substantial evidence of the gold he had brought, roused others to follow
his example. Among them was one John Oxnam, or Oxenham, who has been
immortalised by Kingsley in "Westward Ho!" Arriving at the isthmus in
1575, in a vessel of 140 tons, he went to an out-of-the-way river, and
hid his bark among the great trees. Landing with his seventy men, he
went in search of the Simerons, who took him to a river which flowed
into the South Sea, where a pinnace was built. In this the English
pulled down to the Pacific, with the intention of capturing one of the
treasure ships coming to Panama. They succeeded so far as to get sixty
thousand dollars in gold from one bark, and a hundred thousand from
another. Not yet satisfied, they went to the Pearl Islands, attacked the
negro divers, and took a few pearls, with which they at last returned up
the river.
Unfortunately for Oxenham the negroes of the Pearl Islands carried the
news of his presence to Panama, and in two days four boats with a
hundred men were sent in pursuit. They found the two barks, which had
been released, and from their captains learnt where the Englishmen had
gone. Following up the river they were at a loss when they came to three
branches, but spying some freshly plucked feathers floating down one of
the streams, they followed that until they came upon the pinnace. Six
men were on guard, one of whom was killed, but the other five escaped
and gave the alarm to their comrades. Pursuing their track through the
forest the Spaniards found the store of treasure hidden away under
boughs of trees. With this they would have gone back had not Oxenham
attacked them with two hundred Simerons before they reached their boats.
Being more skilful in bush fighting than the English, the Spaniards
repulsed the party, killing eleven and taking seven prisoners, from whom
they learnt that the delay was caused by the difficulty of transporting
the treasure.
Now the news was sent to Nombre de Dios, and the authorities there found
the English vessel and brought her away, thus cutting off the means of
escape for those still lurking in the forest. Then an expedition was
sent in search of them, and they were found building canoes. Some were
sick and could make no resistance, the others fled and took refuge with
the negroes, by whom they were ultimately betrayed and taken to Panama.
Here Oxenham was interrogated as to his authority for the raid, and was
obliged to admit that he had not his Queen's license. All except five
boys were executed, the men at once, and the officers a little while
afterwards at Lima.
Thus ended one of the most audacious attacks on the Spaniards which only
failed through a little want of calculation. Hakluyt, who wrote the
account, said the enemy marvelled much to see that although many
Frenchmen had come to these countries, yet never one durst put foot upon
land; only Drake and Oxenham performed such exploits. When the news
reached Spain the king was so alarmed that he sent out two galleys to
guard the coast, which in the first year after their arrival took six or
seven French vessels, and put a stop to their piracies for a time.
There was another class of raids in the Indies, of which that of Andrew
Barker, of Bristol, was an example. He, and one Captain Roberts, going
to trade in the Canary Islands, had their goods confiscated, and were
put in prison, from which Roberts escaped and Barker was ultimately
discharged. To recoup his losses and revenge himself, Barker fitted out
several vessels in 1576, in which he went trading to the Main, and
afterwards committed acts of piracy. He took a small vessel off
Margarita and a frigate near Carthagena, from which he got five hundred
pounds' weight of gold and some emeralds. Now, following the example of
Drake, he landed on the isthmus to get help from the Simerons, but could
find none. Then, from the unhealthiness of the climate, most of his men
fell sick, and eight or nine died, which made him give up this part of
his project. Embarking again he took another Spanish vessel with some
gold, but after that the party got into difficulties. Barker quarrelled
with his ship-master, and one of the vessels became so leaky that they
had to let her sink, first removing the cargo into the last Spanish
prize. They, however, captured another vessel with a hundred pounds of
silver and some provisions, but after that the crews mutinied and put
Barker ashore with some others, where they were attacked by Spaniards,
and nine, including the captain, killed. The mutineers then went on to
Truxillo, which they surprised, but could find no treasure, and were
soon driven to flight by a Spanish vessel. On their way home the Spanish
vessel sunk, carrying down two thousand pounds' worth of their booty,
and on their arrival at Plymouth they were imprisoned as accessories to
their captain's death. Although none were executed, yet, says the worthy
Hakluyt, "they could not avoid the heavy judgment of God, but shortly
after came to miserable ends."
