HISTORY
OF
RECENT DISCOVERIES AT CYRENE.
[Illustration: FRONTISPIECE
EASTERN END OF THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS OF CYRENE
E. A. Porcher, del., T. Picken, lith.
London. Published July 1st. 1864 by Day & Son, Lithographers to the
Queen &c., Gate Street Lincoln’s Inn Fields.
Day & Son, Lithrs. to the Queen]
HISTORY
OF THE
RECENT DISCOVERIES AT CYRENE,
MADE DURING AN
EXPEDITION TO THE CYRENAICA IN 1860-61,
UNDER THE AUSPICES OF HER MAJESTY’S GOVERNMENT.
BY
CAPTAIN R. MURDOCH SMITH, R.E.
AND
COMMANDER E. A. PORCHER. R.N.
DAY & SON,
LITHOGRAPHERS TO THE QUEEN AND TO H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES,
6, GATE STREET, LINCOLN’S INN FIELDS, LONDON, W.C.
1864.
[_All rights of Translation and Reproduction are reserved._]
TO
HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF SOMERSET, K.G.
FIRST LORD OF THE ADMIRALTY,
IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THE PROMPT AND VALUABLE ASSISTANCE
AFFORDED TO THE AUTHORS,
DURING THE PROSECUTION OF THEIR LABOURS,
THIS VOLUME
IS RESPECTFULLY AND GRATEFULLY DEDICATED.
PREFACE.
* * * * *
THE Cyrenaica, although bordering on the shores of the Mediterranean,
and very little removed from the most civilized nations in Europe, has
been rarely visited by travellers, either for pleasure or antiquarian
research, owing perhaps to the supposed difficulty presented by the
country itself, and by the character of the people inhabiting it.
The former, however, is not only beautiful, but fruitful. The number of
olive-trees, now entirely neglected, to be seen everywhere, shows that
at one time the inhabitants cultivated this plant to a considerable
extent, and enjoyed the advantages of superior husbandry; but this is no
longer the case, and the ground now only yields scanty crops of wheat
and barley, and indifferent pasture for the rearing of cattle, sheep,
and goats. Were the character of the people different and any authority
acknowledged amongst them, the present desolation would give place to a
different state of things; but this change can hardly at present be
expected; and so long as the sentence, passed ages ago, “his hand shall
be against every man, and every man’s hand against him,” remains
unrevoked, the same restlessness under control and indifference to all
social comfort, which now exist, will still characterize the
inhabitants. The natural beauty of the country, however, is still
unaltered, and plains and hills, well wooded in many parts, meet the eye
in every direction, and render it one of the finest provinces in
Northern Africa.
Another reason perhaps why Cyrene has not been explored so much as other
localities, is that there are few remains of its former grandeur visible
above the ground. Were the vast piles of magnificent architecture now
gathered in confused heaps on the sand-banks at Thebes and Luxor to be
seen at Cyrene, travellers, no doubt, would have made it a greater
object of attention than they have done. But all the splendour of the
ancient Cyrenaica, with few exceptions, lies buried below the surface of
the earth; and here, over the palaces of kings and the remains of former
magnificence, the Arabs pitch their tents and the camels browse.
Before commencing the narrative recorded in the following pages, it will
be interesting to mention the principal travellers who have visited the
country for scientific purposes during the last two centuries.
The first we hear of was Lemaire, who, during the time he was the French
Consul at Tripoli, explored the country in 1706, by direction of Louis
XIV. He was followed by Paul Lucas, who visited it twice, in 1710 and
1723. After him Doctor Thomas Shaw travelled, in 1738, over those parts,
as well as a considerable portion of North Africa, and left an
interesting account of his discoveries, and of the manners and customs
of the inhabitants.
A French gentleman, Monsieur Granger, a physician by profession,
accomplished the overland journey from Egypt to Cyrene in 1760, in
company with a robber chief, to whom he promised a high reward on his
return. Under this dangerous protection he copied several of the
inscriptions that were found there; but these, with his journal, were
unfortunately lost before his return to Europe. Our celebrated
Abyssinian traveller James Bruce also visited parts of the country
1768-72.
In the present century the first person who visited Cyrene was an
Italian, Doctor Cervelli. In 1812, the Pacha of Tripoli, wishing to
punish the revolt of his son, the Governor of Derna, sent an armed force
into the province, and Doctor Cervelli accompanied the expedition, and
collected during his journey some interesting information, which was
published by the French Geographical Society. A few years after, in
1817, the same Pacha despatched a second expedition against some
turbulent Arabs at Merdj (Barca), and this party was accompanied by
another Italian, Della Cella, who travelled as Physician attendant on
the Bey, and published an account of his travels, which was translated
into English in 1822; but his hurried visit did not allow him sufficient
time to collect much valuable information. Cyrene was also visited by P.
Pacifique, a missionary from Tripoli, who added some fresh information
to that given by Della Cella.
In 1820, a Prussian, General Minutoli, formed a project of making a
complete tour of the Cyrenaica, and was accompanied by savants and
artists to make his journey of greater importance. As soon as he had
arrived at the foot of Mount Catabathmus, which is situated above half-
way from Egypt, he lost three of his Europeans, and this misfortune and
the obstacles the Arabs opposed to his party so disheartened him that
he returned to Alexandria without accomplishing his object.
The ill-success of the Prussian general left the country still
insufficiently explored for scientific purposes, and this induced two
travellers, Captain Beechey and M. Pacho, to undertake the task.
Captain Beechey and his brother started from Tripoli by land, making the
circuit of the Syrtis Major, and explored the whole of the country in
1821-2, drew very correct plans, and fixed the astronomical positions of
all the principal towns, and wrote a detailed account of their travels.
