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The Story of the Nations.
THE WEST INDIES.
[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS.
(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
THE WEST INDIES
AND THE
SPANISH MAIN
BY
JAMES RODWAY
_SECOND IMPRESSION_
London
T. FISHER UNWIN
PATERNOSTER SQUARE
MDCCCXCIX
COPYRIGHT BY T. FISHER UNWIN, 1896
(For Great Britain).
COPYRIGHT BY G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 1896
(For the United States of America).
INTRODUCTION.
The story of the West Indies and Spanish Main is one to stir the hearts
of many nations. The shores of the Caribbean Sea have been the scene of
marvellous adventures, of intense struggles between races and peoples,
of pain, trouble, and disaster of almost every description. No wonder
that the romance writer has laid his scenes upon its beautiful islands
and deep blue waters, for nowhere in the world, perhaps, could he find
such a wealth of incident. From "Robinson Crusoe" to Marryat's genial
stories, and down to "Westward Ho!" and "Treasure Island," old and young
have been entranced for many generations with its stories of shipwrecks,
pirates, sea-fights, and treasure-seekers. Yet with all this the field
has not been exhausted, for hardly a year passes without a new romance
dealing more or less with the "Indies."
Under this name of the Indies the islands and continent were first known
to the Spaniards, and it was not until some years had passed that the
mainland received the name of _Terra Firma_. The string of islands
facing the Atlantic were the Antilles, so called from a traditional
island to the west of the Azores, marked on maps and globes of the
fifteenth century. This "Bow of Ulysses," as Froude called the islands,
was divided into the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the latter being also
known as the Caribbees, from their original inhabitants. Other divisions
were made later into Windward and Leeward Islands, but these differed so
much in the descriptions of different nations that it would be as well
to leave them out of the question. Perhaps the best way would be to name
the whole the Antilles or West Indian Islands and divide them, in going
from north to south, into the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the
Caribbees.
When we think of these beautiful islands and shores they recall those of
that other "Great Sea" which was such a mighty factor in the development
of Greece and Rome, Phoenicia and Carthage, Venice and Genoa. As Ulysses
and AEneas wandered about the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed
along the coasts of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico in fear of
anthropophagoi, amazons, giants, and fiery dragons. As the Indies were
the scene of struggles between great nations and the raids of
buccaneers, so also was the Mediterranean a battlefield for Christian
and Turk, and a centre for piracy.
Reports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in profusion, and wealth
that passed all description, led the Spaniards to explore every island
and river, until the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their
sufferings were terrible. Hurricanes sunk their frail craft on the sea
and earthquakes wrung their very souls on land. Starvation, with its
consequent sickness and death, destroyed one party after another, but
they still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico and Peru led
them to look for other rich nations, and to travel thousands of miles on
the mainland, guided by the reports of the Indians. Undaunted by
suffering and failure, they would often try again and again, perhaps
only to perish in the attempt at last.
The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest nation in Europe.
With her riches she could do almost anything. Other nations bowed down
before her, and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress of the
world. No matter how it was obtained, gold and silver flowed into her
coffers; what did she care that it was obtained by the bloody sweat of
the poor Indians?
Then came envy and jealousy. Why should Spain claim the whole of the New
World? England, Holland, and France began to dispute her supremacy and
determined to get a share of the good things. The "invincible
domination" of Spain led her to declare war against England, with the
result that the hardy sea-dogs of that time began to worry the fat
galleons at sea, and to pillage the treasure depots on the Main.
And here we must mention that there were two important places in the
Indies where Spain was most vulnerable--the Mona Passage between
Hispaniola and Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien. Through the first
came the outward fleets with supplies, and on their return with gold and
silver, while on the Isthmus was the depot for merchandise and the great
treasure store. At these two points the enemy congregated, either as
ships of war, buccaneers, corsairs, or pirates, and in their
neighbourhood some of the most bitter struggles took place. There was no
peace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be the case in Europe.
Englishmen's blood boiled at the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are
afraid it was not love for the oppressed alone that made them massacre
the Spaniards whenever they got an opportunity. The poor Indian received
but a scant measure of justice from these very people, when as a matter
of convenience they required possession of the Caribbee islands.
Other nations took possession of smaller islands, unoccupied by Spain,
and from these centres continued their raids, as privateers in war, and
as pirates at other times. Sometimes they were united among themselves
against the common enemy, sometimes at war with each other. France and
Holland against England, England and Holland against France--nothing but
quarrels and fighting. Now an island changed hands, and again it was
restored or recaptured. The planters were never sure of being able to
reap their crops, and often had literally to superintend the estate
work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while their black and white slaves
cultivated the soil.
Now the West Indies became the great training ground for three maritime
nations--England, France, and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the
struggle lay among her enemies for over a century. At first the three
disputants for her place were equally matched; then Holland dropped
behind, leaving England and France to fight it out. The struggle was a
very close one, which only ended with the fall of Napoleon, and it was
in the Caribbean Sea where the great check to France took place. Here
Rodney defeated De Grasse, and here Nelson and many another naval
officer gained that experience which served them so well in other parts
of the world.