Open war soon came, and culminated in the invasion of England by the
"Invincible Armada" of 1588. No longer could there be any question of
the Queen's license, and in 1585 Drake, now Sir Francis, fitted out a
great fleet to cripple the power of Spain in the Indies. The Spanish
authorities were no longer unprepared, but ready to give him a warm
reception all along his expected course. The fleet consisted of
twenty-five vessels, with two thousand three hundred men, among whom
could be found many whose names are famous in the annals of Queen
Elizabeth. At the Cape de Verde Islands they burnt the town of Santiago
in revenge for the murder of a boy, and after this baptism of fire,
proceeded to the island of St. Christopher's, where they landed the
sick, cleaned their vessels, and spent Christmas. Leaving at the end of
December, on the 1st of January, 1586, they arrived off Hispaniola with
the intention of attacking St. Domingo. The English landed about ten
miles distant from that city, marched upon the Spaniards unawares, and
took it by surprise, notwithstanding every preparation that had been
made, and the careful watch for enemies from the sea.
Drake demanded a large ransom, and because it was not paid at once,
commenced to demolish the buildings, which brought the inhabitants to
their senses and made them offer the sum of 25,000 ducats (about
L7,000), which he accepted. From thence the fleet sailed to Carthagena,
where no opposition was made until the troops landed, when a great
struggle took place in the streets. The Spaniards had erected
barricades, behind which they succeeded in doing some execution, but
only delayed the surrender for a short time. After a portion of the town
had been burnt, 110,000 ducats were paid as ransom for the remainder,
and after a few less brilliant exploits, the fleet went back to England,
being thus hurried on account of sickness among the men. Otherwise,
Drake had intended to capture Nombre de Dios and Panama, but from this
disability had to be content with booty to the amount of L60,000, which
would mean something like a quarter of a million at the present value of
money. He arrived in time to help in repelling the Armada, and this
invasion kept most of the English about their own shores for a year or
two.
In 1595, when there were no longer any fears of a Spanish landing, Drake
determined on another voyage, and this time with Sir John Hawkins.
Getting together six of the Queen's ships and twenty-one other vessels,
they arrived safely at the Caribbee Islands, where Hawkins became sick
and died. Drake then went on to Porto Rico and attacked the capital, but
could do nothing more than capture a few vessels from under the guns of
the forts. Going to the Main he captured Rio de la Hacha and a fishing
village named Rancheria. These he held for ransom, but was dissatisfied
with the number of pearls offered by private persons, the Governor
refusing to give anything, and burnt both town and village. Santa Martha
was also taken, and then Nombre de Dios, but he found that the treasure
had been removed, the inhabitants taking to the forest when they heard
his fearful name. Sir Thomas Baskerville took seven hundred and fifty
men to go over to Panama, but returned much discouraged by the
difficulties of the road. Drake finally burnt Nombre de Dios and every
vessel in the harbour down to the smallest boats.
After that, sickness began to tell upon the expedition, and Drake
himself was stricken with dysentery. When on the point of death he rose
from his bed, put on his full dress of admiral, called his men and gave
them a farewell address, then, sinking down exhausted he died
immediately afterwards. Several captains and other important officers
also died, and they even lost the chief surgeon; after that, nothing was
left but to return home. Off Cuba they were attacked by a Spanish fleet
of twenty vessels, sent out to intercept them, with which they kept up
a running fight until the enemy were left behind.
On their arrival in England in May, 1596, the sad news of the death of
Drake overshadowed all the glory of the expedition. In Spain, however,
it was published for general information, and the people congratulated
each other that at last their enemy was gone. Henry Savile, in his
"Libel of Spanish Lies," said "it did ease the stomachs of the timorous
Spaniards greatly to hear of the death of him whose life was a scourge
and a continual plague to them." No wonder that the news was so
grateful, for none was so daring, and no name like that of Drake ever
came to be used as a bogey with which to frighten their children.
