L32,000,000, and that at Panama L40,000,000. (The reader will compare
these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua as stated by
the _Times_.) The former was rejected absolutely, on account of the
necessity for locks, and all further discussion was concerned with the
latter. It was then calculated that, with transit dues of fifteen francs
per ton, the net annual profit would be L1,680,000.
M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in 1885, when M. Renan said he
had been born to pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made
him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great projector saw no
difficulties; he had already completed a work which had been declared
almost impossible, now he would carry out a project similar to that
proposed by William Paterson. However, Panama was not Suez, a rainless
desert, but a place where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place
of almost level sands.
M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but when Lesseps, with all
the prestige of his Suez Canal, joined him, there was comparatively
little difficulty. Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of
Panama--all his knowledge was gained at second hand. The first public
subscription was invited in July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000
francs (L16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each. This large
sum, however, was not obtained at once, only L3,200,000 being applied
for. However, Lesseps was not discouraged, but determined to go on with
the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was wanted, which
ultimately proved to be the case, until the project appeared hopeless.
He visited the isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the line; he
even witnessed one of the great floods of the Chagres river, which rose
forty feet and covered the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to
Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated the great canal
with a ceremony and _fete_. He then stated that success was assured, and
declared, upon his word of honour, that the work would be much easier on
the isthmus than in the desert of Suez.
In March following he visited New York, where he was but coldly
received, on account of American jealousy of European influence. The
President said that the capital invested in such an enterprise by
corporations or citizens of other countries must be protected by one or
more of the great Powers, but no European Power could intervene for such
protection without adopting means which the United States would deem
inadmissible. This did not damp his enthusiasm; if other countries would
not assist, all the credit would go to France. The Company had a
concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve years, and the United
States would not be likely to interfere.
It will be interesting here to compare the estimates for the canal by
different persons and at different times within two years:--
M. Wyse, 1879 L17,080,000
The Paris Congress, 1879 41,760,000
The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880 33,720,000
M. de Lesseps himself, " " 26,320,000
Rectified estimate, September, 1880 21,200,000
Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to complete the work for
twenty millions. Backed by the press and the deputies, the Company's
shares sold freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully
established. It was promised that in the course of that year the line of
the canal should be cleared, and dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to
finish in 1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was obliged
to advance the time to 1890. The canal was to be 47 miles long, 70 feet
wide at the bottom, and 29 feet deep.
Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided into five sections,
and in the following year dredging and excavating were commenced. But,
even thus early, it was found to be more difficult than had been
expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres had been excavated,
which was reckoned to be about 1/130th of the whole. This would not do,
as it meant that over a century would pass before its completion. About
seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica negroes, were employed at that
time, and this number was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500.
In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000 metres per month,
against Lesseps' estimate of two millions. Yet, with all that, it was
calculated that in this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken
out.
The difficulties were enormous. First, there was trouble to find dumping
places, where the earth would not be again washed into the excavations
by heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which was continually
stretching from either side to choke the clearing. Weeds grew six to
eight feet high in a rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines,
kept a little army at work to clear them away from the embankments and
tracks. The workmen suffered greatly from yellow and other fevers, and
L600,000 was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances. Money was spent
profusely on such things as grand offices and a magnificent house to
lodge the President, if he should ever come to inspect the works. All
along the route were ornamental bungalows, and the director-general at
Panama had a salary of L20,000, besides a house and other allowances.
Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and daughter died of it.
Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been spent, and hardly a
fifth of the work was finished. Then financial difficulties led to an
arrangement for merging it in a new Company, which proposed to complete
the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding all the objections to locks, it
was now proposed to save such an immense work of excavation by erecting
four on either side, thus bringing the highest water level to 123 feet.
Eighteen and a half miles were said to have been completed, of which
five were on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf. To carry
out the new plan, L36,000,000 more were required, but, as a matter of
fact, only a third of the work necessary for this revised scheme had
been done.
Then came the downfall, which has been compared to that of the South Sea
Bubble. When the Company went into liquidation, scores of shady
transactions came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies had been
bribed to gain their support, and money had been wasted in almost every
possible manner. In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and four
other directors were prosecuted, with the result that he, MM. C. de
Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin, were convicted of breach of trust and
swindling, the two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment
and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two years and 20,000 francs
fines. M. Eiffel, the architect of the great tower of Paris, was found
guilty of breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment and
a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were then charged with receiving
bribes, one of whom, M. Baihaut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs.
Three were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines, and to pay
the liquidators of the company the amount of M. Baihaut's bribe. Charles
de Lesseps appealed against the charges of swindling, and these were
quashed on the ground that the transactions had occurred more than five
years before, thus getting the longer terms of imprisonment and fines of
the three principals reduced.
Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going on; he was old, feeble,
and in a state of apathy and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented
the carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned, and he died
on the 7th of December, 1894. The _Times_, in noticing his death, said
the story was a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair must be
laid upon the people and the public temper. Bribery and corruption were
symptoms of a thoroughly unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public
provided enormous sums; when these were spent, more went the same way,
and to get these contributions everything possible was done. Lesseps was
no engineer, but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and the means of
carrying them out. He was the man of the moment in France. He was
neither a financier nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler.
He was a man of great originality, of indomitable perseverance, of
boundless faith in himself, and of singular powers of fascination over
others.
Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get money to carry on the
work, one of which was by means of a lottery. But the French people were
discouraged, and were no longer prepared to throw good money after bad.
It followed, therefore, that although in 1894 a new company, with a
capital of sixty-five million francs, was proposed, and that it was
announced in August that eight hundred workmen were engaged, it does not
appear that anything is being done. If, as has been stated, only a third
of the work has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing
for waste of money, it can hardly be expected that double this amount
will ever be obtained. What with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a
great deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in fact, some of
the excavations must be filled up by this time. Those who know the
country can easily understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals,
and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants, and that the
machinery is mostly spoilt by rust. Even if the canal is ever finished
with locks, it is doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the work
of keeping it open by dredging would be very expensive. No doubt it
would be a boon to the world if it were finished, but capitalists expect
profit, and will hardly be inclined to assist without such expectations.
[Illustration: EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA.
(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation for several years
past by an American Company. As finally adopted, it is to have a total
length of 169.4 miles, of which 56-1/2 will be through the lake, and 641/2
through the San Juan river. There are to be three locks on either side,
which may cause trouble in case of a violent earthquake; and then,
again, the length of the journey will be against it as compared with
that of Panama. It has been attempted in the United States to make it a
national work, and the sum of a hundred million dollars is asked from
the American Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of bonds
to that amount. We believe that very little enthusiasm for the project
has been shown. In August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its
obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which time we believe
the work is being continued, and that it has been decided to complete it
as soon as possible. M. de Varigny, in _L'Illustration_ of June the 1st,
1895, gives the following opinion on the work and its political
importance:--
"That the Washington statesmen take account of the fact that the cutting
of the isthmus is difficult, costly, and, in case of a rupture with
England, dangerous, we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination of
great enterprises, of grand words and grand theories, that senators and
representatives hesitate to oppose the current of opinion that is
bearing along the masses.
"The work has begun, and we can only hope that it will succeed. There
cannot be too many gates of communication between different peoples. The
United States undertake to open this. Can they do it, and doing it, will
they give up the advantages they will thereby acquire? The future will
show."
[Illustration]
INDEX.
Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, 43
African slavery, 157
Aguirre the Tyrant, 38
Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," 34
Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, 39
Amazon Company, 83
Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, 38
American Indian, his character, 1
_Amis des Noirs_, 257
"Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, 335
Antigua, 165
Anti-slavery party, 289, 298
Apprenticeship, negro, 306
Araby, a leader of bush negroes, 227
Arawaks,
their character, 2;
Columbus tries to enslave them, 9;
the Spanish sovereign's good feeling for them, 9;
their treatment by the first colonists, 11;
did not lay up provisions, 12;
thinks Spaniards gods, 12;
refuse to be slaves, 18;
die off in great numbers, 18;
in Guiana, 23, 75
Araya, Dutch at, 75
Armada, Spanish, 63, 64
Aruba, 277
Aspinwall, 352
_Assiento_ contract to supply slaves, 196
Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, 124
Bahamas,
natives kidnapped, 19;
settled by English, 86;
resort of buccaneers, 96;
captured by Spaniards, 117
Baihaut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, 361
Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, 169
Barbados,
first colonised, 85;
protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, 117;
result of the English revolution, 117;
Charles II. proclaimed king, 122;
Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, 124;
attack on Hole Town, 126;
the island surrenders, 128;
sufferings of a bond-servant in, 151;
De Ruyter driven off from, 161;
its unique position, 208;
negro plots, 213;
anti-slavery insurrection, 293;
result of emancipation, 328;
confederation disturbances, 341
Barker, Andrew, a rover, 62
Baron, a bush negro chief, 229
Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, 99, 102
Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, 65
Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of
Hayti, 259
Berbice,
supplies cut off during war, 170;
captured by French corsairs, 178, 179;
great slave insurrection, 218
Belize, 250
Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, 74
Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, 69
Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, 279
Bond-servants, 149
Boyer, President of Hayti, 275
Brethren of the coast, 93
British Guiana, 328, 334
British Legion in Venezuela, 286
Bull of Partition,
its terms, 48;
disputed, 49;
practically revoked, 134
Bush negroes, 225
Buxton, Fowell, 300
Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, 128
Byron, Admiral, 241, 242
Caciques of the Indians, their position, 4
California rush, 351
Campeachy, Bay of, 96, 200
Cannibals, 20, 31
Canning's declaration of neutrality, 285
Caribana, 75
Caribbee Islands, 20, 85
Caribs,
their character, 6;
cannibalism, 20, 31;
hatred of Spaniards, 20;
in Guiana, 23, 75;
in St. Kitt's, 88
Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, 85, 122
Carthagena,
taken by French, 178;
great fair, 184;
attacked by Admiral Vernon, 205
Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, 165
Casas, Las, 46
Cassard, Jacques,
the corsair, 179;
captures St. Eustatius, 180;
Curacao, 181
Cattle, wild, 21
"Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, 119
Central American Republics, 288
Chagres, 352
Charbon, Jan Abraham, 219
Charles I. and the Colonies, 114
Charles II.