A surveying vessel at the same time examined and laid down the coast-
line.
This party had hardly returned when Pacho, a French artist, visited the
country, in 1824-6, and his travels were published in Paris by M. Didot
in 1827, in a quarto volume of text, and another containing 100 well-
executed plates in folio. He was not aware, when he started, what
discoveries Captain Beechey and his brother had made, as their work was
not published for some years afterwards; and therefore it was a matter
of great regret to him to find on his return that many of his own
researches, which had cost him so much labour and trouble, had been
anticipated by his predecessors.
Since these two principal works of Captain Beechey and M. Pacho were
published, M. Delaporte, the French Consul at Tangier, has contributed
to the Geographical Society of Paris the result of his exploration, and
M. Vattier de Bourville, during the time he was French Consular Agent at
Benghazi, in 1848-9, collected a large number of vases and terra-cotta
ornaments from the tombs at that place, which are now deposited in the
Louvre, and also made a short visit to Cyrene.
The intrepid traveller Dr. Barth passed over this country before he
commenced his more hazardous expedition to Timbuctoo and the central
regions of Africa; and lastly Mr. James Hamilton, in 1855-6, who
afterwards proceeded inland from Benghazi, across part of the Sahara, to
the oases of Augila and Siwah, on his way to Egypt.
Few of the travellers just mentioned remained any time in the country,
and it was quite evident that no attempt at excavation to any extent had
ever been made before our arrival, as sculpture in excellent
preservation was found a few feet under the surface, on the most
promising sites, where people would naturally be led to commence their
researches.
The valuable works of Beechey and Pacho before mentioned have left but
little for future visitors to record, and as all the principal monuments
left standing have been accurately drawn and described, it would be
superfluous for us to go over the same ground again. The following pages
will therefore be principally devoted to an account of the excavations
that were carried on by my companion and myself and will also contain a
description of the site of Cyrene, its Necropolis, and the surrounding
country, together with a brief notice of the sculptures discovered.
The ten plates of unedited Greek inscriptions have been lithographed in
fac-simile from impressions of the originals reduced by photography, and
a selection from the sculpture has been photographed by Mr. Francis
Bedford.
In the absence of Captain Smith, who is at present professionally
employed in Persia, I take this opportunity of thanking the Government
authorities and the Trustees of the British Museum for their assistance
from the commencement of the undertaking until its close, and also to
the officers and crews of the _Assurance_ and _Melpomene_, who
cheerfully and efficiently carried out the orders of the Admiralty in
the removal of the sculpture from Cyrene to the place of embarkation.
Also to Mr. C. T. Newton for his useful advice during the time we were
in the country, and for his valuable assistance whilst these pages were
going through the press; and to Mr. W. S. W. Vaux, of the British
Museum.
E. A. PORCHER.
CONTENTS.
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
HISTORY OF CYRENE.
Derivation of the names Cyrenaica and Pentapolis — Causes which led to
the country being colonized by a body of Dorians from Thera — Battus,
the leader of this band, first takes possession of the island of Platea,
and afterwards removes to Cyrene — Coalescence of the settlers with the
Libyans — The dynasty of the Battiadæ — Constitution drawn up by
Demonax, and granted by Battus III. — Attempt to overthrow it by his
successor, Arcesilaus III., aided by his mother Pheretime, which is
unsuccessful, and ends by his being murdered at Barca — The town is
besieged by Aryandes, Satrap of Egypt, and taken by treachery — Brutal
revenge of Pheretime on the inhabitants — Extinction of the dynasty —
Condition of the new republic, and alliance with Alexander the Great —
Becomes subject to Egypt — The names of the towns are changed — The last
king of the Egyptian dynasty, Apion, leaves the country to the Romans by
his testament, which is afterwards reduced by them to a province —
Insurrection of the Jews, and a great massacre of the Romans and
Cyrenæans — Sufferings of the population from the attacks of the Libyan
barbarians, and by the ravages of locusts, plagues, and earthquakes —
The Persian Chosroes overthrows the remains of the Greek colonies, which
are finally overrun by the Arabs — Peculiar manner in which the
boundary-line was fixed between Carthage and Cyrene — Eminent
philosophers who lived at Cyrene — Description of the country and its
former products — Recent history of the country. — _Page_ 1.
CHAPTER II.
PREPARATIONS FOR THE EXPEDITION.
Reasons which led to the expedition being undertaken — Peculiar
difficulties from the nature of the country — Equipment, with assistance
of the Foreign Office and other authorities in England to carry it out —
List of the outfit. — _Page_ 7.
CHAPTER III.
TRIPOLI.
Leave Malta in the gunboat _Boxer_, and arrive at Tripoli — The Meshia —
Position of the Castle and the Pacha’s harem — Visit to the artillery
and cavalry barracks — Unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the Turkish
government by Ghomer during the late Russian war — Notice of Tripoli, by
John Ogilby. — _Page_ 10.
CHAPTER IV.
BENGHAZI.
Leave Tripoli, and arrive at Benghazi — Adopt it as our base of
operations — The wretched state of the town, and the plague of flies —
The Castle and the principal buildings — Make friends with the Arab
shiekhs, and engage an Arab of Cyrene as an attendant — Buy two horses
and other necessaries for the journey — Manner in which auctions are
conducted — Camels procured, with the assistance of the Kaimacam — Visit
the ancient Necropolis and the river Lethe — The unsafe state of the
harbour — The loss of a brig off the entrance of it — The distance where
fresh water is procured. — _Page_ 13.
CHAPTER V.
JOURNEY BETWEEN BENGHAZI AND CYRENE.