Here also was the scene of that great labour experiment, the African
slave-trade. The atrocities of the Spaniards caused the depopulation of
the Greater Antilles, and led to the importation of negroes. Whatever
may be said against slavery, there can hardly be any question that the
African has been improved by his removal to another part of the world
and different surroundings. True, he has not progressed to the extent
that was expected by his friends when they paid such an enormous sum for
his enfranchisement; still, there are undoubtedly signs of progress.
The white colonists in the West Indies never settled down to form the
nucleus of a distinct people. Since the emancipation the islands have
been more and more abandoned to the negroes and coloured people, with
the result that although the government is mostly in the hands of the
whites, they are in such a minority as to be almost lost. In Cuba there
appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards their own island that
probably we shall soon hear of a new republic, but elsewhere in the
islands our hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and coloured
people.
On the mainland the original inhabitants were not exterminated as in the
large islands, and consequently we have there a most interesting
process in course of accomplishment--the development of one or more
nations. Here are the true Americans, and as the Gaul was merged in the
Frank, and the Briton in the Saxon, so the Spaniard has been or will
ultimately be lost in the American. At present the so-called Spanish
republics are in their birth-throes--they are feeling their way. Through
trouble and difficulty--revolution and tyranny--they have to march on,
until they become stronger and more fitted to take their places among
other nations. Out of the struggle they must ultimately come, and it
will be a most interesting study for those who see the result.
In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course of development--an
alien race from the old world. More backward than the Americans, the
Africans of Haiti are struggling to gain a position among other nations,
apparently without any good result. The nation is yet unborn, and its
birth-throes are distressing. We look upon that beautiful island and
feel sad that such a paradise should have fallen so low. As a race the
negro has little of that internal power that makes for progress--he must
be compelled to move on. Some are inclined to look upon him as in the
course of degenerating into the savage, but we, on the contrary, believe
him to be progressing slowly.
In the islands belonging to European nations the influence of the
dominant power is visible in the negro even when he has no trace of
white blood. The French, English, or Dutch negro may be recognised by
his manners, and even features. In some places East Indians and Chinese
have been imported, but these stand alone and make little impression.
They are aliens as yet, and take little part in the development of the
colonies.
Latterly the West Indies have sunk into neglect by Europe. Except for
the difficulties of the planters their history is almost a blank sheet.
Few know anything about the beautiful islands or the grand forests of
the mainland. Even the discovery of gold in Guiana, which goes to
confirm the reports of Ralegh, three centuries ago, is only known to a
few. Ruin and desolation have fallen upon them since the peace of 1815
and the emancipation. Even the negro--the _protege_ of the
benevolent--is no longer the object of interest he once was. Cane sugar
is being gradually ousted by that from the beet, and hardly anything has
been done to replace its cultivation by other tropical products.
Yet the islands are still as lovely as they were four centuries ago, and
on the continent is a wealth of interest to the naturalist and lover of
the beautiful. Now and again a tourist goes the round of the islands and
publishes the result in a book of travel; but the countries are out of
the track of civilisation and progress. Possibly if the Panama or
Nicaragua Canal is ever finished things may be a little better, but at
present the outlook is very dismal.
In attempting to compress the story of the West Indies and Spanish Main
within the covers of one volume we have undertaken a task by no means
easy. Every island and every province has its own tale, and to do them
all justice would require a hundred books. Every West Indian will find
something missing--some event unmentioned which is of the greatest
importance to his particular community. This is only to be expected, yet
we believe that the reader will get a fairer idea of their importance
when they are comprehended in one great whole. The photo block
illustrations are from negatives prepared by Mr. Thomas B. Blow, F.L.S.
CONTENTS.
I.
PAGE
THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS 1-22
The native Americans--The Arawak and the Carib--Their independent
spirit--Their country--The character of the Spaniard--He wants to
convert the natives to Christianity--"A ton of gold"--First Spanish
settlers in Hispaniola--They ravage the island and are entirely cut
off--The second colony oppresses the Indians--Repartimientos--Cruelties
to the Indian slaves--Decrease of the population--Slave-hunting in
other islands and on the Main--Resistance of the cannibals--Decline of
Hispaniola.
II.
THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO" 23-47
Treasure-seeking and its dangers--Alonzo de Ojeda--The proclamation to
the Indians--Disastrous voyage of Valdivia--A cannibal story--"El
Dorado," the gilded one--The German knights--Ambrosio de
Alfinger--George of Spires--Nicholas Fedreman and others--Pedro de
Ursua and Lope de Aguirre--Pedro de Acosta--Diego de Ordas and Juan
Martinez--The quest and its dangers.
III.
"SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD" 48-67
The Papal Bull of partition--English and French seamen in the
Indies--Raids on the Spanish possessions--Master William Hawkins goes
to Brazil--The Caribs friendly to the enemies of Spain--John Hawkins
carries negroes from Africa--Francis Drake's attack on Nombre de
Dios--The Simaroons--Drake captures the Panama train--John
Oxenham--Andrew Barker--Drake's second voyage--He captures St. Domingo
and Carthagena--Last voyage of Drake and Hawkins--Death of
Drake--Exploits of other adventurers.
IV.
RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES 68-89
"Letters Patent" to Ralegh--"El Dorado" again--Ralegh's first voyage to
Guiana--Keymis and Berrie--The Dutch in Guiana--Charles Leigh founds a
settlement--Robert Harcourt's colony--Ralegh's imprisonment--He is
released to again visit Guiana--Disastrous results--Roger North's
colony--King James's want of policy--Changes after his death--St.
Christopher's and Barbados--North's colony again--The Bahamas--The
French and Dutch settlements--Rise of the Dutch--The French and English
at St. Christopher's.
V.
BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES 90-112
The buccaneers of Hispaniola--Tortuga--Bay of Campeachy--Privateers
turning pirates--Pierre Legrand--Captains de Basco and Brouage--Captain
Lawrence--Montbar the "Exterminator"--Lolonois--Morgan storms and
captures Panama--He settles down in Jamaica--Van Horn--Raid on the
South Sea--Lionel Wafer's journey across the Isthmus.
VI.
WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES 113-136
Spanish raids--Effects of the "Great English Revolution"--The Caribbee
Islands in revolt--Cavaliers and Roundheads in Barbados--Charles the
Second declared king--Lord Willoughby arrives with a Commission from
the fugitive--Persecution of the Roundheads--Sir George Ayscue sent out
with a fleet to reduce Barbados--The island blockaded--Its
surrender--Surinam held for the king--Cromwell and Spain--The
Expedition to St. Domingo--Capture of Jamaica--Colonisation of the
island--The Council for foreign plantations.
VII.
THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES 137-159
First adventurers not agriculturalists--Slaves wanted--Negroes
imported--Sugar--Cotton--Tobacco--First plantations--Kidnapping--
Prisoners transported--English slave-trade--Comparative cost of negroes
and whites--Rebels--Story of Henry Pitman--Condition of the
bond-servants--Life of the planter--Dangers of the
voyage--Jamaica--Slavery in Africa--Treatment of the West Indian slave.
VIII.
THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 160-183
Trade disputes between England and Holland--War--The buccaneers
employed--Repulse of De Ruyter at Barbados--Capture of Dutch colonies
by English--The French drive the English from St. Kitt's--Abortive
attempts for its recapture--Peace of Breda--The value of the buccaneers
to Jamaica--Character of the three nations now contending for
supremacy--Case of Surinam--English refused permission to leave with
their slaves--War again--Peace of Westminster and the exodus from
Surinam--Case of Jeronomy Clifford--Sir Henry Morgan represses
buccaneering--Another war--Du Casse and the Corsairs--Jacques
Cassard--Curious position of Berbice--Cassard takes Curacao--His
downfall.
IX.
THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE 184-206
Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs--The trade of the Isthmus--The
joint-stock mania--William Paterson and the Darien scheme--Caledonia
and New Edinburgh founded--Destruction of the colony--The _Assiento_
contract--The Great South Sea Bubble--Vain attempts of the English to
obtain free trade with the Spanish provinces--Attacks on the logwood
cutters of Campeachy--War with Spain--Contraband traders and their
losses--Captain Jenkins' ear--Another war with Spain--Admiral Vernon
takes Porto Bello--His failure at Carthagena--English exploits.
X.
SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES 207-236
Sufferings of the planters from war--Barbados alone as having never
fallen to the enemy--Internal difficulties--Ferocity of slaves and
cruelty of their punishments--The Maroons of Jamaica and bush negroes
in Guiana--Slave insurrections--Abortive plots in Barbados--Troubles in
Jamaica--Revolt in Antigua--The great slave insurrection in
Berbice--The whites driven from the colony--Haunts of the Guiana bush
negroes--Surinam in continual fear of their raids--Expeditions sent
against them--Treaties--Great insurrection in Jamaica and suppression
of the Maroons.
XI.
THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS 237-255
Downfall of Spain--England and France--Contraband traffic of the Dutch
and Danes--Advantages of neutrality--The Jews in the islands--They
support the buccaneers--The great war--England against the
world--Admiral Rodney--His abortive fights with De Guichen--The
training of his fleet--He captures St. Eustatius and confiscates
private property--Capture of Demerara--Outcry against Rodney--British
disasters--Rodney appears again--His decisive victory over De
Grasse--Peace and its results--The great struggle with France and her
allies--British supremacy--Peace of Amiens--War again--Nelson in the
West Indies--The American war--Decline of the plantations from the
abolition of the slave-trade.
XII.
DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA 256-275
Results of the French Revolution--The friends of the blacks--The rights
of man--Civil disabilities of free coloured people--Agitation in the
French colonies--James Oge--Demand of the coloured people for equal
rights--Civil war in Hispaniola--"Perish the colonies"--Great slave
insurrection--The whites concede equal rights, but the Convention
revokes their original decree--Truce broken--The struggle
renewed--Devastation of the colony--The British expedition and its
failure--Toussaint L'Ouverture--Slavery abolished--It is re-established
by Napoleon--Treachery to L'Ouverture and the negroes--Dessalines and
Christophe declare the independence of Hayti--Massacre of the
whites--The Empire and Republic.
XIII.
EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN 276-288
Influence of the French Revolution on Spanish America--Miranda vainly
attempts to rouse Venezuela--Revolution at Caracas--Simon
Bolivar--Struggle for independence--Atrocities of both parties--Bolivar
proclaims extermination to the Royalists--Spanish successes--The
British Legion--Devastation of the country--The Columbian
Republic--Guatemala.
XIV.
ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 289-313
Agitation against slavery by the Quakers--Abolition of the African
slave-trade--Effects of this on the plantations--Condition of the
slave--Registration--Rising in Barbados--The Protestant missionaries
arrive--Opposition of the planters--Ordinance against preaching and
teaching slaves passed in Jamaica--The anti-slavery party in
England--Amelioration of the condition of the slave--Insurrection in
Demerara--Prosecution and conviction of the Rev. John
Smith--Emancipation in the British colonies--Its effect on colonies of
other nationalities--Insurrection at St. Croix--Total abolition of
slavery in the West Indies.
XV.
RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION 314-345
Ruin of the planters--Difficulty of procuring labour--Abolition of the
differential duties--Immigration--Barbados an exception when ruin fell
on the other colonies--Labour laws in French, Danish, and Dutch
colonies--Another insurrection in St. Croix--Race prejudice causes
riots in Demerara--Insurrection at Jamaica--Confederation riot at
Barbados.
XVI.
THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES 346-364
Nelson's expedition to the San Juan--Miranda's project--Importance of a
canal--Central America--Effects of the discovery of gold in
California--The Panama railway--Canal projects--Darien again--The
_Times_ and the Nicaragua project--Ship railway--Lesseps and the Panama
Canal--Difficulties of the work--Its downfall--Character of
Lesseps--The Nicaragua Canal.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
1.--Reception of Spaniards by Arawaks. From Gottfried's
"Reisen" _Frontispiece_
2.--Reception of Spaniards by Caribs. From Gottfried's
"Reisen" 5
3.--A corner of Paradise. The Victoria Regia 8
4.--_En route_ to the goldfields of Guiana. Passing the rapids
of the Essequebo 10
5.--Worrying the natives with dogs. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 13
6.--A modern alluvial gold washing 16
7.--Suicides. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 17
8.--A Guiana river. The Tumatamari falls 26
9.--Inhabitants of the Spanish Main. From Colijn's "Reisen" 28
10.--"El Dorado." From Gottfried's "Reisen" 37
11.--Negro woman returning from market 53
12.--Negro barber 54
13.--Negro family on holiday 55
14.--Negresses gossiping 56
15.--Ralegh in Trinidad. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 71
16.--Gold hunting. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 80
17.--Carib attack on a settlement. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 89
18.--St. Kitt's. From Andrews' "West Indies" 118
19.--A Surinam planter. From Stedman's "Surinam" 138
20.--A negro festival. From Edwards' "West Indies" 140
21.--Voyage of the sable Venus. From Edwards' "West Indies" 142
22.--Slaves landing from the ship. From Stedman's "Surinam" 144
23.--Map of _Terra Firma_. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 197
24.--A rebel negro. From Stedman's "Surinam" 209
25.--The execution of breaking on the rack. From Stedman's
"Surinam" 212
26.--March through a swamp. From Stedman's "Surinam" 224
27.--Trelawny town. From Edwards' "West Indies" 231
28.--Pacification of the Maroons. From Edwards' "West Indies" 234
29.--View of part of Hispaniola. From Andrews' "West Indies" 258
30.--La Guayra on the Main. From Andrews' "West Indies" 280
31.--The First of August. From Madden's "West Indies" 308
32.--A relic of the slavery days--old slave buying fish 310
33.--Negress, Guiana 315
34.--Negress fish-sellers, Guiana 316
35.--Chinese wood-carrier 317
36.--East Indian coolie 318
37.--East Indian coolie family 319
38.--Coolie barber 320
39.--East Indian coolie girl 321
40.--Coolie women, British Guiana 322
41.--Coolie vegetable sellers, British Guiana 323
42.--East Indian coolies, Trinidad 324
43.--East Indian coolie, Trinidad 325
44.--Trinidad coolies 326
45.--Barbados. From Andrews' "West Indies" 330
46.--St. Lucia. From Andrews' "West Indies" 331
47.--Atlantic entrance to Darien Canal. From Cullen's "Darien
Canal" 348
48.--Europe supported by Africa and America. From Stedman's
"Surinam" 363
[Illustration]
THE WEST INDIES.