declared king in the Bermudas and Virginia, 117;
Barbados, 122;
his interest in the plantations, 135
Chinese labourers introduced, 327
Christianity forced on the natives, 8, 27
Christophe, a Haytian leader, 269, 274
Clervaux, a Haytian leader, 271
Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, 173
Cochrane, Admiral, 277
Codrington, Colonel, 119
Coffee, 143
Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, 221, 223
Coke, John, 84
Colon, 352
Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, 11, 14
Coloured people in Hayti, 257
Columbian Republic, 288
Columbus' opinion of the natives, 6
Confederation in Barbados, 341
Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, 53, 57, 201
Convict labour, 147
Coolies, East Indian, 327
Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 147
Corsairs, 49, 177
Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
Costa Rica, 288
Cottin, M., 360
Cotton, 15, 18, 141
Council for Plantations, 135, 146
Cromwell and the West Indies, 129
Cudjo, a maroon chief, 215
Cuba, 20
Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, 353
Curacao, 115, 152, 165, 180, 238
Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, 171
Darien Canal, 353
Darien scheme, 188
Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, 46
Demerara, 213, 246, 252, 301
Dessalines,
a chief in the Haytian insurrection, 271;
crowned emperor, 274
Dogs,
hunt Indians, 16;
run wild, 22;
hunt maroons, 235;
hunt rebel negroes, 271
Dominica, 91, 116, 238, 241, 249
_Dominus Vobiscum_, one of the first English vessels in the West
Indies, 49
D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, 134
Drake, Sir Francis,
voyage with Hawkins, 57;
raid on Nombre de Dios, 59;
great expedition to the West Indies, 63;
captures St. Domingo, 64;
last voyage, 65;
death, 65
Drax, Colonel, 120
Du Casse, a French corsair, 177
Dudley, Sir Robert, 66
Dutch, 67, 75, 84, 86, 115, 129, 166
Edwards, Bryan, 157
Eiffel, M., 360
"El Dorado,"
the quest for, 23;
dangers, 24;
germ of the story, 32;
Martinez' report, 44
Elizabeth, Queen, 67
Emancipation,
Great Britain, 289;
France, 310;
Denmark, 312;
Holland, 313;
Spain, 313
Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, 87-8, 116
Enciso, Bachelor, 29
English and Dutch, 67, 68, 114
Essequebo, 213
Everson, a Dutch pirate, 177
Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, 339
Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
Ferdinand and Isabella,
kind feelings towards the Indians, 10;
grant from the Pope, 48
Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, 134
Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, 360
Fourgeaud, Colonel, 227
Franklin, Washington, 294
Free trade, 324
French,
in the West Indies, 49-51, 87;
company for settling the islands, 116;
character of, 167;
revolution, its influence on Hayti, effect on the Spanish Main, 276
George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
German knights in Venezuela, 33
Gold-hunting, 11, 15, 23, 29, 73
Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, 340
Grasse, Count de, 241, 249
Grenada, 238
Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, 86
Guadeloupe, 238, 251
_Guanin_, 23
Guatavita, Lake of, 32
Guatemala, 288
Guiana, 23, 69
Guianians, 44
Guichen, Admiral de, 241, 249
Gueiria, 282
Guzman, Fernando de, 38
Haiti, Hayti, or Hispaniola,
its inhabitants, 3;
colonised, 11;
gold found, 11;
almost ruined by becoming depopulated, 21;
a resort of buccaneers, 91;
under the French, 251;
downfall, 257;
British invasion, 268;
republics and empires, 274
Hall, Captain, exploit of, 206
Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, 76
Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77, 78
Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, 58
Havana,
ransomed, 50;
sacked and burnt, 51
Hawkins, Sir John,
first voyage, 53;
second, 54;
third, 57;
final trip with Drake, and death, 65
Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, 52
Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, 341, 345
Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, 274
Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, 49
Herera, Alonzo de, 45
Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Haiti
Hondo river, 250
Hood, Sir Samuel, 238
Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, 218
Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
Iala, Father, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
Indian, character of, 1
Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, 116
Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, 274
Jamaica,
Valdivia wrecked off the coast, 30;
attacked by Colonel Jackson, 116;
captured by English, 131;
Spanish attempt to recapture, 133;
the first real British colony, 136;
progress of, 155;
authorities refuse help to the Darien colony, 193;
slave revolts, 214;
serious negro insurrection, 338
James I.,
friendship for Spain, 82, 114;
dispute with Spain about the West Indies and Virginia, 113
Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, 150
Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, 202