Leave Benghazi — Rainy and stormy weather — Arrive at Gŭsr Merdj, and
hospitality of the Mudir — Description of the Plain and Castle — Resume
our journey through a beautiful country, abounding in game — Encamp at
Gŭsr Biligadem — Arrive at Cyrene, and select a tomb near the Fountain
of Apollo for our residence — Our workmen try to desert at Merdj. —
_Page_ 18.
CHAPTER VI.
CYRENE.
The native name of Cyrene — The position of the ruins, with the
configuration of the country — The Fountain of Apollo — General
description of the Necropolis — A detailed account of the different
kinds of tombs — The present aspect of the city — The ancient roads to
Apollonia and along the Wady Bil Ghadir — Picturesque grandeur of the
Wady Mûchgûn. — _Page_ 25.
CHAPTER VII.
COMMENCEMENT OF THE EXCAVATIONS.
Visit from Mohammed El Adouly — Commence the excavations at two tombs in
the Wady Bil Ghadir — These not proving successful, remove the men to a
temple near the southern gate of the city — Discover the statue of
Bacchus — The novel mode of removing it — Subsequent excavations in a
building adjoining a theatre, and afterwards in the Temple of Apollo —
Discover the colossal statue of Apollo; supposed statue of Hadrian; head
of Minerva; the portrait-head of Cnæus Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus,
with its pedestal and inscription; a bronze portrait-head; Jupiter
Ammon; a group representing the nymph Cyrene strangling a lion; Diana
Venatrix — Description of the temple. — _Page_ 38.
CHAPTER VIII.
EMBARKATION OF THE STATUES ON BOARD THE _ASSURANCE_.
Examination of the country between Cyrene and the coast — Arrival of
H.M.S. _Assurance_ — Obliged to anchor off Ras El Hilal, on account of
the weather — The next day steams to Marsa Sousah, and disembarks the
waggons and stores — Several camels collected to take the stores up to
Cyrene — Trouble with the Arabs before they start — The waggons are
obliged to be taken to pieces, and carried up the Augubah on men’s
shoulders — Difficulties of taking the waggons across the country and
the descent of the Augubah — They are successively taken to the beach,
embarked on board the _Assurance_, and the vessel leaves for Malta. —
_Page_ 44.
CHAPTER IX.
DEALINGS WITH THE ARABS.
The position of the Zauyah — Threatening messages sent from the Achwani
and their shiekh, “Sidi Mustapha” — The Arabs attempt to prevent our
passing, and a number of our stores stolen by them — Appeal to the Mudir
of Ghegheb for assistance, and the way it was given — The two culprits
are apprehended with great formality, and quietly allowed to escape a
few days afterwards — The Mudir is dismissed for his conduct — Osman
Aga, the Bash-Cavass, is sent to our assistance — Our reputation as
doctors, and the curious application of the fair sex for keteebus — The
wandering habits and mode of life of the Bedouins — Forms of salutation
— Habit of swearing — Universal use of firearms. — _Page_ 48.
CHAPTER X.
VISIT TO THE OTHER TOWNS OF THE PENTAPOLIS.
The ruins of Apollonia and its harbour — Visit Imghurnis, and on our
second visit badly received by the Arabs — Excursion to Derna — Pass the
ruins of Gabiout Younes, Tirt, Lamloudeh, and Beit Thamr on our way —
Reside with M. de Fremeaux, the Vice-Consul — Visited on our arrival by
the Mudir and Kologhassi — The beauty of the little town of Derna — Its
luxurious gardens and abundance of water — The anchorage of Sousah
Hamema — Longer journey to Teuchira and Ptolemais — Pass by Gŭsr
Biligadem, Libiar Il Gharib, and Merdj — The present state of Teuchira —
Arrival at Ptolemais — The great gateway in the western wall still
standing, and a number of enormous reservoirs in the centre of the city
— Large tomb to the westward of it — Miss the road on our return to
Merdj — Hospitably received there again by the Mudir — Return to Cyrene
— Serious disturbance between the Arabs of the Haasa tribe and the Mudir
of Ghegheb — The castle attacked during the night, the shiekhs
liberated, and a number of men killed — They appeal to us for assistance
— The waterworks at Safsaf. — _Page_ 57.
CHAPTER XI.
CONTINUATION OF THE EXCAVATIONS.
The large temple near the Stadium — A few inscriptions found in it, but
all the sculpture wantonly destroyed — Visit of H.M.S. _Scourge_,
bringing Mr. W. Denison, a carpenter sent by the British Museum —
Celebration of the festival of the Melood — Proceed to Derna in the
_Scourge_, and return by land — Smith visits Benghazi to obtain workmen
and money — One of the negroes stolen by the Arabs — The smaller temple
near the Stadium — Statue of Minerva — The immediate neighbourhood of
the Temple of Apollo — Several inscriptions, statues, and heads of
different sizes discovered here — A seated Egyptian figure, colossal
female statue, nude statue of Bacchus, &c. — A palace, in which were
found the torso of a Roman emperor in armour, a large female draped
statue, busts of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, a female bust, three
heads, and three inscriptions — Make a road down the Augubah, and
improve the road between Cyrene and the coast — The Temple of Venus —
Large quantity of sculpture found in it: Venus Euploia, and another
Venus with Cupid by her side seated on a dolphin, Pan, Aristæus, three
female busts with curious head-dresses, heads of Minerva and Perseus,
and a slab of marble in relief of Cyrene strangling a lion. — _Page_ 71.
CHAPTER XII.
FINAL EMBARKATION.
Arrival of H.M.S. _Melpomene_ — A large party of men are landed from the
ship, and start for Cyrene with three waggons — Serious disturbance with
the Arabs — The means taken to preserve peace — All the sculptures are
successively embarked — We finally leave Cyrene, and arrive at Malta. —
_Page_ 78.