I.
THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS.
When the early writers spoke of America as the new world, _mundus
novus_, they could hardly have appreciated the full meaning of the name.
True, it was a new world to them, with new animals, new plants, and a
new race of mankind; but the absolute distinctness of everything,
especially in the tropical regions, was not understood. With our fuller
knowledge the ideas of strangeness and novelty are more and more
impressed, and we are ready to exclaim, Yes! it is indeed a new world.
Unlike those of the eastern hemisphere, the peoples of the West are of
one race. Apart from every other, the development of the American Indian
has gone on different lines, the result being a people self-contained,
as it were, and unmodified until the arrival of the European. The
American is perhaps the nearest to the natural man, and his character is
the result of nature's own moulding. When compared with the European or
Asiatic he seems to be far behind, yet the civilisation of Peru and
Mexico was in some respects in advance of that of their conquerors. This
was brought about by a dense population which forced men into collision
with each other--in other parts of the continent and on the islands they
were more isolated and therefore less civilised.
In the forest region of the Spanish Main, and on the West Indian
islands, the communities were, as a rule, very small and isolated one
from another. A kind of patriarchal system prevented much communication,
and inter-tribal disputes were a bar to union. Every community
distrusted every other, and even when one tribe fought against its
neighbour there were few attempts to bring the sections together against
the common enemy.
On the coasts and islands of the Caribbean Sea, at the time of their
discovery, lived two distinct peoples, the Arawaks and the Caribs. There
were also a few other tribes of minor importance, such as the Warrows,
but these made little impression, and may therefore be left out of
consideration. The remnants of the two great stocks still exist in
Guiana and at the mouth of the Orinoco, living to-day in much the same
manner as they did when the country was first discovered by the
Spaniards.
Four centuries ago the Greater Antilles were exclusively inhabited by
Arawaks, and the Lesser by Caribs. The Arawak, as his name implies, was
more or less an agriculturalist--a meal-eater, a cultivator of
vegetables, mainly cassava. From the poisonous root of this plant
bread, drink, and a preservative sauce for meat, were prepared, so that,
with game or fish, it formed the staff of life. The probable course of
his migration was from Yucatan or Mexico to the south-east, terminating
in Guiana, and from thence north through the whole of the Antilles. When
Columbus arrived people of this stock filled the larger islands and the
Bahamas, but along the coast and in the island of Trinidad they disputed
the occupation of the territories with the Caribs. In Porto Rico also
the Caribs had become aggressive, and even in Hispaniola the Arawaks had
to defend their shores against that warlike people. If we believe the
accounts of the Spaniards the inhabitants of the Greater Antilles were
not altogether a savage people. Whether they had destroyed all the
larger game, or whether they found none on their arrival, the fact
remains that they were agriculturalists rather than huntsmen. They were,
however, expert in fishing, and built great canoes with sails, in which
they carried on their operations even in comparatively rough water.
Their provision grounds were highly praised by the Spaniards in language
that could hardly apply to little clearings like those in the Guiana
forest. In them were grown, besides cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, and
maize, while other things such as cotton and tobacco were also largely
cultivated. The natives had also acquired several arts besides that of
canoe building, which, when we consider their want of proper implements,
was almost wonderful. Cotton was spun and woven into cloth for their
scanty garments, gold cast and hammered into figures and ornaments, and
wood and stone idols and weapons were also carved. All this was done
with stone implements, even to the work of hollowing great logs for
their canoes, and shaping planks. We read of axe-heads made of _guanin_,
an alloy of gold and copper, and also of attempts to make similar tools
of silver, but these were very rare, and could hardly have been utilised
to any good purpose. When we appreciate the labour and pains taken in
excavating a large canoe, with only fire and the stone adze, we can see
that these people were by no means idle. Nor were they altogether
wanting in appreciation of art, for the figures on their baskets and
pottery were beautifully true geometrical patterns, and their so-called
idols, although grotesque and rude, often striking.
On the mainland the Arawaks lived in small communities, only electing a
war-chief as occasion required--in Haiti the Cacique seems to have been
leader and ruler as well. And here we must mention the most striking
characteristic of the American Indian--his utter abhorrence of anything
like coercion. Even in childhood his parents let him do as he pleases,
never attempting to govern him in any way. It followed therefore that
neither war-captain nor Cacique had any real power to compel them to a
course they disliked, and that discipline was entirely wanting. The
traveller in Guiana at the present day can thoroughly understand this
trait of character, for he has to take it into account if he wishes to
get their assistance. They must be treated as friends, not as servants,
and the greatest care taken not to offend their dignity, unless he
wishes to be left alone in the forest.
[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS.