Yet there were many gallant adventurers in the Indies at that very time.
Sir Robert Dudley and Sir Walter Ralegh were both at Trinidad in 1595,
and for several years before and after the English rovers were plentiful
in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1591 the _Content_ was successfully defended
against six Spanish men-of-war, and the galleons were obliged to sail in
large squadrons. What with the dangers of storms and the enemy, it was
stated that of a hundred and twenty-three vessels expected in Spain
during that year, only twenty-five arrived safe.
The number of rovers became at last so great that plunder was difficult
to obtain. The Spanish settlers were in continual fear, and naturally
took every precaution against their enemies, hiding the treasure on the
least alarm, and taking to the forest. The French corsairs were not far
behind the English, although as yet they had no proper licenses, and
only fought for their own hands. Latterly, also, the Dutch and Flemings
had arrived, and although mainly occupied in trading, they did not
hesitate to fight on occasion, especially when attempts were made to
prevent their traffic. While under the rule of Charles the Fifth they
had been free to go to and from the Indies, and no doubt use the
knowledge thus gained to further their own interests since their revolt.
Like the English, they were at enmity with Spain, but there was also
another bond of union--both were Protestant. Queen Elizabeth assisted
Holland in gaining her independence, and therefore at this period the
relations between English and Dutch were very cordial. But the
fellow-feeling of enmity to Spain made even the French corsair unite
with the two others, so that pirates, privateers, and traders all
combined against the common foe.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
IV.
RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES.
The first grant made by Queen Elizabeth for a settlement in America was
given to Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1578, but the father of English
colonisation was Sir Walter Ralegh. Although considered a rover, or
pirate, by the Spaniards, he was of a different type to Drake, Hawkins,
and the other adventurers of the sixteenth century. Not only was he
famous as a brave warrior, but at the same time as one of the most
learned men of his time; as enterprising in the arts of peace as on the
battlefield.
The "Letters Patent" to Walter Ralegh, Esquire, dated the 25th of March,
1584, may be considered as the first charter of the English colonies.
Under them he was empowered to discover, occupy, and possess barbarous
countries not actually in the possession of any Christian prince, or
inhabited by Christian people, on condition that he reserved to Her
Majesty a fifth of all the gold and silver found therein. He was also
given all the rights of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and empowered
to govern and make laws as long as these laws did not conflict with
those of the mother country, or with the true Christian faith of the
Church of England. Under this charter the first settlement in Virginia
was undertaken, and thus England threw down the gauntlet in the face of
Spain.
However, Ralegh did not confine himself to North America--there were
other countries not in the actual possession of any Christian prince,
the most notable being Guiana. Ralegh had heard the story of "El Dorado"
and of the failures of the many German and Spanish knights. He would
succeed where they had failed. Englishmen had displayed their mettle in
the Indies--if the treasures of Peru and Mexico had raised their enemy
to be "mistress of the world" and "sovereign of the seas," why should
not he also find other golden countries for the benefit of his virgin
queen and country? Because two rich provinces had been discovered, it
did not follow that there were no others; on the contrary, the rumours
of "El Dorado" were so many that they could not be treated with
contempt. And then the natives of the "Great Wild Coast," although
cannibals, were friendly to the English, who had always treated them
fairly, and there they had the advantage over Spain. The country was
open to them, although strictly guarded against their rivals.
The stories had been lately revived by the expeditions of Antonio de
Berrio, Governor of Trinidad and Guiana, who had made explorations of
the river Orinoco, and possibly exaggerated his reports for the purpose
of getting settlers. Captain Popham took some letters from a Spanish
vessel in 1594, wherein were found accounts of the "Nueva Dorado,"
which were spoken of as incredibly rich. Ralegh saw these, and was
induced by their reports and his own knowledge of the Indies, which he
had gained in working at his colonisation schemes, to go out and look up
the matter.