CONCLUSION.
* * * * *
APPENDICES.
No. I. (contributed by Dr. C. SCHROFF). — The Thapsia Garganica —
Difference between the properties of this plant and the Silphium of the
Ancients. — _Page_ 87.
No. II. — Description of the Sculptures found at Cyrene. — _Page_ 91.
No. III. — List of Sculptures found on various sites at Cyrene. — _Page_
99.
No. IV. — Inscriptions discovered or found at Cyrene. — _Page_ 109.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
* * * * *
FRONTISPIECE.—EASTERN END OF THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS OF CYRENE.
PLATE.
1. GENERAL MAP OF THE CYRENAICA _To face page_ 6
2. TRIPOLI _Ditto_ 10
3. BENGHAZI _Ditto_ 14
4. AMOR BON ABDI SEYAT AND SHEIKH BOCHLEGA 14
5. SUPPOSED ENTRANCE TO THE RIVER LETHE 16
6. CASTLE AND VILLAGE OF MERDJ (BARCA) 20
7. MUDIR’S ROOM IN THE CASTLE OF MERDJ 21
8. ENCAMPMENT NEAR A ROMAN FORTRESS (GUSR _To face page_ 22
BILIGADEM)
9. INTERIOR OF OUR TOMB OF RESIDENCE 23
10. OUR WORKMEN—SALEH, MOHAMMED, AND ABDULLAH 24
11. WESTERN HILL OF CYRENE, WITH ENTRANCE TO THE _To face page_ 25
FOUNTAIN OF APOLLO
12. FOUNTAIN OF APOLLO _Ditto_ 26
13. GENERAL VIEW OF ONE OF THE HILLS IN THE _Ditto_ 27
NORTHERN NECROPOLIS OF CYRENE
14. LARGE TOMB AT THE EASTERN END OF THE 27
NORTHERN NECROPOLIS
15. TOMB IN THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS 23
16. RANGE OF TOMBS IN THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS _To face page_ 28
17. INTERIOR OF A TOMB IN THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS _Ditto_ 29
18. TOMBS TO THE WESTWARD OF WADY BIL GHADIR 29
19. A TOMB EMBELLISHED WITH FIGURES IN THE 30
NORTHERN NECROPOLIS OF CYRENE
20. TOMB FOR 105 SARCOPHAGI IN THE NORTHERN _To face page_ 30
NECROPOLIS
21. INTERIOR OF A PAINTED TOMB IN THE NORTHERN _Ditto_ 31
NECROPOLIS
22. INTERIOR OF A TOMB IN THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS 31
23. INTERIOR OF A TOMB CUT IN THE SIDE OF A 32
QUARRY IN THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS
24. INTERIOR OF A LARGE TOMB IN THE NORTHERN _To face page_ 32
NECROPOLIS
25. TOMBS IN THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS _Ditto_ 33
26. TOMBS (CALLED BY THE ARABS “KINISSIEH”) IN 33
THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS
27. LARGE TOMB ON THE FACE OF THE WESTERN HILL 34
OF CYRENE
28. BUILT TOMB ON THE SOUTH-WEST SIDE OF CYRENE _To face page_ 34
29. RUINS OF THE CHRISTIAN CITY OF CYRENE _Ditto_ 35
30. WADY MUCHGUN, TWO MILES TO THE WESTWARD OF _Ditto_ 36
CYRENE
31. PLAN OF AN ORNAMENTED AND PAINTED TOMB IN _Ditto_ 36
THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS OF CYRENE
32. PLAN OF A TOMB FOR 105 SARCOPHAGI IN THE _Ditto_ 36
NORTHERN NECROPOLIS
33. PLAN OF A TOMB IN THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS _Ditto_ 36
34. PLAN OF A TOMB IN THE NORTHERN NECROPOLIS _Ditto_ 36
35. PLAN OF A LARGE TOMB IN THE NORTHERN _Ditto_ 36
NECROPOLIS
36. PLAN OF A BUILT TOMB ON THE SOUTH-WEST SIDE _Ditto_ 36
OF CYRENE
37. ELEVATION OF THE INTERNAL FAÇADE OF A TOMB _Ditto_ 36
IN THE WESTERN NECROPOLIS
38. TOMBS ON THE WESTERN SIDE OF WADY BIL GHADIR 37
39. MOHAMMED EL ADOULY 38
40. PLAN OF THE CITY OF CYRENE _To face page_ 38
41. PLAN OF THE CITY OF CYRENE, TO SHOW THE _To face page_ 40
POSITIONS FROM WHICH THE PLANS AND SKETCHES
WERE MADE
42. INTERIOR OF MOHAMMED EL ADOULY’S TENT 54
43. ARAB ARMS OF THE CYRENAICA 55
44. WADY LEBAIATH, BETWEEN CYRENE AND APOLLONIA _To face page_ 57
45. EASTERN CITY WALL AND RUINS OF APOLLONIA 57
46. RUINS OF IMGHERNIS _To face page_ 58
47. DERNA _Ditto_ 60
48. CASTLE OF DERNA 61
49. ARAB CAMP NEAR TEUCHIRA 64
50. RUINS OF PTOLEMAIS _To face page_ 64
51. GATEWAY IN THE WESTERN WALL OF PTOLEMAIS 66
52. TOMBS TO THE WESTWARD OF PTOLEMAIS _To face page_ 66
53. PLAN OF A CONSPICUOUS BUILT TOMB TO THE _Ditto_ 66
WESTWARD OF PTOLEMAIS
54. INSCRIPTIONS OVER THE ENTRANCES TO THE TOMBS 67
AT PTOLEMAIS
55. PLAN OF THE LARGE TEMPLE NEAR THE STADIUM AT _To face page_ 71
CYRENE
56. PLAN OF THE SMALLER TEMPLE NEAR THE STADIUM _Ditto_ 74
AT CYRENE
57. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VENUS SITUATED TO THE _Ditto_ 76
SOUTH-WEST OF THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS
58. ENCAMPMENT OF THE PARTY FROM H.M.S. 81
MELPOMENE, NEAR THE HEAD OF THE AUGUBAH
59. CENTRAL WADY AND SLOPE OF THE EASTERN HILL _To face page_ 82
OF CYRENE
60. THAPSIA GARGANICA 87
* * * * *
PHOTOGRAPHS.