(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
They quarrelled little among themselves, and only fought against the
Caribs; they were peaceable, kind, and gentle, so hospitable to
strangers that Columbus could hardly say enough in their favour. "A
better race there cannot be," he declared to his sovereigns, and this
opinion was confirmed by all who came into contact with them. In fact if
you do nothing to offend him, the Arawak of to-day is the same quiet and
gentle fellow who met the voyagers on their arrival at Guanahani.
The Caribs were a stronger race, and had probably followed the same
track as the Arawaks in a later migration. At the time of the discovery
they appear to have driven the more gentle race from the smaller islands
south of Porto Rico, and had taken their women as wives. All along the
coast the two tribes fought with each other, but on account of the
greater stretch of country there was nothing like the extermination
which took place in the Lesser Antilles. The Arawaks retired up the
rivers and creeks, leaving their enemies to take possession of the
coast, which they did to such good purpose that the Spaniards were
unable to get a footing in Guiana. All the early writers agree that the
Caribs were man-eaters--in fact the word cannibal seems to have been
derived from their name. In the smaller islands they had eaten all the
men of the gentler tribe, and now made periodical raids on the larger,
from whence they carried off prisoners to be cooked and devoured at
leisure. These raids led to combinations on the part of the inhabitants
of Haiti and Porto Rico, and hitherto they had been successful in
preventing anything like an occupation of these islands by their
enemies. Whether these successes would have continued is doubtful; the
arrival of the Spaniards upset everything.
The Carib was not so entirely dependent on the produce of the soil as
the meal-eater. He was a hunter and fisherman, but above everything else
a warrior. His women had provision grounds like those of the Arawak,
possibly because they came from that stock. The Carib's hunting grounds
were circumscribed and poor, and his craving for meat could only be
appeased in one way--by eating his enemies. Probably this made him all
the more fierce and bloodthirsty, as a flesh diet is certainly more
stimulating than one of fish and starchy tubers.
If the Arawak was impatient of control, the Carib was even more
independent. The former would pine away and die under coercion, the
latter refused absolutely to be a slave. He would die fighting for his
liberty, but never admit that he was conquered. It was not he who
welcomed the Spaniards to the West Indies--on the contrary, he did
everything possible to prevent their landing on his shores. His
so-called treachery caused many difficulties to the new-comers, but
taken altogether he was much respected by them as a foe worthy of their
steel.
These two peoples lived in a country which Columbus described as a
veritable paradise--in fact he thought he had discovered the site of the
Garden of Eden. Into this beautiful world he let loose a band of
robbers and murderers, to depopulate and make it a wilderness. They were
the product of an entirely different environment--a continent in which
every man's hand was against that of his neighbour. For a long time
Spain had been a battlefield, on which the most warlike instincts of
mankind came to the front. Her soldiers understood the advantages of
discipline, and would follow their leaders wherever anything was to be
gained, yet at the same time they were individuals, and as such fought
for their own hands as well.
[Illustration: A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA.]
Like the rest of Christendom Spain was very religious, and after
treasure-seeking, the adventurers of that nation meant to convert the
heathen. The cross was erected everywhere on landing, and religious
services held to pray for help in their undertakings. If the cruelties
that followed were not quite in accordance with Christ's teachings we
must put it down to the manners and customs of the age. Ignorance was
really the great characteristic of that period, and the brilliancy of
the few only shone out the brighter because of the dark background. The
majority were steeped in superstition, and almost entirely dominated by
their passions.
Columbus was continually harping upon the desirability of making the
natives of the new world Christians. "Your Highness," he said, in one of
his letters, "ought to rejoice that they will soon become Christians,
and that they will be taught the good customs of your kingdom." He took
nine of them to Spain, on his return from the first voyage, who were
baptized and taught the Spanish language. The king and queen told him to
deal lovingly with those in the Indies, and to severely punish any who
ill-treated them. More were sent to Spain and allowed to go back for the
purpose of "gaining souls." Columbus, however, did not altogether agree
with his sovereigns--his project was to send enough as slaves to pay the
expenses of his expeditions, and he actually shipped four lots for that
purpose. But Ferdinand and Isabella would not have this, and even went
so far as to prohibit the deportation of the Caribs notwithstanding the
admiral's argument that they were unworthy of the royal clemency,
because they ate men and were enemies of the friendly Arawaks.
[Illustration: EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS
OF THE ESSEQUEBO.]
How the new world was discovered in 1492 has been told so often that it
is hardly necessary to repeat the story. Haiti, named Hispaniola or
Little Spain, was chosen from the first as the island on which a
settlement should be planted. Here Columbus left thirty-nine colonists
under the command of Diego de Arana, and under the protection of the
great Cacique Guacanagari. He "trusted to God" that on his return he
would find a ton of gold and a large quantity of spices, with the
proceeds of which his sovereigns might undertake the conquest of
Jerusalem from the infidels.
A ton of gold! This was the whole end and aim of his expedition.