The occupation of Guiana, he said, had other ground and assurance of
riches than the voyages to the West Indies. The king of Spain was not so
impoverished as the English supposed by their taking two or three ports,
neither were the riches of Peru or New Spain to be picked up on the
sea-shore. The burning of towns on the coast did not impoverish Spain
one ducat, for it was within the country that the land was rich and
populous. Therefore England should endeavour to get possession of this
yet unspoiled country, instead of wasting her energies on adventures
that were of no real benefit, and that hardly touched the real source of
her enemy's greatness.
Ralegh arrived at Trinidad in March, 1595, and as a matter of precaution
captured the Spanish town of St. Joseph, and the Governor, De Berrio,
from whom he heard more stories of El Dorado. Here also he began those
conciliatory measures with the natives which characterised all his
dealings. He released five chiefs, who had been imprisoned in chains and
tortured by dropping melted fat on their bodies, and thus gained their
friendship. Unlike other adventurers he thought it necessary to excuse
himself for burning St. Joseph, which he did in rather quaint language.
Considering that if he entered Guiana by small boats and left a
garrison of the enemy at his back, he "should have savoured very much of
the ass," he took the place, and at the instance of the natives set it
on fire.
[Illustration: RALEGH IN TRINIDAD.
(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
Now began a weary voyage up the Orinoco, first through the delta, which
is such a maze that they might have wandered for months without getting
into the main river had they not secured an Indian pilot. Exposed
alternately to burning sun and drenching showers in open boats, they
toiled against the powerful stream. Ralegh everywhere tried his best to
ingratiate himself with the Indians, succeeding so well that his name
became known over the whole of Guiana. He told them that he had been
sent by a great queen, the powerful Cacique of the north, and a virgin,
whose chieftains were more numerous than the trees of the forest. She
was an enemy to the Spaniards, had freed other nations from their
oppression, and had now sent to rescue them. To confirm his statement he
gave each Cacique a coin so that they could possess the queen's
likeness, and these were treasured and even worshipped for a century
afterwards.
Everywhere he heard of El Dorado, but it was always receding farther and
farther, until his men became so disheartened that he had to rouse them
by saying that they would be shamed before their comrades if they gave
up so easily. However, after reaching the mouth of the Caroni and
getting specimens of gold ore, he had to return without doing more than
locating the city of Manoa several hundred miles to the east of his
farthest point. This was done in so exact a manner that the great lake
of Parima, as large as the Caspian Sea, was retained upon the maps of
South America down to the beginning of the present century. His ore was
probably stream quartz, and in representing it as taken from the rock he
probably reported what the Indians had told him. When, therefore, he
said that the assay gave its value as L13,000 a ton, there is no reason
to suppose a mistake or untruth, for pieces quite as valuable may still
be picked up. His "Discoverie of Guiana" is such a mixture of close and
accurate observation with the hearsay of the Indians, that it is
difficult in some cases to separate truth from fiction. Yet, although
historians have charged him with wilful lying, there can be no doubt of
his good faith. It has been left to the present century to prove that
gold-mines exist on the site of the fabled El Dorado, for it is there
that the well-known Caratal diggings are situated.
Ralegh asked the people of England to judge for themselves. He had spent
much time and money, with no other object than to serve his queen and
country. When they considered that it was the Spaniard's gold which
endangered and disturbed all the nations of Europe, that "purchaseth
intelligence, creepeth into councils and setteth bound loyalty at
liberty," they would see the advantage of these provinces he had
discovered. Guiana was a country that had never yet been sacked, turned,
or wrought. The face of the earth had not been torn, nor the virtue and
salt of the soil spent by manurance; the graves had not been opened for
gold, the mines not touched with sledges, or the images pulled down
from the temples. It was so easily defensible that it could be protected
by two forts at the mouth of a river, and thus the whole empire be
guarded. The country was already discovered, many nations won to Her
Majesty's love and obedience, and those Spaniards who had laboured on
the conquest were beaten, discouraged, and disgraced. If Her Majesty
took up the enterprise, he doubted not that after the first or second
year there would be a Contractation House for Guiana in London, with
larger receipts than that for the Indies at Seville.