PLATE.
61. BACCHUS.
62. APOLLO CITHARŒDUS.
63. THE EMPEROR HADRIAN.
64. MINERVA AND A MALE HEAD.
65. CNÆUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS MARCELLINUS
(PROPRÆTOR OF CYRENE).
66. BRONZE ICONIC HEAD.
67. APHRODITE AND FEMALE TORSO.
68. ICONIC FEMALE STATUE.
69. BUST OF THE EMPEROR ANTONINUS PIUS.
70. BUST OF THE EMPEROR MARCUS AURELIUS.
71. APHRODITE EUPLOIA.
72. APHRODITE AND EROS.
73. ICONIC FEMALE FIGURE.
74. FEMALE BUST OF ROMAN PERIOD.
75. HEAD OF PERSEUS.
76. THE NYMPH CYRENE OVERCOMING A LION, AND
BEING CROWNED BY LIBYA.
* * * * *
INSCRIPTIONS.
PLATE.
77. Containing numbers 1 to 5
78. Ditto ditto 6
79. Ditto ditto 6 „ 7
80. Ditto ditto 8 „ 11
81. Ditto ditto 12 „ 14
82. Ditto ditto 15 „ 17
83. Ditto ditto 18 „ 23
84. Ditto ditto 24 „ 26
85. Ditto ditto 27 „ 28
86. Ditto ditto 29 „ 32
ERRATA
* * * * *
In General Map of the Cyrenaica, facing page 6, place a line under
Apollonia for the ancient name.
Page 10, line 8 _for_ Caimakam, _read_ Kaimakam.
Page 25, line 3 _for_ Grenuah, _read_ Grennah.
Page 37, line 5 _for_ Mûchqûn, _read_ Mûchgûn.
Page 54, line 8 _for_ El Douly’s, _read_ El Adouly’s
(_under the woodcut_).
Page 71, line 39 _for_ Plate 6, _read_ Plates 78, 79, No. 6.
Page 71, line 40 _for_ Plate 8, _read_ Plate 79, No 7.
DISCOVERIES AT CYRENE.
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
BEFORE beginning the narrative of our expedition to the Cyrenaica, we
shall recall, for the convenience of the reader, a few of the leading
facts connected with the history of that country.
Accounts, more or less detailed, of the origin and progress of the Greek
colony, of which Cyrene was the capital, are given by Herodotus, Strabo,
Sallust, &c. In modern times these fragmentary and often contradictory
accounts have been carefully collated and examined by the learned Dane,
Thrige, in his work entitled “Historia Cyrenes, Havniæ, 1819.” The
subsequent great work of Mr. Grote, and the several articles relating to
Cyrene in Dr. William Smith’s Classical Dictionaries, contain everything
of importance that the learned criticism of those distinguished scholars
has been able to authenticate regarding the history of the Pentapolis.
We have, therefore, with Dr. Smith’s kind permission, compiled the
following compendium from the articles _Cyrene_, _Cyrenaica_, _Thera_,
_Battus_, &c., in the Dictionaries of Classical Geography and Biography.
The Cyrenaica or Pentapolis was the name of an extensive tract of
country in the North of Africa, bounded on the east and west by the
respective territories of Egypt and Carthage, and on the north and south
by the Mediterranean and the Desert. The name _Cyrenaica_ was derived
from the capital city, Cyrene, and properly denoted the country as a
whole; while _Pentapolis_ was a collective name given to the five great
cities of Cyrene, Barca, Teuchira, Hesperides, and Apollonia, with their
several territories and dependencies. The Romans, therefore, who looked
upon the country as a single province of the empire, called it
Cyrenaica; whereas, in the time of the Ptolemies, when the country was
practically a confederacy of separate colonies, it was generally known
by the federal name of Pentapolis.
Cyrene, the capital of this country, and the most important Hellenic
colony in Africa, was founded in B.C. 631, by a body of Dorian colonists
from Thera (Santorin), an island in the Ægean Sea belonging to Sparta.
Battus, the leader of this band of colonists, was the son of
Polymnestus, a Theræan noble, his mother, according to some accounts,
being a Cretan princess. Considerable doubt exists regarding the origin
of his name: Herodotus believes that it was the Libyan word for “king,”
while others suppose it to have been derived from βατταρίζω, and to have
been expressive of an alleged impediment in his speech. No less doubt is
there as to the cause which led to the colonization of Cyrene. According
to the account of the Cyrenæans, as given by Herodotus, Battus, having
gone to consult the Delphic oracle about the removal of the physical
defect above mentioned, was enjoined to lead a colony into Libya; while
the story of the Theræans, as recorded in the same author, was, that
this injunction was laid on their king, Grinus, and that he pointed to
Battus as a younger and fitter man for the purpose. According, again, to
a fragment from the historian Menecles, preserved by Tzetzes, and the
scholiast to Pindar,[1] Battus was driven forth from Thera by civil war,
and was ordered by Apollo not to return to his country, but to betake
himself to the continent. Justin gives a strange mixture of the two
stories in Herodotus with the fable of Apollo’s love for the nymph
Cyrene. Amidst these conflicting statements, the one certain is, that
Battus led forth his colonists in obedience to the Delphic oracle, and
under a belief in the protection of Apollo.