Everything else was subordinate to this. He had seen the natives wearing
gold ornaments, and found that the precious metal could be gathered from
certain streams on the island. But, could he estimate the amount of
labour required to procure such an enormous quantity, by people who had
no other appliances than baskets? This alone was enough to bring trouble
upon the peaceful island.
But this was not all. The colonists quarrelled among themselves,
interfered with the Indian women, went hunting for gold all over the
country, took it wherever it could be found, and stole provisions when
their friends did not bring them enough. Not satisfied with the district
of the friendly Cacique, they ravaged that of Caonabo, the Carib
chieftain of another clan, a man of a different stamp. He resented the
insults at once by attacking the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding the
assistance of their allies, were utterly exterminated. When Columbus
arrived, instead of a ton of gold, he found nothing but the blackened
ruins of the fort and houses.
This should have been a lesson to the Spaniards, but unfortunately it
only led to further quarrels. The new-comers did not intend to cultivate
the soil; their main object was treasure, and they expected the natives
to provide them with food. And here we must mention the fact that the
people of tropical climes _never_ have any store of provisions laid
up--this is only necessary where winter prevails for half the year. It
follows therefore that however liberal they may feel towards strangers,
their supplies being restricted to their own wants leave little to give
away. Up to a certain point the Indian gives freely, but when this means
privation to himself he withholds his hand. The want of a full
appreciation of this fact caused great trouble in many of the early
settlements, and in some cases led to their destruction. The natives
promised food supplies; but when they found themselves starving,
naturally withheld further assistance. The settlers considered this a
breach of faith, and made incursions on the provision grounds, taking
what they wanted, and seriously injuring the crops. This the Indians
resented, and deadly quarrels ensued, which ended in their driving out
the colonists or deserting the place altogether. In the latter case the
food supply was necessarily cut off, and often led ultimately to the
abandonment of the colony.
To the kindly people of Hispaniola the new-comers were gods, and their
horses and cattle preternatural creatures. While wondering and admiring,
they were at the same time frightened at these out-of-the-way men and
animals, especially when the soldiers exhibited themselves on horseback.
At first they thought them immortal, and were disagreeably surprised
when they fell before the army of Caonabo. But even the proverbial worm
will turn, and soon the oppressions of the second colonists drove the
poor Haitians to resist. To labour in the field was beneath the dignity
of the adventurous treasure-seekers--the natives must supply them with
provisions. What they had brought from Spain was soon spoilt in such a
hot climate--no one had yet learned how to pack for long voyages. They
must get food, and what was the good of having thousands of people, and
acres of cultivated land in their neighbourhood, if the natives did not
bring in as much as was required? At first they were supplied willingly,
but when the results of this profuse hospitality began to tell upon
themselves, the poor Haitians withheld their hands. Then the Spaniards
began complaining to the Cacique, who, however, had no real authority
over his people in a matter of this kind, and therefore could do
nothing. Driven by want the Spaniards made incursions on the provision
grounds, where they spoilt as much as they took away, and left a waste
behind. Sometimes they met with resistance, and the defenders were cut
down without mercy. The spoilers only wanted an excuse for fleshing
their swords; they were even anxious to show their powers, and make the
natives feel that at last they had masters.
[Illustration: WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS.
(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
Before two years had passed the Spaniards were beset with difficulties.
The Indian looked despairingly at his wasted fields, and refused to
cultivate them any longer. Why should he plant for others when he
himself was starving? Some fled into the mountains and forests of the
interior, others died of want. This naturally told upon the white men,
who had not yet learnt that they must cultivate the soil if they wanted
its produce. They could not demean themselves to this, but must have the
power to compel the inhabitants and owners of this beautiful island to
work for them.
The home authorities knew what was going on, and did their best
according to their lights to provide a remedy. At first they gave large
tracts of land to the settlers, _repartimientos_ as they were called,
but what was the use of these if their owners could get no labourers?
Then to every grant was allotted a certain number of Indians as slaves,
and thus the cruel system that ultimately depopulated the Greater
Antilles and the Bahamas was introduced.
Those who were not allotted as slaves were compelled to pay tribute. In
the neighbourhood of the gold-washings this was to consist of a little
bellful of gold; in other places of an arroba (28 lbs.) of cotton, once
a quarter for every person above the age of fourteen. Metal tokens to
hang upon the neck were given as receipts, and when these were absent
the people were severely punished. Thus this gentle and independent race
was enslaved.
[Illustration: A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING.]
Even with modern appliances and the use of quicksilver, gold-washing is
a most precarious business; what then could it have been here with
nothing but a basket and gourd? Columbus had such exaggerated ideas
that, when he saw the gold-washings of Cibao, he came to the conclusion
they were the Ophir of the Bible; from his reports the king and queen
thought nothing of demanding this small tribute. To the Indian, however,
the gleaning of the tribute meant the labour of days and weeks, and when
there were so many seekers it was found utterly impossible for each to
gather his amount. Then they ran away, and were hunted with dogs,
brought back, and compelled to wash the gravel under surveillance,
subject to the pricks of a sword if they were not active enough. But,
even with all this, the returns were not equal to what was expected, and
the tribute had ultimately to be abandoned. However, it was stated
that as much as the value of a million crowns per annum was extracted
during the best years, at a cost of pain and suffering awful to
contemplate.