Jervis, Admiral Sir John, 251
Jews in the West Indies, 239, 245
Keymis, Captain, a follower of Ralegh, 74, 77-9, 81
Kyk-over-al, Dutch fort in Essequebo, 76
Labour difficulties, 14, 137, 321
Lafayette, 260
Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, 99
Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, 99
Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, 76
Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, 356
Lolonois, the great pirate, 101
Macatoa, reported a very rich city, 36
Madeirans imported into British Guiana, 327
Maltese imported into British Guiana, 327
Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," 44
Margarita, 114, 152
Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, 283
Maroons or Simarons, 59, 211, 232
Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado," 43
Martinique, 116, 182, 238, 251, 259
Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, 262
Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, 85
Methodists, 295
Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, 277, 347
Missionaries, Protestant, 295, 327
Montbar, the French pirate, 100
Montserrat, 161, 165, 249
Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, 102, 177
Morgan, Colonel, 162
Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, 284
_Navio de permisso_, 199
Negro slavery, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210
Negroes, free, difficulties with, 329
Nelson, Lord,
flying trip to the West Indies, 254;
his expedition to Nicaragua, 346
Nevis, 161, 249
New Edinburgh, 192
New Granada, 32, 33, 281, 288
New World, 1
Nicaragua and the canal scheme, 288, 346, 351, 355, 362
North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, 83, 85
_Nueva Dorado_, 70
Ojeda, Alonzo de, 27
Omaguas, reported a rich nation, 36
Ophir, 15, 23
Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, 43
Orders in Council, 300
Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in
Demerara, 335
Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, 268
Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, 61
Oyapok, English colonies in the, 76, 83
Panama, 186, 347, 350
Panama Canal, 347, 353, 355
Panama Railway, 352
Parima Lake, 33
Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, 188
Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, 130
Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, 50
Petion, President of Hayti, 274, 285
Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, 58
Pirates in the West Indies, 49, 90
Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, 150
Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, 347
Plantations, 143, 154, 291
Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, 178
Pomeroon, 75, 161
Pope, The,
issues Bull of Partition, 48;
acknowledges French rights in the West Indies, 134
Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, 69
Porto Bello,
its fair, 185;
captured by Vernon, 204
Porto Rico, 20, 49
Prince of Orange in England, 252
Privateers, 96, 98
Proclamations to the Indians, 27, 30
Providence Island, 86
Puerto Cabello, 277
Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
Ralegh Sir Walter,
at Trinidad, 66;
his "Letters Patent," 68;
his interest in Guiana, 69;
captures Trinidad, 70;
searches for "El Dorado," 72;
sent to the Tower, 76;
liberated, 77;
goes again to Guiana, 78;
capture of St. Thome, 79;
his execution, 82
Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356
Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77
_Repartimientos_, 15
Robespierre, 260
Rodney, Admiral, 237, 242
Rossy, Sieur du, 116
Route of Spanish trade, 49
Rovers to the Main, 49, 66
Royal African Company for introducing slaves, 149
Rupert, Prince, 124
Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, 161
St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's,
settled by Thomas Warner, 84;
granted to the Earl of Carlisle, 85;
d'Enambuc arrives, 87;
divided between English and French, 88;
attacked by Spaniards, 114;
granted to a French Company, 116;
bond-servants in, 153;
quarrels between English and French, 162, 177, 207;
captured by French, 249
St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, 311, 329
St. Domingo,
captured by Drake, 64;
attempted by Penn and Venables, 131
St. Eustatius, 86, 161, 181, 238, 243
St. Lucia, 238, 241, 251
St. Martin's, 115, 116
St. Thomas, 239
St. Vincent, 238
Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, 162
San Juan river, 346
Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, 51
Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, 50
Santiago de la Vega captured by English, 116
Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies," 66
Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
Serfdom, 137, 145
Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
Simarons, _see_ Maroons
Slaves,
Indian, 19;
negro, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210, 289;
white (bond-servants), 146;
insurrections, 213, 294, 302;
abolition of the African trade, 255, 289;
runaways, 210;
Registrar and Protector of, 293;
emancipation of, 309;
reviews of slavery, 289