Sailing to the then almost unknown shores of Libya, Battus and his
followers took possession of the island of Platea, in the Gulf of Bomba,
which they seem to have mistaken for the mainland. Hence, after two
years of suffering, and after again consulting the oracle, they removed
to the opposite shore, and resided in the well-wooded district of Aziris
for six years, at the end of which time some of the native Libyans
persuaded them to leave it for a better locality, and conducted them
through the region of Irasa to the actual site of Cyrene. Though Irasa
was deemed so delectable a region that the Libyan guides were said to
have led the Greeks through it in the night lest they should settle
there, the spot at which their journey ended was scarcely inferior for
beauty and fertility to any on the surface of the globe.
The site of Cyrene was in the territory of the Libyan tribe named
Asbystæ, and with them the Greek settlers seem from the first to have
been on terms of friendship very similar to those which subsisted
between the Carthaginians and their Libyan neighbours. The Greeks had
the immense advantage of commanding the abundant springs and fertile
meadows, to which the Libyans were compelled to resort when the supplies
of the less-favoured regions further inland began to fail. A close
connection soon grew up between the natives and the Greek settlers; and
not only did the former imitate the customs of the latter, but the two
races coalesced to a much greater extent than was usual in such cases.
It is very important to bear in mind that the population of Cyrene had a
very large admixture of Libyan blood by the marriages of the early
settlers with Libyan wives. The native Libyans, however, were altogether
excluded from political power, which was in the hands exclusively of the
descendants from the original settlers, or rather of those of them who
had already been among the ruling class in the mother state of Thera.
The dynasty of the Battiadæ lasted during the greater part of two
centuries, from B.C. 630 to somewhere between 460 and 430; and comprised
eight kings, bearing the names of Battus and Arcesilaus alternately.
After the foundation of Cyrene, little is known of Battus I. He appears
to have been vigorous and successful in surmounting the difficulties
which beset the infant colony, in making most of the natural advantages
of the country, and in subjugating the native tribes. He governed with
mildness and moderation, and executed various public works, of which the
most celebrated was the road which he made for the sacred procession to
the temple of Apollo. His subjects worshipped him as a hero, and
dedicated a statue of him at Delphi, representing him in a chariot,
driven by the nymph Cyrene, with Libya in the act of crowning him.
Nothing of importance is recorded in the reign of his son, Arcesilaus
I., about B.C. 590-574; but that of his successor, Battus II., marks the
most important period of the monarchy. In this reign, Cyrene received a
great accession of strength by the influx of a large number of colonists
from various parts of Greece, principally, perhaps, from Peloponnesus,
and from Crete and the other islands, whom the State invited over under
the promise of a new division of lands (probably to enable herself to
make head against the neighbouring Libyans), and who were further urged
to the migration by the Delphic oracle. This influx apparently giving
rise to further encroachments on the Libyan tribes, the latter, under
Adicran, their king, surrendered themselves to Apries, king of Egypt,
and claimed his protection. A battle ensued in the region of Irasa, B.C.
570, in which the Egyptians were defeated—this being the first time,
according to Herodotus, that they had ever come into hostile collision
with Greeks. This battle seems to have finished the war with Egypt; for
we read that Amasis, the successor of Apries, married Ladice, a Cyrenæan
woman of the house of Battus. By the same victory, too, the sovereignty
of Cyrene over the Libyans was confirmed. It was also most probably in
this reign that Cyrene began to occupy the neighbouring region with her
colonies.
The misfortunes of the monarchy began in the reign of Arcesilaus II.,
surnamed the “Oppressive,” about B.C. 554-544. By attempting to subvert
the constitution and establish a despotism, he caused a revolt of the
Libyan Periœci. His brothers, Perseus, Zacynthus, Aristomedon, and
Lycus, who instigated this rebellion, withdrew from Cyrene, and founded
the city of Barca. In his attempt to quell the insurrection, Arcesilaus
was signally defeated in a battle fought at Leucon or Leucoë, in
Marmarica, in which 7,000 of his soldiers were slain. He was afterwards
treacherously killed by his own brother Learchus. The intestine troubles
of Cyrene during the latter part of his reign, gave the inhabitants of
the new city of Barca an opportunity of extending their power over the
whole of the west part of the Cyrenaica, including the district on the
coast (as far as Hesperides), where we find the important post of
Teuchira belonging to them. According to Servius, they carried their
arms on land far west over the region of the Syrtes, towards Carthage,
and acquired such a maritime power as to defeat the Phœnicians in a
naval battle.
Battus III., or the “Lame,” son of Arcesilaus II., reigned from about
B.C. 544 to 529. During his reign, the Cyrenæans, under the advice of
the Delphic oracle, called in the aid of Demonax, a Mantineian, who drew
up for them a new constitution, by which the encroachments of the royal
house on the people were more than recovered, and the king was reduced
to political insignificance, retaining, however, the landed domain as
his private property, and also his sacerdotal functions. The political
power, in which it would seem none but the descendants of the original
colonists had any share, was now extended to the whole Greek population,
who were divided by Demonax into three tribes: (1) the Theræans, who
still retained the native Periœci; (2) Greeks from Peloponnesus and
Crete; (3) Greeks from the other islands of the Ægean. A senate was also
constituted, of which the king appears to have been president. In other
respects, the constitution seems to have resembled that of Sparta, which
was, through Thera, the original metropolis of Cyrene.
