partly

also by their fondness for representing, not the preparation for battle

or its first shock, but the rout and flight of the enemy and their own

hasty pursuit of them.

The wars of the Assyrians, like those of ancient Rome, consisted of

annual inroads into the territories of their neighbors, repeated year

after year, till the enemy was exhausted, sued for peace, and admitted

the suzerainty of the more powerful nation. The king in person usually

led forth his army, in spring or early summer, when the mountain passes

were opened, and, crossing his own borders, invaded some one or other of

the adjacent countries. The monarch himself invariably rode forth in his

chariot, arrayed in his regal robes, and with the tiara upon his head:

he was accompanied by numerous attendants, and generally preceded and

followed by the spearmen of the Royal Guard, and a detachment of

horse-archers. Conspicuous among the attendants were the charioteer who

managed the reins, and the parasol-bearer, commonly a eunuch, who,

standing in the chariot behind the monarch, held the emblem of

sovereignty over his head. A bow-bearer, a quiver-bearer, and a

mace-bearer were usually also in attendance, walking before or behind

the chariot of the king, who, however, did not often depend for arms

wholly upon them, but carried a bow in his left hand, and one or more

arrows in his right, while he had a further store of the latter either

in or outside his chariot. Two or three led horses were always at hand,

to furnish a means of escape in any difficulty. The army, marshalled in

its several corps, in part preceded the royal _cortege_, in part

followed at a little distance behind it.

On entering the enemy’s country, if a wooded tract presented itself, the

corps of pioneers was thrown out in advance, and cleared away the

obstructions. When a river was reached too deep to be forded, the horses

were detached from the royal and other chariots by grooms and

attendants; the chariots themselves were embarked upon boats and rowed

across the stream; while the horses, attached by ropes to a post near

the stern of the boat, swam after it. The horses of the cavalry were

similarly drawn across by their riders. The troops, both cavalry and

infantry, and the attendants, a very numerous body, swam the stream,

generally upon inflated skins, which they placed under them, holding the

neck in their left hand, and sometimes increasing the inflation as they

went by applying the orifice at the top of the neck to their mouths.

[PLATE CVIII., Fig. 3.] We have no direct evidence as to the mode in

which the baggage of an army, which must have been very considerable,

was conveyed, either along the general line of route, or when it was

necessary to cross a river. We may conjecture that in the latter case it

was probably placed upon rafts supported on inflated skins, such as

those which conveyed stones from distant quarries to be used in the

Assyrian buildings. In the former, we may perhaps assume that the

conveyance was chiefly by beasts of burden, camels and asses, as the

author of the book of Judith imagined. Carts may have been used to some

extent; since they were certainly employed to convey back to Assyria the

spoil of the conquered nations.

[Illustration: PLATE 109]

It does not appear whether the army generally was provided with tents or

not. Possibly the bulk of the soldiers may have bivouacked in the open

field, unless when they were able to obtain shelter in towns or villages

taken from the enemy. Tents, however, were certainly provided for the

monarch and his suite. [PLATE CIX., Fig. 1.] Like the tents of the

Romans, these appear to have been commonly pitched within a fortified

enclosure, which was of an oval shape. They were disposed in rows, and

were all nearly similar in construction and form, the royal tent being

perhaps distinguished from the others by a certain amount of

ornamentation and by a slight superiority of size. The material used for

the covering was probably felt. All the tents were made open to the sky

in the centre, but closed in at either extremity with a curious

semicircular top. [PLATE CIX., Fig. 1.] The two tops were unequal of

size. Internally, either both of them, or at any rate the larger ones,

were supported by a central pole, which threw out branches in different

directions resembling the branches of a tree or the spokes of a parasol.

Sometimes the walls of the tent had likewise the support of poles, which

were kept in place by ropes passed obliquely from the top of each to the

ground in front of them, and then firmly secured by pegs. Each tent had

a door, square-headed, which was placed at the side, near the end which

had the smaller covering. The furniture of tents consisted of tables,

couches, footstools, and domestic utensils of various kinds. [PLATE

CIX., Fig. 1.] Within the fortified enclosure, but outside the tents,

were the chariot and horses of the monarch, an altar where sacrifice

could be made, and a number of animals suitable for food, as oxen,

sheep, and goats.

It appears that occasionally the advance of the troops was along a road.

Ordinarily, however, they found no such convenience, but had to press

forward through woods and over mountains as they best could. Whatever

the obstructions, the chariot of the monarch was in some way or other

conveyed across them, though it is difficult to suppose that he could

have always remained, as he is represented, seated in it. Probably he

occasionally dismounted, and made use of one of the led horses by which

he was always accompanied, while sometimes he even condescended to

proceed on foot. [PLATE CIX., Fig. 2.] Tile use of palanquins or litters

seem not to have been known to the Assyrians, though it was undoubtedly

very ancient in Asia; but the king was sometimes carried on men’s

shoulders, seated on his throne in the way that we see the enthroned

gods borne in many of the sculptures.

The first object in entering a country was to fight, if possible, a

pitched battle with the inhabitants. The Assyrians were always confident

of victory in such an encounter, being better armed, better disciplined,

and perhaps of stronger frames than any of their neighbors. There is no

evidence to show how their armies were drawn up, or how the troops were

handled in an engagement; but it would seem that in most cases, after a

longer or a shorter resistance, the enemy broke and fled, sometimes

throwing away his arms, at other tunes fighting as he retired, always

vigorously pursued by horse and foot, and sometimes driven headlong into

a river. Quarter was not very often given in a battle. The barbarous

practice of rewarding those who carried back to camp the heads of foemen

prevailed; and this led to the massacre in many cases even of the

wounded, the disarmed, and the unresisting, though occasionally quarter

was given, more especially to generals and other leading personages whom

it was of importance to take alive. Even while the engagement continued,

it would seem that soldiers might quit the ranks, decapitate a fallen

foe, and carry off his head to the rear, without incurring any reproof;

and it is certain that, so soon as the engagement was over, the whole

army turned to beheading the fallen, using for this purpose the short

sword which almost every warrior carried at his left side. A few unable

to obtain heads, were forced to be content with gathering the spoils of

the slain and of the fled, especially their arms, such as quivers, hews,

helmets, and the like; while their more fortunate comrades, proceeding

to an appointed spot in the rear, exhibited the tokens of their valor,

or of their good luck, to the royal scribes, who took an exact account

of the amount, of the spoil, and of the number of the enemy killed.

When the enemy could no longer resist in the open field, he usually fled

to his strongholds. Almost all the nations with whom the Assyrians waged

their wars possessed fortified cities, or castles, which seem to have

been places constructed with a good deal of skill, and possessed of no

inconsiderable strength. According to the representations of the

sculptures, they were all nearly similar in character, the defences

consisting of high battlemented walls, pierced with loopholes or windows

towards their upper part, and flanked at intervals along their whole

course by towers. [PLATE CIX., Fig. 3.] Often they possessed two or more

_enceintes_, which in the bas-reliefs are represented one above the

other; and in these cases the outermost circuit was sometimes a mere

plain continuous wall, as in the illustration. They were entered by

large gateways, most commonly arched, and closed by two huge gates or

doors, which completely filled up the aperture. Occasionally, however,

the gateways were square-headed, as in the illustration, where there

occurs, moreover, a very curious ornamentation of the battlements.

[PLATE CX., Fig. 1.]

[Illustration: PLATE 110]