Such was Ralegh's dream. Another Peru to be conquered, and England to be
raised to the highest point of wealth and importance. But unfortunately
he could get no assistance to carry out the grand project. Yet he was
undoubtedly sincere, for did he not send out two expeditions under
Captains Keymis and Berrie the following year, to assure the Indians
that he had not forgotten them? Keymis found one tribe keeping a
festival in honour of the great princess of the north, and anxiously
waiting for the return of Gualtero, which name, by the by, was similar
to their word for friend. They made fires, and, sitting in their
hammocks, each man with his companion, they recounted the worthy deeds
and deaths of their ancestors, execrating their enemies most spitefully,
and magnifying their friends with all the titles of honour they could
devise. Thus they sat talking and smoking tobacco until their cigars
(their measure of time) went out, during which they were not to be
disturbed, "for this is their religion and prayers which they now
celebrated, keeping a precise fast one whole day in honour of the great
princess of the north, their patron and defender."
The explorations of Ralegh and his captains were published all over
Europe, with the result that attention was generally drawn to Guiana.
Already some Dutchmen had been trading on the coast for many years, and
it was even reported that they had established a post in the river
Pomeroon, the centre of the province of Caribana. As early as 1542
Flemings had settled at Araya on the coast of Venezuela, where they
collected salt and were left undisturbed as long as the Netherlands
belonged to Spain. Ralegh seems to have purposely ignored the presence
of these people in Guiana, probably to prevent any question of prior
rights on the part of a friendly nation. But, after all, the Dutchmen
could only have been there on their own responsibility, and their
temporary occupation had no meaning from a national point of view.
Now that Guiana was made known, vessels of other nationalities went
trading along the coast, everywhere meeting with a hearty welcome from
the Indians as long as the visitors were not Spanish. They were only so
many additions to their friends--their enemies were confined to Trinidad
and the Orinoco, leaving the whole coast of Guiana to its rightful
owners. In fact, the Spaniards could no more subdue the Caribs of the
Main than they could those of the islands. Only in Trinidad, where the
Arawak was employed against the cannibal, was a settlement made
possible.
Ralegh was unable to carry out his great project, but others were not
backward in attempting to settle in the country. First came Charles
Leigh, who in 1604 founded a colony in the river Oyapok, which failed
partly from the lack of assistance from England and partly from too
great a dependence on the promises of the Indians to supply food.
Sickness followed on starvation, Leigh died, and a mutiny took place,
after which the survivors got back to Europe in a Dutch trader, which
fortunately arrived when all hope of succour had been abandoned. Robert
Harcourt followed to the same river in 1609, like Leigh, getting
promises of assistance from the Indians by using the name of Ralegh.
With their consent he took possession of the country, "by twig and
turf," in the name of King James. This ceremony was performed by first
cutting a branch from a tree, and then turning up a sod with the sword,
thus claiming everything in and on the earth.
Harcourt's colony lasted several years, and in 1613 he received from
James the First a grant of all that part of Guiana lying between the
rivers Amazons and Essequebo, on the usual condition of the fifth of all
gold and silver being handed over to the king. In the same year the
Dutch trading factory at Kyk-over-al on the river Essequebo was
established, and this was probably the reason why the English grant made
that river the boundary of their possessions, leaving the Hollander to
establish himself between the Essequebo and the Orinoco.
Meanwhile, in 1603, poor Ralegh had been tried on a charge of aiding and
abetting the plot to raise Arabella Stuart to the throne of England, on
the death of Queen Elizabeth. Any one who reads the account of his
trial will perceive at once the absurdity of the charge, yet Ralegh was
convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. However,
even with all his hatred for the knight, King James dared not carry out
the sentence, but instead, kept him imprisoned in the Tower.