Pheretime, the widow of Battus III., and mother of his successor,
Arcesilaus III., joined with her son in an attempt to overturn the new
constitution of Demonax. Their first efforts were unsuccessful, and they
were driven from Cyrene; but Arcesilaus, who had taken refuge in Samos,
returned with a fresh band of colonists, chiefly from Ionia, took
Cyrene, and executed cruel vengeance on his opponents. He endeavoured to
strengthen his position by making submission to Cambyses, king of
Persia. From a superstitious fear of the woe denounced against him by an
oracle for his cruelty in the hour of success, or, perhaps, driven out
of the city by his subjects, he fled to his father-in-law, Alazir, king
of Barca. There, certain exiles from Cyrene, uniting with the Barcæans,
attacked both kings in the market-place, and killed them. His mother,
Pheretime, thereupon applied for aid to Aryandes, who had been appointed
Satrap of Egypt by Cambyses. Aryandes, who welcomed this opportunity of
effecting the conquest of Libya, collected a powerful army and fleet;
but, before commencing hostilities, he sent a herald to Barca, demanding
to know who had slain Arcesilaus. The Barcæans, having collectively
taken the act upon themselves, the desired pretext was gained, and
Aryandes despatched the expedition. After a siege of nine months, the
city was at last taken by treachery, and given over to the brutal
revenge of Pheretime. Those of the citizens who were supposed to have
had most share in her son’s death she impaled all round the circuit of
the walls, on which she fixed as bosses the breasts of their wives.
Those who were clearly guiltless of the murder were allowed to remain in
the city, but the rest of the inhabitants were sent to Persia, where
Darius settled them in a village of Bactria, still called Barca in the
time of Herodotus. After the siege of Barca, Pheretime retired with the
Persian army to Egypt, where, according to Herodotus, she died of a
loathsome disease, for having “provoked the jealousy of the gods by the
excessive indulgence of revenge.” Regarding her history, the following
remark is made by Grote:—“It will be recollected that in the veins of
this savage woman the Libyan blood was mixed with the Grecian. Political
enmity in Greece proper kills, but seldom, if ever, mutilates or sheds
the blood of women.”
The Persians ravaged great part of the country, and extended their
conquests as far as Hesperides; and though they were even inclined to
attack Cyrene on their way back to Egypt, they left the city unmolested.
The result of the victory of Arcesilaus and Pheretime was the overthrow
of the equitable constitution established by Demonax.
Of Battus IV., the successor of Arcesilaus III., nothing is known,
except that he was surnamed the “Handsome.”
Arcesilaus IV., the last of the kings of Cyrene, is the prince whose
victory in the Pythian Games, B.C. 466, is celebrated by Pindar. From
his odes, it also appears that Arcesilaus IV. endeavoured to make
himself despotic, by getting rid of the nobles of the state. It is
probable that the city Hesperides was founded by him, with the view of
securing a retreat for himself in the event of a successful rebellion of
his subjects. It is not known whether he died by violence or not; but
after his death royalty was abolished, and his son, Battus, who had fled
to Hesperides, was there murdered, and his head was thrown into the
sea,—a significant symbol of the utter extinction of the dynasty. This
was probably about B.C. 450.
Of the condition of the new republic we have very little information. As
to its basis, we are only told that the number of tribes and phratriæ
was increased; and as to its working, that the constant increase of the
democratic element led to violent party contests, in the course of
which, various tyrants obtained power in the state; among whom are named
Ariston and Nicocrates. When Alexander the Great invaded Egypt, the
Cyrenæans made an alliance with him, and after his death their whole
territory was made subject to Egypt by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, B.C.
321. The country appears to have flourished under the Ptolemies, who
pursued their usual policy of raising new cities at the expense of the
ancient ones, or restoring the latter under new names. Thus Hesperides
became Berenice; Teuchira was called Arsinöe; Barca was entirely
eclipsed by its port, which was raised into a city under the name of
Ptolemais; and Cyrene herself began to decay in consequence of the
favours bestowed upon its port Apollonia. After these changes,
_Pentapolis_ became the common name of the country.
The last king of the Egyptian dynasty, Apion, an illegitimate son of
Ptolemy Physcon (on whose death, in B.C. 117, he had obtained the
government), left the country to the Romans by his testament in the year
B.C. 95. At first, the Romans granted the cities their freedom, and
bestowed upon them their former royal domain, only exacting a tribute;
but quarrels soon broke out between the different states, and after
Lucullus had made, by order of Sylla, a vain attempt to reconcile them,
the Romans applied their usual last remedy, and reduced the country to a
province, under the name of Cyrenaica (probably in B.C. 75), which was
united with Crete on the conquest of that island in B.C. 67. In the
division of the provinces under Augustus, the united province, under the
name of Creta-Cyrene, Creta et Cyrene, or Creta simply, was constituted
a senatorial province under the government of a proprætor, with the
title of proconsul, who had a legatus and one, if not two, quæstors.
Under Constantine, Crete and Cyrenaica were made separate provinces, the
latter being called Libya Superior, and placed under the government of a
Præses. It should be observed, that under the Romans the eastern
boundary of the province, which divided it from Marmarica, was formed by
an imaginary line drawn southwards from Axylis, a town somewhat to the
west of the Chersonesus Magna.
The decline of the country in prosperity may be dated chiefly from the
reign of Trajan, when the Jews, large numbers of whom had settled there
under the Ptolemies, rose in insurrection, massacred 220,000 Romans and
Cyrenæans, and were put down with great difficulty and much slaughter.
The loss of population during these bloody conflicts, and the increasing
weakness of the whole empire, left the province an easy prey to the
Libyan barbarians, whose attacks were aided by the ravages of locusts,
plagues, and earthquakes. The sufferings of the Pentapolis from these
causes, in the beginning of the fifth century, are pathetically
described by Synesius, the bishop of Ptolemais, in an extant oration and
in various passages of his letters; and at a later period by Procopius.