[Illustration: SUICIDES.
(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
The cotton tribute had also to be abandoned, and even the
_repartimientos_ were not a success. If they had been willing, the
natives could hardly have performed steady work, and as slaves they were
almost valueless. In their natural condition they laboured when they
chose, wasting time as we should say with little good result. Now their
masters demanded heavy tasks which prevented their working on their own
provision grounds, and yet provided little or nothing in the way of
rations. Hundreds died of starvation; thousands committed suicide. Some
jumped from high precipices; they hanged, stabbed, drowned, and poisoned
themselves; mothers destroyed their babes to save them from the misery
of living. If caught in such attempts they were flogged, had boiling
water or melted lead poured over them, and were otherwise tortured until
death came to their relief. Their cruel masters, however, rarely wished
to kill them outright--they were too valuable. No, they must break down
this dogged, stubborn spirit--treat them as horses and mules, until they
bent themselves to the yoke.
It was left for bands of soldiers on foraging expeditions to kill in
mere wantonness. A company would be travelling through the island and
come upon a village, where perhaps they stopped for a short rest. The
people looked on, admiring their shining armour and weapons, wondering
what sort of creatures these were that so quietly cropped the grass and
shrubs. One of the soldiers would take out his sword, feel its keen
edge, and think what a pity it was that the weapon should be used so
little. Behind him comes a little boy. The temptation is great; in a
moment the sharp weapon flashes and the child lies dead. The Indians
fly, and the whole party follows, chasing and slaughtering to their
heart's content, not knowing nor caring why. In a few minutes fifty are
killed, the soldiers return to their bivouac, and if they inquire into
the matter at all pass it off as a good jest.
Is it any wonder that the population decreased to a wonderful degree in
a few years? The sugar-cane had been introduced by Columbus on his
second voyage, and labour was soon required for cultivating this and
other crops. As long as slaves were procurable the planters throve, and
as by that time Hispaniola had become the great centre of the Indies,
the settlers were in a fair way to make fortunes. But the decrease in
the population became alarming, and something had to be done; then, new
settlers were continually arriving who also wanted slaves. It followed,
therefore, that some of the more audacious of the adventurers took up
the trade of kidnapping the Indians from other islands and the mainland.
A host of disappointed treasure-seekers had ransacked every shore, and
were now well prepared for the business of man-hunting.
The first people to suffer were those who so kindly welcomed Columbus on
his arrival--the gentle inhabitants of the Bahamas. They were even more
peaceful than the Haitians, because they had not suffered from Carib
invasions. When the slave hunters told them to come to the south and
live with their ancestors, they willingly allowed themselves to be
carried off to suffer like their neighbours. Some ran away and got to
the northern shores of Hispaniola, where they stretched out their hands
to their beautiful homes and then died of grief.
Having entirely depopulated the smaller islands, and being prevented
from kidnapping the people of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by the
settlers on those islands, they tried the Caribbees. Here they met their
match. No longer was it the gentle Arawak whom they encountered, but the
ferocious cannibal. Like his foes he had been trained in war for many
generations. Not only did he refuse to work for the stranger, but even
went so far as to oppose his landing. On his islands was little to
attract the treasure-seeker, and if he would not submit to be a slave,
nothing was to be gained by interfering with him. This the Spaniard
found out by bitter experience. A few vessels were wrecked on these
inhospitable shores, the crews of which escaped to land only to be
killed and eaten, after being tortured with all the ingenuity of the
savage. Even a landing for fresh water had to be made in the most
cautious manner, and the carriers protected by a strong guard. No doubt
the Caribs had heard of the white man's cruelties from their Arawak
prisoners, and were therefore all the more ready to repel their
invasions. This was particularly noticeable later when the English and
French arrived and found them by no means so ferocious as the Spaniards
had reported. Possibly they knew these people to be enemies to their
foes, and were therefore all the more ready to be friendly as long as no
attempts were made to oppress them.
Hispaniola rose to some importance very quickly, and almost as quickly
declined. The settlers depopulated the island, and then complained of
the want of labourers. The gold-seekers went elsewhere, and Mexico and
the isthmus of Darien became of more importance. Some writers have
attempted to give the number of Indians exterminated in the early years
of the sixteenth century, but little reliance can be placed on their
statistics. Generally, they range from one to three millions, but it is
doubtful whether even the lowest figure is not too high. Yet, when we
read the statement of Columbus that crowds of people (in one place two
thousand) came forth to meet him, and his description of the large area
of cultivated land, as well as the broad and good roads, it is not
difficult to conceive that a million people lived in these great
islands.