In A.D. 616, the Persian Chosroes overthrew the remains of the Greek
colonies so utterly, as to leave only the gleanings of the harvest of
destruction to the Arab conquerors, who finally overran the country A.D.
647.—(Gibbon, VIII. 227, and IX. 444.)
At the height of its prosperity, Cyrene possessed an extensive commerce
with Greece and Egypt, especially in the medical drug called Silphium:
with Carthage its relations were always on a footing of great distrust,
and its commerce on the west frontier was conducted entirely by
smuggling. At what period its dominion over the Libyan tribes was
extended so far as to meet that of Carthage at the bottom of the Greater
Syrtis is disputed, some authorities referring it to the republican age,
others to the period of the Ptolemies. Regarding the manner in which
this boundary was settled, the following romantic story is told by
Sallust:—
“The indefinite nature of the boundary between the territories of
Carthage and Cyrene was the cause of many wars between them. After
various alternate successes and defeats, they entered into the following
agreement,—that certain persons deputed by each state should leave their
home on an appointed day, and that the place where the parties might
meet should be considered as the boundary of the kingdoms.
“Two brothers, named Philæni, were appointed on the part of Carthage,
who contrived to travel faster than the deputies from Cyrene; but
whether this was occasioned by accident or the indolence of the
Cyrenæans, I have not been able to ascertain. Stormy weather might
undoubtedly occasion delays in such a country, as well as it is known to
do at sea; for when violent winds prevail in level and barren tracts,
the sand which is raised by them is driven so forcibly into the faces
and eyes of those who cross them, that their progress is considerably
impeded. So soon as the people of Cyrene were aware of the ground which
they had lost, and reflected on the punishment which would await them in
consequence on their return, they began to accuse the Carthaginians of
having set out before the appointed time; and when a dispute arose on
the subject, they determined to brave everything rather than return home
defeated. In this state of affairs, the Carthaginians desired the Greeks
to name some conditions of accommodation; and when the latter proposed
that the deputies from Carthage should either be buried on the spot
which they claimed as the boundary, or allow them to advance as far as
they chose on the same conditions, the Philæni immediately accepted the
terms, and, giving themselves up to the service of their country, were
buried alive on the spot where the dispute had occurred. On the same
spot, two altars (Aræ Philænorum) were consecrated to their memory by
the people of Carthage, and other honours were also decreed to them at
home.”
By a comparison of the accounts of Ptolemy, Strabo, Pliny, and Mela, the
Aræ Philænorum appear to have been situated near the bottom of the
Greater Syrtis. At the time of Hannibal’s expedition to Italy, B.C. 217,
they formed the eastern boundary of the Carthaginian territory.—(See
Beechey, p. 220.)
Cyrene held a distinguished place in the records of Hellenic science. As
early as the time of Herodotus, it was celebrated for its physicians: it
gave its name to a philosophic sect founded by one of its sons,
Aristippus; another, Carneades, was the founder of the Third or New
Academy at Athens; and it was also the birthplace of Eratosthenes, who
may be called the founder of astronomy, and who raised geography to the
rank of a science; of the poet Callimachus, who boasted a descent from
the royal house of Battus; and of the eloquent rhetorician Synesius, who
afterwards became Bishop of Ptolemais.
The portion of the Cyrenaica actually occupied by the Greek
colonists—viz., from the Boreum Promontorium on the west to the
Chersonesus Magna on the east—was, in respect of position, formation,
climate, and soil, one of the most delightful regions on the surface of
the globe. Its centre is occupied by a moderately elevated table-land,
whose edge runs parallel to the coast, to which it sinks down in a
succession of terraces, clothed with verdure, intersected by mountain
streams running through ravines filled with the richest vegetation, well
watered by the frequent rains in winter, and sheltered by the mass of
the mountain from the sands and hot winds of the Sahara. The various
terraces enjoyed a great diversity of climates, and produced a
corresponding variety of flowers, vegetables, and fruits; and the
successive harvests, at the different elevations, lasted for eight
months out of the twelve. The table-land extends some seventy or eighty
miles in breadth between the Sahara and the coast, but it is only on its
N. and N.W. slopes that it enjoys the physical advantages now described.
Among its products were corn, oil, wine; all kinds of fruit, especially
dates, figs, and almonds; cucumbers, truffles, cabbage, box, and
saffron; flowers, especially roses, from which exquisite perfumes were
extracted; and, above all, the plant for which the country was
especially celebrated,—viz., silphium or laserpitium,—which produced the
valuable article of commerce already referred to. The district was also
famous for its honey, its ostriches, and its horses, large studs of
which were kept at Cyrene and at Barca.
Of the more recent history of the Cyrenaica there is little to be
related. In consequence of the Arab occupation, the whole country
relapsed into a state of barbarism, from which it has never emerged, the
only important event in its history being its conquest by the Turks
under Solyman the Magnificent, who took its modern capital, Tripoli, in
1551. Since that date, as part of Tripoli, it has formed a nominal
portion of the Ottoman empire, owning a greater or less degree of
subjection to the authority of the Sultan. Soon after its conquest by
Solyman, it gradually fell, like Egypt, Tunis, and Algiers, into the
power of an hereditary dynasty of Beys, who were all but independent of
the Turkish government. In 1808, when this dynasty was expelled by
Sultan Mahmoud, the state of Tripoli became a mere province or Pachalik,
which has ever since been regarded as an integral portion of the
Sultan’s dominions.
[Illustration: Pl. 1.
CYRENAICA. CORRECTED FROM THE SURVEYS OF CAPTS. SMYTH BEECHEY & SPRATT
R.N.
Day & Son, Lithrs. to the Queen]